//KHARAS REGIONAL COUNCIL

DIRECTORATE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND CULTURE

Topic 1: SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES: Scientific Skills

1. Estimating
2. Measuring
3. Observing
4. Classifying
5. Handling data(Recording and present results)
Estimating is to make a sensible or an educated guess of a quantity using the
correct unit. E.g. Time in hours, seconds or minutes.
Measuring is to choose a correct instrument in order to find the actual
measurement of an object as specified by units. E.g. Temperature is measured
by a thermometer.
Quantities Units Instruments/ Apparatus
1. Time Hours, seconds, minutes Watch, clock, stopwatch
2. Length Cm, mm, km, m Ruler, measuring tape
3. Temperature Kelvin, degree Celsius ( ͦC) Thermometer
4. Volume Cm3, mm2, ml3 Measuring cylinder
5. Force Newton (N) Force meter, Spring balance,
newton meter
6. Current Amperes (A) Ammeter
7. Voltage Volts (V) Voltmeter
8. Resistance Ohms () Ohmmeter
9. Mass Tones(t), Kg, g 1. Triple beam balance
2. Top- pan balance
3. Kitchen scale
4. Bathroom scale
5. Level arm scale
6. Electronic pan scale
7. Balance scale

Tips on how to make accurate measurement

1. Use the correct instrument.
2. Use the correct unit.
3. Understand the scale on the instrument e.g. Ruler

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 4. Make sure that your eye is on the level with the object to avoid the error of
parallax
.

5. If you are taking readings from measuring cylinder make sure that your eye
is on the line of meniscus.

6. Adjust the instrument to zero. E.g. Bathroom Scale

7. Repeat the experiment more than two times and find average.

Conversion of units

 Changing units from one unit to another unit.

Length

 1cm= 10mm
1
 cm = 5mm
2
 1m =100 cm
1
 m =50 cm
2
 1km=1000m
2
 1
 km = 500m
2
 1m =1000mm
1
 m = 500 mm
2

Convert to millimeters (mm), centimeters (cm), metres (m) and kilometres

(km).

(a) 5m =……..mm
(b) 12m =…… mm
(c) 10mm =…… cm
(d) 9 m =…….. cm
(e) 6 km=……… m
(f) 2 km = ……….m
(g) 200 cm=….. m
(h) 55 000 m =…. km
(i) 500 m =…… km
Mass
 1t = 1000kg
1
 t = 500 kg
2
 1kg = 1000g
1
 kg = 500g
2

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Convert to grams (g) and kilograms (kg)
(a) 2kg=……… g
(b) 6 kg =……… g
(c) 3kg 500g = ………..g
(d) 5kg = ……..g
(e) 2000g =…….. kg

Time

Convert to Hours (h), Minutes (min) and Seconds (s)

1. 600 min = ………h

2. 600 s =……….min
3. 7489 min=………h
4. 35h = …………..s

Area
Rectangle (Area= length ×breadth) and Square (Area = side x side)
Rectangle (A = l × b) and Square (A = S x S)

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Units of area are Square centimeter (cm2), Square meter (m2),

Volume

Cuboid (Volume = Length x breadth x height)

Cube (Volume = side x side x side)

Units of volume are cubic centimeter (cm3) and cubic meter (m3)

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Practical Investigation
 Practical Investigations a way to find out new information, explore
the world around us and develop new ideas in order to explain the
world around us and to see the results of other Scientists.
Procedures on how to conduct practical investigation.
1. Identify the question or State the aim of the investigation.
2. Hypothesis- to foretell (guess or predict) the outcome.
3. Design the experiment- plan how to conduct the experiment.
(i) List materials needed.
(ii)To make a test fair- It means to control the variables so that we can
make sure that it is only the variable under investigation will cause the
difference.
 Dependent variable
 Independent variable
 Control variable

 Independent variable
- Refer to things that you change in an investigation. You are in control of
independent variable.
 Dependent variable
- Refer to things you observe in an investigation. A dependent variable will
change depending on the independent variable
 Control Variable
- Refer to quantities a scientist wants to remain the same or unchanged
throughout the experiment.
4. Carry out (conduct) the experiment in order to make observation and
record your results/ your findings.

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 5. Make appropriate conclusion – It should be related to the aim of
investigation or to the hypothesis.
Practical investigation
1. The aim of investigation.
2. Hypothesis(prediction)
3. Procedures(Methods)
 Materials needed.
 Make fair test.
4. Carry out (conduct) the experiment.
5. Record your findings.
6. Make Conclusion.
Proportionality

• Direct proportional

Direct proportional is when one amount of a quantity increases and other

amount increases as well at the same rate.

• Indirect proportional (inversely proportional)

Indirect proportional is when one value of a quantity increases and other value
decreases at the same rate.

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Observing is to use your five senses in order to get information of what is
happening, so that you can able to make descriptions and make conclusions.

Or Observing is to use five senses in order to gather information.

