RAJ KUMAR GOEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ,

Ghaziabad
Operating Systems
BCS-401

Unit: 1

Operating System

Mr. H.S.Tomer
B Tech :4th Sem Assistant Professor
CSE(AI&ML)
Mr. H.S. Tomer OS Unit Number:1 1
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 Table of Contents

• Name of Subject with code, Course and Subject Teacher

• Evaluation Scheme
• Subject Syllabus
• Course Objective (Point wise)
• Course Outcomes (COs)
• Program Outcomes only heading (POs)
• COs and POs Mapping
• Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)
• COs and PSOs Mapping

Mr. H.S. Tomer OS Unit Number:1 2

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 Cont…

• Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

• End Semester Question Paper Templates
• Brief Introduction about the Subject with videos
• Unit Content
• Unit Objective
• Old Question Papers (Sessional + University)
• Expected Questions
• Recap of Unit
Mr. H.S. Tomer OS Unit Number:1 3
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 Faculty Profile

• Mr. Harender Pratap Singh Tomer, Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering(Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning) at Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology ,
Ghaziabad, U.P. is having more than 14 years of teaching, research and administrative experience. He has
received his B.Tech, M.Tech, in the field of Computer Science and Engineering. His field of specialization
is Operation System, Computer Graphics, Computer Network and Machine Learning.

• He has 4 publications in various International/National journals and conferences of repute.. He has

supervised many post-graduates and under graduate scholars in the various phases of dissertations and
projects. He has organized many National and International Conferences, Faculty Development Programs,
Staff Development Program, Seminars and Workshops.

• He is having the membership of various professional bodies Computer Society of India (CSI)

Mr. H.S. Tomer OS Unit Number:1 4

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 Evaluation Scheme

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 Subject Syllabus
Proposed
Unit Topic
Lecture
Introduction : Operating system and functions, Classification of
Operating systems- Batch, Interactive, Time sharing, Real Time
System, Multiprocessor Systems, Multiuser Systems, Multiprocess
I Systems, Multithreaded Systems, Operating System Structure- Layered 8
structure, System Components, Operating System services, Reentrant
Kernels, Monolithic and Microkernel
Concurrent Processes: Process Concept, Principle of Concurrency,
Producer / Consumer Problem, Mutual Exclusion, Critical Section
Problem, Dekker’s solution, Peterson’s solution, Semaphores, Test and
II Set operation; Classical Problem in Concurrency- Dining Philosopher 8
Problem, Sleeping Barber Problem; Inter Process Communication
models and Schemes, Process
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 Subject Syllabus
Proposed
Unit Topic
Lecture
CPU Scheduling: Scheduling Concepts, Performance Criteria, Process
States, Process Transition Diagram, Schedulers, Process Control Block
(PCB), Process address space, Process identification information,
III 8
Threads and their management, Scheduling Algorithms,
Multiprocessor Scheduling. Deadlock: System model, Deadlock
characterization, Prevention, Avoidance and detection,
Memory Management: Basic bare machine, Resident monitor,
Multiprogramming with fixed partitions, Multiprogramming with
IV variable partitions, Protection schemes, Paging, Segmentation, Paged 8
segmentation, Virtual memory concepts, Demand paging, Performance
of demand paging,
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 Subject Syllabus
Proposed
Unit Topic
Lecture
I/O Management and Disk Scheduling: I/O devices, and I/O
subsystems, I/O buffering, Disk storage and disk scheduling, RAID.
V File System: File concept, File organization and access mechanism, 8
File directories, and File sharing, File system implementation issues,
File system

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 Course Outcomes
Course outcome: After completion of this course students will be
able to:
CO 1 Understand the structure and functions of OS K1, K2

CO 2
Understand the principles of concurrency and Deadlocks K2
CO 3
Learn about Processes, Threads and Scheduling algorithms. K1, K2
CO 4 Learn various memory management scheme K2

CO 5 Study I/O management and File systems. K2,K4

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 COs and POs Mapping
OPERATING SYSTEM (KCS-401 )

CODE PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

CO1 3 3 2 2 1 2 - 2 3 2 2 3

CO2 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 - 1 3

CO3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 3

CO4 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 - 2 - 2 3

CO5 3 1 2 2 2 2 - - 2 2 2 3

Avg 3 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.6 2.2 2 2 2.4 2.3 1.6 3

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 Program Specific Outcomes

Programme Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

• PSO1. The ability to develop machine intelligence system to

provide sustainable solutions for the benefit of mankind.

• PSO2. The ability to integrate AI&ML based models to have

end to end product.