Sense and organ Examples of what observed

Taste with a tongue Salt, sweet bitter , sour, tasteless
Touch with hands Smooth , rough, dry, wet hot, cold
Smell with a nose Smoke, rotten, decaying
Hearing with ears Loud, breaking, drumming, singing
Sight with eyes Colour, states, shape, size, movement

NB: Never taste or smell chemicals in the laboratory without the permission from
the teacher because some chemicals are poisonous.

Classifying

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 Classifying is to group things according to their similar characteristics. E.g.
classify the following objects in three groups and give a name to each group.

Water, hydrogen, brick, book, milk, carbon dioxide, table, smoke, oil, petrol
and oxygen

Recording
Recording is to note down your findings from practical investigation or experiment.
NB: Findings must be recorded in table with heading in each column with the
name of physical quantity and appropriate unit.
Time / Seconds
Distance / Kilometer
Handling data and presenting results
Handling information is to locate, organize and present results in a way that is
understable to scientists and non-scientists.
Ways to present results
1. Graphs
 Line graph
 Bar graph
 Histogram
 Pictograph
 Pie chart
2. Posters
3. Pictures
4. Charts
5. Drawings

Plotting a graph
1. Identify two variables
(a) Dependent variable is a variable which being tested or measured in a
scientific experiment. It is always plotted ay Y-axis.
(b) Independent variable is a variable which is changed or controlled in a
scientific experiment to test the effect of dependent variable. It is always
plotted on the X-axis.

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 Examples
1. Wilma can drive 2h when she is driving 120km/h. Identify dependent
and in dependent
Dependent:………………………………………………………………………
Independent……………………………………………………………………
2. A scientist wants to see if voltage has an effect on the brightness of
the bulbs. Identify dependent and in dependent
Dependent:………………………………………………………………………
Independent……………………………………………………………………
2. The heading of the graph must be dependent vs. independent variable
3. Label all axes with the name of physical quantity and appropriate unit

4. The axes must have scales and should start with zero.

Anomalous or inconsistent results meaning experiment error.

Possible sources of error in an experiment

1. Error of parallax.
2. Taking wrong readings
3. Failing to adjust the instrument to zero.
4. Reading volume of liquid above the meniscus.
Evaluation of results.
Learn how to evaluate the results of an experiment by looking at the general
scientific knowledge, interpret results and draw appropriate conclusion from the
practical investigation.

Observation Conclusion
1. The white solid object change to The ice is melting
colourless liquid

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 2. When you feel water getting Temperature rises/ increases
warmer
3. Bubble formed in water Water is boiling
4. Steam can be seen on top of the Water vapour is condensing
beaker and water droplets
formed on the beaker

Topic 2: Matter

Chemical and physical change

Chemical Change is a change in which a new substance is formed. OR Is when

a substance undergoes a change to form a new chemical substance.

Examples of Chemical changes

• Digestion
• Cooking food
• Burning( Combustion)
• Photosynthesis
• Rusting
• Decomposition
Physical Change is a change in which no new substance is formed. Or is when
a substance undergoes a change but no new chemical substance formed.

Example of physical Change

• A change in size or Shape (Expansion and Compressibility)
• A change in state (melting, freezing, condensation, evaporation)
• A solution is made ( salt dissolves in water or sugar dissolves in water)
• A mixture is made ( sand and iron filling or beans and stones).

Differentiate between Physical and Chemical Change.

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Chemical change Physical change
-New substances formed with different -No new substances formed.
properties. - Are temporary change.
-Are permanent change.
-The change is not easily reversed at -The change is easily reversed.
all.
-An energy change is always -Energy is sometimes involved.
involved.(temperature either increases
or decreases)
Examples Examples
1. Digestion 1. A change in size or Shape
2. Cooking food (Expansion and Compressibility)
3. Burning( Combustion) 2. A change in state (melting and
4. Photosynthesis Freezing)
5. Rusting 3. A solution is made( salt
6. Decomposition dissolves in water or sugar
7. Synthesis reactions dissolves in water)
8. Neutralization 4. A mixture is made( sand and
iron filling or beans and stones)

Examples of chemical Change word equation.

Reactants  Products
1. Wood + oxygen  Ashes
• Wood and oxygen are reactants and an ash is the product.
2. Magnesium + Oxygen  magnesium oxide
• Magnesium and oxygen are reactants and Magnesium oxide is a product.
Other chemical changes

1. Natural occurring chemical changes.

(a) Respiration occurs in plants and animals. Food combines with oxygen to
give carbon dioxide, water and energy.

Food + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + energy

(b) Photosynthesis occur in plants to make their own food from carbon
dioxide and water to form glucose (carbohydrates)

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 Carbon dioxide + water  carbohydrates +oxygen

2. Industrial chemical changes

• Fermentation is a process used to make alcohol from sugar and yeast

Yeast + sugar  carbon dioxide + alcohol

• Coal burns in fire stations to produce energy, carbon dioxide and water

Coal +oxygen  Carbon dioxide + water + energy.

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

Three states of matter

1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
The kinetic particle theory of matter

1. All matter are made up of tiny (smallest) invisible particles

2. Each particle of matter is in constant motion.
3. There is force of attraction between particles.
4. The particles have kinetic (movement) energy.
5. There is space between particles of matter.
6. Particles collide against each other.

The arrangement of particles in three state of matter

Solid Liquid Gas

 Particles are tightly  Particles are  Particles are far
packed together. loosely arranged. from each other.
 They vibrate at a  They slide over  They move freely.
fixed position. each other.

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  There is strong  Force of attraction  There is weak
force of attraction not strong like in attraction of force.
between particles. solid.
 The particles have  Particles have  Particles have more
less energy. more energy than energy that is why
in solid. they move faster.
 There is less  There are larger  There is large
spaces between spaces than in space between
particles. solid. particles.

Changes in three states of matter

1. Melting (fusion) – is a chance from solid to liquid at a fixed melting point as a

result of heating.
2. Evaporation (vaporization) - is a change from liquid to gas and it occur at any
temperature.
3. Condensation- is a change from gas to liquid as a result of cooling.
4. Freezing (solidification) – Is a change from liquid to solid as a results of
cooling at fixed freezing point.
5. Boiling- is a change from liquid to gas and it occur at a fixed boiling point.
6. Sublimation- Is change from solid to gas or from gas to solid without undergoes
the liquid state.
Examples of substances that can undergo sublimation
1. Carbon dioxide
2. Iodine
3. Sulfur
4. Ammonium chloride and Naphthalene.
Expansion

Expansion is to increase in size as a result of heating.

Contraction is to decrease in size as a result of cooling.

Expansion in three state of matter

Matter expands when heated particles get energy from heat and they move
faster a bit away from each other. The space between particles becomes
bigger.

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Expansion in solid.

There is limited expansion in solid because particles are tightly packed

together.e.g ball and ring and bar and

A ball can fit or pass through a ring before heated. After heated it cannot pass
through the ring because the ball gained energy and expanded due to
heating.

Solids cannot expand at the same rate. E.g. using a bimetallic strip- is a
strip made up of two metals that are joined together (Iron and Brass). When
you heat a bimetallic strip it will bend towards iron because brass expands
more than iron.

Bimetallic strip is used in thermostat to control the temperature of an electric

iron, heater, air conditioner and fire alarms.
Expansion liquid
All liquid expand but at different rates. Ethanol expand more than all liquids,
that is why is used in thermometer (mercury and ethanol)
Expansion in gases
Gases expand more than solid and liquid. Expansion and contraction of air is
a result of heating and cooling e.g. hot air balloon
Conclusion: Gases expand very fast and more than solid and liquid because
particles are far apart have more energy and weak attractive force between
particles
Compressibility
Compressibility is to push particles close together and fill in spaces between
them.

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 Compress is to squeeze or squash.
Compressibility in solid
It is difficult to compress solid because particles in solid are tightly packed
together.
Compressibility in liquid
Liquid cannot be compressed because no free space between particles,
although particles can slide over each other.
Compressibility in gases
Gas can be compressed because particles are far from each other e.g.
bicycle tyres contain compressed air.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration.
Diffusion in solid
Diffusion cannot take place in solid because their particles are tightly packed
together, there is less energy and force holding particles together are strong.
Diffusion in liquid
Diffusion in liquid is slow. It will take a day or hours to complete diffuse. E.g.
crystal potassium permanganate or copper sulfate.
Diffusion in gas
In gas diffusion is fast because particles are far from each other; there is more
energy and weak force between particles.

Building blocks of matter

1. Atoms
2. Elements
3. Mixtures
4. Molecules
5. Compounds

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An atom is a smallest particle of matter or the smallest particle which made up
an element.

NB: atoms combine to form molecules and compounds (crystals).

Element is a substance which cannot be broken down into simpler substances

by chemical means. It is made up of atoms of the same kind only. E.g. H, Ne, K,
Na, Cl etc.

Molecule is the smallest unit of a covalently bonded substances consisting of

two or more atoms. E.g. Water (H2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Compound is a substance which contains two or more elements that are

chemically combined or Compound is a chemical substance that contains at
least two different atoms.

Mixture is a substance that is made up of two or more elements or compounds

which are physically combined .E.g. Air, sea water, ink, sugar and sand.

Periodic table

 Periodic table is the arrangement of known elements according to their

similarities.
 Periodic table is the classification of elements into groups and periods
according to their properties.
The periodic table is arranged into horizontal rows called periods and vertical
columns called groups. There are 7 periods and 8 groups. The majority of
elements are metals which arranged on the left- side and non-metal on the right-
side of the periodic table.
A zigzag line separates metals from non-metals. The elements which are along
the Zigzag line are called Semi- metals because they have characteristics of
metals and non-metals.

The first 20 elements

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Names of elements Symbols
Hydrogen H
Helium He
Lithium Li
Beryllium Be
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Neon Ne
Sodium Na
Magnesium Mg
Aluminum Al
Silicon Si
Phosphorus P
Sulfur S
Chlorine Cl
Argon Ar
Potassium K
Calcium Ca
Other important elements
1. Iodine
2. Astatine
3. Krypton
4. Xenon
5. Radon
6. Copper
7. Iron
8. Zinc
9. Tungsten
THE BOHR STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

The atom is made up of three particles:

1. Protons
2. Electrons
3. Neutrons

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Electrons occupy and move in paths called Shells or Orbits around the
nucleus, these shells are called energy levels.

 The first shell (inner shell) holds the maximum of 2 electrons.

 The Second Shell holds the maximum of 8 electrons.
 The third shell (outer shell) holds the maximum of 8 or the remaining
electrons.

Bohr structure information

 Mass number = Proton number + Neutron number

 Proton number = Electron number= atomic number
 Atomic number = Mass number – Neutron number
 Neutron Number = Mass number – Atomic number

The relationship between the atomic structure and the periodic table.

1. The number of electrons on the outer shell determines the group number.
2. The number of shells determines the period number.

Electron Configuration/ electron arrangement / electronic structure

 Electron configuration is the arrangement of electrons on the element.

Element Atomic Number Electron Configuration

Sodium 11 2, 8, 1
Nitrogen 7 2, 5
Calcium 20 2, 8, 8, 2
NB Draw the Atomic Structure of the first 20 Elements.

BONDING (Combining different atoms.)

Three types of bonding

1. Covalent bonding
2. Ionic bonding ( Electrovalent) bonding
3. Metallic bonding
NB: When atoms are taking part in chemical reaction only the outer shell
that take part.

Atom share, gain or lose electrons to:

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 1. To obtain a stable outer shell.
2. To obtain a noble gas structure
3. To gain a full outer shell.
Covalent bounding

Covalent bonding is a bond between non-metals sharing electrons in order

to obtain a full outer shell.

Examples of covalent bonding

1. All diatomic molecules

2. Methane
3. Carbon dioxide
4. Water
5. Ammonia
Draw the covalent bonding of the following molecule:
1. Methane
2. Hydrogen molecule
3. Water molecule
4. Oxygen molecule
5. Nitrogen molecule
6. Carbon dioxide
7. Chlorine molecule
8. Fluorine molecule
Topic 3: Gases of the Air
Air is a mixture of different gases.
Composition of air
Dry air consists of approximately:

1. Nitrogen 78% or 79%

2. Oxygen 21% or 20%
3. Argon 0.9%
4. Carbon dioxide 0.03%
5. Other gases 0.07%

Nitrogen is the gas which is more concentrated in air with 78% and it does not
take part in chemical reaction.
Advantages of nitrogen in air.
1. To slow down the process of burning.

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 2. To prevent oxygen to be less vigorously.
3. To dilute the present of oxygen so that the reaction of oxygen to be less
vigorously or less harmful.
Uses of Nitrogen

1. Used as unreactive blanket in petrol storage tanks to stop the petrol from
reacting with oxygen and cause fire.
2. Used for freezing food quickly at a very low temperature.
3. Use to manufacture ammonia, nitric acid and nitrates fertilizers.
Aquatic life

All aquatic plant and animals need air to live they use the oxygen that dissolves
in water to make aquatic water life possible. Air helps plants and animals to
obtain oxygen for respiration. Plant use dissolved carbon dioxide to manufacture
their food thought the process of photosynthesis.

Air and combustion (burning)

Air support burning and oxygen is the active part of air which supports
combustion.
Practical to demonstrate that air support combustion.
Aim, what is needed? Instructions and Conclusion.

Argon is one of the group 8 gases. The air contains argon. Argon is used to fill
the space inside household light bulbs because of inert (Unreactive) element.

Oxygen

Physical properties of Oxygen

1. It is colourless
2. Tasteless
3. Odourless gas(it has no smell)
4. Slightly denser than air.
5. The boiling point of oxygen is -183 ͦ C.

Preparation of Oxygen in the laboratory

Put potassium Permanganate in a test tube and heat it. Oxygen gas will be
produced Or Put a mixture of Potassium Chlorate and manganese dioxide in a
test tube and heat the mixture slowly. Oxygen gas will be produced.

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 Test for Oxygen

Test: Put a glowing Splint in a test tube containing colourless gas

Results: The Glowing Splint will relight.

Chemical properties of Oxygen

It reacts with metals to form oxides and with non-metal to form dioxides.

Chemical properties of Oxygen

It reacts with metals to form oxides and with non-metal to form dioxides.

Examples
Elements Reaction with oxygen Word equation
Sodium Burns with a bright yellow flame. Sodium +Oxygen  Sodium
Oxide.
Magnesium Burns white a bright white flame. Magnesium + Oxygen 
White ash remains. Magnesium Oxide.
Calcium Burns brightly. A white solid Calcium + Oxygen  Calcium
remains. Oxide.
Iron Glows brightly in oxygen and Iron +Oxygen  Iron Oxide.
gives off yellow sparks
Sulfur Burns with a blue flame .gas is Sulfur + Oxygen  Sulfur dioxide.
formed
Carbon Glows bright red. A gas is Carbon + Oxygen  Carbon
released. dioxide.

Appropriate safety precautions when these reactions are taking place.

1. Safety goggles can be worn if they are available.

2. Do not breathe in gases produced because they are poisonous and have
choking smell.
The role of oxygen in combustion and respiration.

1. Respiration is the process whereby oxygen chemically reacts (combines)

with glucose to give organisms energy.

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 Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + water + energy
Respiration is a slow burning reaction with no flame, it take place in cells of
plants and animals.
2. When fuels burn, the give out lots of energy, oxides of hydrogen (water) and
carbon dioxide.
Fuel + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + water + energy
Conclusion: Combustion and respiration are the same process, both they give
out Carbon dioxide, water and energy.

Uses of Oxygen

1. Industrial purposes:
- To manufacture steel.
- For cutting and welding metals.
- As a rocket fuel.
2. Medical purposes:
- Used in hospital for patient with breathing problem.
- Used by firemen, deep sea divers, mountain climbers and Astronauts in
the space.
Ozone
Ozone is a form of oxygen which contains three oxygen atoms in a molecule. It
is formed naturally in the upper atmosphere by electric sparks during lightning and
sparks from photocopiers machines.
Oxygen = O2  O + O while Ozone = O3  O2 + O
Ozone layer is found in the stratosphere to protect the earth from excessive
harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun because they can cause skin cancer in
humans.

Carbon dioxide

Production of carbon dioxide in nature and industrial

1. Burning fuel
Fuel + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + water + energy
2. Respiration
Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + water + energy
3. Fermentation
Sugar + yeast  Alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy
Physical properties of carbon dioxide
1. It is colourless
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 2. Odourless gas
3. Slightly sour.
4. Soluble in water.
5. Denser than air.

Preparation and testing of carbon dioxide

Combine Marble Chips (Calcium Carbonate) with hydrochloric acid in a test tube.
Carbon dioxide will be produced.

Chemical word equation:

Calcium Carbonate + Hydrochloric acid  Calcium Chloride + Carbon dioxide +

Water.

Test: Bubble the gas into lime water

Results: Clear lime water will turn milky or cloudy.

Carbon dioxide dissolves in lime water (calcium hydroxide) to form calcium

carbonate and water.

Reaction between Carbon dioxide and lime water (calcium hydroxide)

Carbon dioxide + lime water (calcium hydroxide)  Calcium carbonate + water.

Uses of Carbon dioxide

1. Use in fire extinguishers because it does not support combustion.

2. Used as preservative in fizzy drinks because is soluble in water.
3. Used in dry ice because it undergo the process of Sublimation.
4. It plays a major role in baking to make the dough to rise.
The greenhouse effect
Greenhouse effect is used to describe the way in which increasing levels of
carbon dioxide in the air cause global warming. Global warming refers to rise in
average temperature around the world.

Disadvantage of Carbon dioxide liberated into the atmosphere during

combustion.

As the level of carbon dioxide increases, it prevents heat from escaping from the
earth’s atmosphere causes rise in temperature and increase the sea level.

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Possible suggestion of limiting the amount of carbon dioxide escaping into
our atmosphere.

1. Plant more trees to use carbon dioxide to make their own food.
2. Avoid cutting down trees.
3. Avoid burning fossil fuel
4. Use alternative sources of energy e.g. wind energy, solar energy and
hydro-electric power.

Topic 4: Force: The nature and effects of force

Force is an effect of push or pull.
It can be measured with:
1. Force meter
2. Newton meter
3. Spring balance
The unit of force is newton (N) and we present force diagrammatically with a
line and an arrow.

The length of the line shows the size (magnitude) of the force and the arrow
shows the direction force in which force is acting.

A weight B friction C Air resistance

Effects of force

1. Force can cause an object to move.

2. Force can stop a moving object.
3. Force can change the size of an object (e.g. blowing a balloon)
4. Force can change the direction of a moving object.
5. Force can change the speed of an object.
6. Force can change the shape of an object ( squeezing a sponge)
7. Force can cause an object to rotate or spin around a point.
8. Force can have electric effects. E.g. charging plastic ruler by rubbing it on
hair, the ruler will attract pieces of paper because it has electrostatic force.
Distinguish between Attraction (pull) and repulsion (push)

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 1. Attractive(pulling) force
Attraction is the force which causes objects to move towards each other.
E.g. + and – charges, N and S poles and gravitational pull.
2. Repulsion(Pushing) force
Repulsion is the forces which causes objects to move away from each
other. E.g. – and – charges, + and + charges, N and S pole and friction.

Force of attraction of an object by the earth is weight

Types of forces

1. Force of gravity
2. Friction
3. Electrostatic force
4. Magnetic force
Force in everyday life classified as contact and non-contact force

Contact force Non-contact force

Contact is the force acts while Non-contact is the force acts
objects are touching each other. over a distance.
Examples Examples
1. Friction 1. Electrostatic force
2. Stopping a ball
2. Magnetic force
3. Kicking a ball
4. Air resistance 3. Gravitational pull
5. Water resistance

Friction
Friction is the force which opposes (against) the movement (motion) of an
object.
Effects of friction
1. It causes objects to slow down and stop.
2. It causes surface to wear out and tear.

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 Factors in which friction depends:

1. Type of surface
Friction is MORE in rough surface and LESS in smooth surfaces meaning
the rough the surface the MORE the friction, the smoother the surface the
LESSER the friction.

2. Surface area(Size of surface)

Friction is MORE on large surface area and LESS in small surface area
meaning the bigger the surface area the MORE the friction, the
smaller the surface area the LESSER the friction.
3. Weight or mass
Friction is MORE if an object is heavy and LESS if an object is lighter
meaning the heavier the object the MORE the friction, the lighter the
object the LESSER the friction.
Advantage of friction.
1. Prevents cars from skidding (slipping) on the road during rainy season.
2. Make object to slow down and stop.
3. It helps us to walk.
4. It helps us to enable to hold the pen firmly when we are writing.
Disadvantage of friction
1. It makes objects to wear out (damage objects).
2. It can cause overheating.
How to reduce friction
1. Use lubricants e.g. oil and grease to reduce friction by making surface
slippery.
2. Use rollers, wheels and straws to reduce the surface area.

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3. Use ball bearing to avoid direct contact which causes wear out.
4. Streamlined shapes to reduce air resistance.
5. Make surface type smoother.
6. Reduce the size of surface area.
7. Reduce / decrease mass or weight of an object.
Moving in solids, liquids and gases.
1. Solids
 Objects that moves on solid surface experience more friction. E.g.
cars, trucks and trains.
2. Liquids
 Objects that move though fluids (liquid) also experience friction that
opposes their movement due to water resistance. E.g. fish, ships,
boats.
3. Gases
 Objects that moves through the air experience friction that opposes
their movement due to air resistance but they are designed with a
special shape in order to reduce air friction. E.g. aeroplane,
helicopters, arrows, space ships, hovercrafts.
Conclusions:
 In solid there is more friction because particles are tightly packed together.
 In liquid there is less friction than in solid because particles are loosely
arranged.
 In gases (air) there is less friction than in solid and liquid because particles
are far from each other and equipment or objects that travels in air are
streamlined to overcome air resistance.
Weight and Mass

Mass Weight
Mass is the amount of matter in an Weight is the force of gravity that
object. pulls an object toward the centre of
the earth.

Instrument used to measure Instrument used to measure

mass: weight:
Bath scale, balance scale, Triple Spring balance, force meter and
beam balance. newton meter.
Units: grams (g) or Kilograms (kg) Unit: Newton (N)
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 Weight = Mass × gravity
Mass=
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

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 𝑤
M= W= m × 𝑔
𝑔
1000g = 1kg
Earth’s gravitational field strength (gravity)

Gravitational field of strength is a constant for gravitational force of 10N on 1kg

(10N/kg) of mass on the earth or near the earth’s surface.

NB: Weight change on the moon but mass is constant (remain the same)

Examples

1. The ball has the mass of 15 kg. What is the weight of the ball on the
earth?
2. Calculate the weight of an object with a mass of 1500 grams(1kg= 1000g)
3. Determine the weight of the following mass near the earth’s surface.
(a) 2.5 kg
(b) 0.25 kg
4. What will be the mass of objects having the following weight on the earth?
(a) 15 N
(b) 575 N
(c) 39 N
5. The weight of an astronaut is 810 N on the earth. Calculate the astronaut’s
mass.
Work

Work is the force applied over a distance in the same direction.

NB: Force and movement must be in the same direction.

Unit of work is the newton meter (Nm) or joule. NB: 1Nm = 1J

When work is done When work is not done

 Push an object over a distance  Pushing an object against the
and Pull or lift an object. wall.
 An object fall and a person  Carry a suitcase in a steady
climb stairs. position.
The relationship between work and energy

 If work is done on a body, energy is transferred to it.

Work done = force × distance.

W = F×𝒅

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Examples

Calculate the work done:

1. A man has a mass of 65 kg and moves upstairs with the total height of 3m.
2. A brick of weight 40N is lifted up a distance of 0,5m.
3. Anna is lifting boxes of books from the floor onto the table. The height from
the floor to the table is 0,8m. If one box with the books has a mass of 3kg,
calculate how much work is done when she lifts 10 similar boxes of books
on the table. Show your work.
Energy

Energy is the ability to do work or is a capacity to do work.

People and machines need sources of energy (e.g. food and petrol) in order to
do work.The unit of work done and energy is Joules (J).

Forms of energy

1. Potential energy- is the stored energy due to the shape or position of an

object.
(a) Chemical potential energy.
 Stored energy in an object or in a substance. E.g. petrol, wood,
food, cells, battery and muscles
(b) Elastic (strain) potential energy
 Stored energy in a stretched object.
E.g. Elastic band, spring, strained bow and catapult.

(c) Gravitational potential energy

 Stored energy in an object due to the height or position higher
than the ground.
Examples
1. Water in a tank
2. A rock on top of the hill.
3. Fruits on the tree
4. A book on the table
(d) Nuclear potential energy
 Energy stored in a nucleus of an atom.

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 Nuclear fission – large nucleus splits (break) up into small nuclei and
energy is released. It is used in nuclear power station to produce
electricity. E.g. uranium.
Nuclear fusion- two or more nuclei join together to form a large
nucleus.
2. Heat energy(thermal energy)
 Energy which processed by a hot object due to differences in
temperature. E.g. sun and flame.
3. Light energy
 Energy which detected by eyes. Light energy is used by plant to
make their own food. E.g. light bulb, sun and torch.
4. Sound energy
 Energy produced by a vibrating object. E.g. beating a drum, a
ringing bell, singing and clapping hands.
5. Electrical energy
 Energy associated with the flow of electrical charges. E.g. electrical
circuit.
6. Kinetic energy (movement)
 Energy produced by a moving object. E.g. A moving car, a boy
running, a ball rolling.
The law of energy conservation

Energy cannot be made (created) nor destroyed but it can only be converted
(transferred) from one form of energy to another.

Energy conversion

1. A boy kicking the ball.

 Chemical potential energy  Kinetic (movement) energy  sound
energy.
2. A boy using catapult.
 Chemical potential energy  Kinetic (movement) energy Elastic
potential energy sound energy.
3. Rainfall.
 Gravitational potential energy  Kinetic (movement) energy 
sound energy.

4. Producing electricity from hydropower station.

 Gravitational potential energy  Kinetic (movement) energy 
sound energy  electrical energy light + heat energy.
5. Burning wood

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  Chemical potential energy  Light energy + heat energy.
6. People dancing at the party
 Chemical potential energy  Kinetic (movement) energy  sound
energy + heat energy.
Two types of Sources of energy

1. Solar energy
2. Wind energy
3. Water energy.
4. Wave energy
5. Biomass energy(from living sources)
6. Geothermal energy (from the earth crust)
7. Tidal energy (gravitational attraction)
8. Fossil fuel(natural gas, coal, petrol, diesel)
9. Nuclear energy
Renewable sources of energy
 Sources of energy which can be replaced once they are used up.

Examples

1. Water energy
2. Solar energy
3. Wind energy
4. Geothermal(heat from the earth)
5. Waves
6. Tidal
7. Biomass
Non-renewable source of energy
 Sources of energy which cannot be replaced once they are used up.
Examples

1. Nuclear energy e.g. uranium.

2. Fossil fuel e.g. charcoal, petroleum products e.g. petrol, diesel.
Topic 5: Electricity

Electrical charges

1. Positive (+)
2. Negative (-)

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Every atom has positive (protons) and Negative (electrons) charges. Electrons
moves from one object to another when objects are rubbed together. Friction
causes electrons to be transferred from one object to another or friction can help
separate charges when objects are rubbing against each other.

What causes charges?

The imbalance of electrical charges (electrons and protons) or (Negatives and

positives)

1. If an object has more protons (positives) than electrons (Negatives), it is

positively charged (loses electrons).
2. If an object has the same (equal) number of protons and electrons, the
object is neutral (no charge).
3. If an object has more electrons (negatives) than protons (positive), it is
negatively charged (gains electrons).
Forces between charges

1. Like charges repel each other (+ and +)(- and -).

2. Unlike charges (opposite charges) attract each other (- and +).

3. A charged object can attract uncharged object.

Static and electrical current

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Static electricity is a non-moving of electrical charges or is the electrical
charges held by a material.

Examples in everyday life where charging take place by friction (Static

electricity)

1. Lightning.
2. Dust particles on TV or computer screen.
3. A rubbed plastic ruler or balloon will attract smaller pieces of paper.
4. Combing your hair with a plastic comb.
5. Wearing a jersey or puling of a jersey.
6. Walking on a carpet.
Lightning

Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge during an electrical storm between

electrically charged regions of clouds and the ground.

NB: Discharge is the movement of charges.

How lightning occur?

During a storm the particles rub against each other and create huge negative
charges in the cloud. The electrons at the bottom of cloud are attracted to the
protons on the ground and this result in a form of lighting.

Discuss the dangers of lightning to people.

1. It can kill people and animals.

2. Destroy properties like buildings.
How to avoid the danger of lighting?

To reduce the risk of lighting damage tall building must be fitted with a lightning
conductor (copper strip), that allow the charges to flow to the ground without
damaging the building.

The Gold leaf electroscope

Electroscope is an instrument that enables us:
1. To detect electrical charges.
2. To measure electrical charge.
3. To demonstrates the presence of charges and the type of charges.
What made up electroscope?

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How to charge an electroscope?

1. If a charged object is brought near the metal cap the gold leaf will stand
out or open wider.
2. If an uncharged object is brought near the metal cap the gold leaf will not
stand out or not open wider because the object and gold leaf have unlike
charges (they attract).
3. If you bring a positively charged object near the metal cap will results in
positive charges moving from the cap to the gold leaf, leaving excess
positive charges on the gold leaf. They cause the gold leaf to stand out
(like charges repel each other).
4. If you bring a negatively charged object near the metal cap will results in
negative charges moving from the cap to the gold leaf, leaving excess
negative charges on the gold leaf. They causes the gold leaf to stand out
(like charges repel each other)

How to discharge an electroscope?(Earthing)

Touch a metal cap with your finger or a conductor, the charges will flow from the
gold leaf to the metal rod, metal cap and through your body to the earth leaving
the gold leaf electroscope neutral.

Current electricity (electric current)

Electric current is the flow of electrical charges

- Negative charges(electrons )move from negative to positive

- Positive charges move from positive to negative.
Or
Electric current is the movement of negative or positive charges per unit time. It
is measured with Ammeter and the unit is ampere (A). The ammeter is always
connected in series.

Question: distinguish between static electricity and electric current.

Circuit diagrams

Circuit is a closed loop consisting of sources of energy (battery or cell) and one
or more component where current flows.

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Electrical symbols

1. Cell
2. Battery
3. Connecting wire(metal conductor)
4. Fuse
5. Resistor
6. Variable resistor(rheostat)
7. Open switch
8. Close switch
9. Ammeter
10. Voltmeter

Two types of circuit diagram

1. Series circuit
2. Parallel circuit
SERIES CIRCUIT PARALLEL CIRCUIT
SERIES CIRCUIT Is when PARALLEL CIRCUIT is when
components are connected one after components are connected opposite
the other. to each other.

NB: Differentiate between open and closed circuit… current flow only in a
closed circuit

Measuring Current

Current is measured with ammeter and is always connected in series.

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Measuring Current for cells in series

1. If you increase the number of cell, current will increase as well.

2. If you change the position of an ammeter does not change the current
reading or value.

Measuring current for cells in parallel

1. If you increase the number of cells in parallel the total current will increase
as well.
2. The sum of the current in different branches is equal to the total amount
drawn from cells. i.e. A= A1+A2+A3

Measuring current for bulbs in series

1. With same number of cells increasing the number of bulbs causes the
current reading to decrease.
2. As the number of bulbs is increased, the intensity (brightness) of bulbs
decreases (bulbs will be dim due to high resistance and low current). If you
remove one bulb the circuit will be off because the circuit is in complete.

Measuring current for bulbs in parallel

1. Current splits (divide) into branches. The total current into branches is
equal to the total current out of branches. A1=A2+A3=A4

2. If bulbs are identical (same), they share the same or equal current (50-50).
3. If bulbs are not identical the split of current will not be equal.

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 4. If bulbs are connected in parallel the bulbs will glow brightly because each
bulb will receive or get the same amount of current.
5. If you remove one bulb from parallel circuit the other bulbs will still be on.
In fact they will glows brighter.

Voltage (Potential difference) P.d

Voltage is the energy used to drive electric charges around the complete circuit.
OR Voltage is the energy per charge of a cell or battery. Voltage is measured with
voltmeter and the unit is Volts (V) .The Voltmeters is always connected in parallel
or across the component always.

The sources of electricity are cells, batteries and power stations.

Cells have chemical energy which can be converted into electrical energy. A
cell has two terminals, Positive and Negative terminals.

Measuring voltage across bulbs if cells are in parallel

1. The total voltage is equal to the sum of individual voltage.

2. If you increase the number of cells in series, the voltage across
components increase as well, it causes the light bulb to glow brighter and
cells do not stay longer.
3. When two identical light bulbs are connected in series the voltage splits
equally between bulbs.
4. When two non- identical light bulbs are connected in series the voltage
split unequally, the large light bulb will receive more voltage.
5. If one cell is removed, the bulbs will go off as the circuit will be incomplete.

Measuring the voltage across a bulb if the cells are connected in parallel.

1. Increasing the number of cells in parallel does not change the voltage
reading across the circuit or the brightness of the bulbs and cells stay
longer.
2. If bulbs are placed in parallel, there is no split of voltage. Each light bulb
will receive the same amount of energy from the cells.

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 3. If one cell is removed bulbs will still glow or still on or light.
Conductors and insulators
Conductors are materials which can allow electrical charges to pass through.
E.g. Copper, gold, iron, steel, carbon Aluminium and graphite.
Insulators are materials which cannot allow electricity to pass through.E.g. wood,
rubber, paper, plastics and strings.

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