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 COs and PSOs Mapping

Course Program Specific Outcomes

Outcomes
PSO1 PSO2
CO1 2 1
CO2 2 2
CO3 2 3
CO4 2 2
CO5 2 2
Avg 2 2
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 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

• PEO1:- The graduate will have the ability to adopt and contribute
towards the latest technological change in the field of AI&ML.

• PEO2:- The graduate will have the ability to be employed as software

professionals in industries and /or government organizations.
•
• PEO3:- The graduate will have the ability to provide employment as an
entrepreneur or senior level official.

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 CO-PO and PSO Mapping
S. No. Program Outcomes (PO) PO Description

Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

PO1
fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of
1 (Engineering Knowledge)
complex engineering problems.

Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex

PO2
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
2 (Problem Analysis)
principles of mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences.

Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system

PO3
components or processes that meet the specified needs with
(Design/Development of
3 appropriate considerations for the public health and safety, and the
solutions)
cultural, societal and environmental considerations.

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 CO-PO and PSO Mapping
PO4
Use research based knowledge and research methods including design of
(Conduct
experiments, analysis and interpretation of data and synthesis of the
4 Investigations of
information to provide valid conclusions.
complex problems)
Create, select and apply appropriate techniques, resources and modern
PO5
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
5 (Modern tool usage)
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6 Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal,

(The engineer and health, safety, legal and cultural issues and consequent responsibilities
6
society) relevant to the professional engineering practice.

PO7 Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal

7 (Environment and and environmental contexts, demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainability) sustainable development.

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 CO-PO and PSO Mapping
PO8 Apply the ethical principles and commit to professional ethics,
8
(Ethics) responsibilities, and norms of engineering practice.

PO9
Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
9 (Individual and team
diverse teams and multidisciplinary settings.
work)

Communicates effectively on complex engineering activities with the

PO10 engineering community and with society such as being able to
10
(Communication) comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation,
make effective presentations and give and receive clear instructions.

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 End Semester Question Paper Templates (Offline
Pattern/Online Pattern

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 End Semester Question Paper Templates (Offline
Pattern/Online Pattern

Section – A
Q.1 Attempt all the parts (2 x 10 =20)
(a) K… CO1 2
(b) K… CO1 2
(c) K… CO2 2
(d) K… CO2 2
(e) K… CO3 2
(f) K… CO3 2
(g) K… CO4 2
(h) K… CO4 2
(i) K… CO5 2
(j) K… CO5 2
18
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 End Semester Question Paper Templates (Offline
Pattern/Online Pattern

Section – B
Q.2 Attempt any three parts of the following (10 x 3 = 30)

(a) K… CO1 10

(b) K… CO2 10

(c) K… CO3 10

(d) K… CO4 10

(e) K… CO5 10

19
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 End Semester Question Paper Templates (Offline
Pattern/Online Pattern

Section – C
Q.3 Attempt any one part of the following (10x 1 = 10)
(a) K… CO1 10
(b) K… CO1 10
Q.4 Attempt any one part of the following (10x 1 = 10)
(a) K… CO2 10
(b) K… CO2 10
Q.5 Attempt any one part of the following (10x 1 = 10)
(a) K… CO3 10
(b) K… CO3 10
Q.6 Attempt any one part of the following (10x 1 = 10)
(a) K… CO4 10
(b) K… CO4 10
Q.7 Attempt any one part of the following (10x 1 = 10)
(a) K… CO5 10
(b) K… CO5 10 20
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 Brief Introduction about the subject with video

An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer

and computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an
environment in which a user can execute programs conveniently and
efficiently

YouTube/other Video Links

• https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLxCzCOWd7aiGz9donHRrE9I3Mw
n6XdP8p

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 Unit-1 Content
• Introduction
• Functions of Operating System
• Characteristics of Operating System
• Computer System Structure,
• Evolution of Operating Systems-Bare Machine,
• Types of Operating Systems
 Simple Batch Systems
 Multiprogramming Batched Systems
 Time-Sharing Systems
 Real -Time Systems
 Parallel Systems
 Distributed Systems
 Multiprocessor Systems
 Multithreaded Systems

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 Unit-1 Content
• System Calls
• System Programs
• System Boot
• Interrupt Handling
• Operating System Structure
• Operating System Services
• Case Studies
 Windows
 Unix
 Linux.

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 Course Outcome of Unit 1

After completion of this Unit students will be able to:-

CO1:Understand the structure and functions of OS

.

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 Introduction of Operating System

• OPERATING SYSTEM: A program that acts as an interface

between a user of a computer and the computer hardware i.e it provides
an environment in which a user may execute a program.
Objectives of OS:-
1. Hide details of hardware by creating Abstraction.
2. Allocate resources to processes.
3. Provide a pleasant and effective user interface

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 Introduction of Operating System

Overview of an OS:- A compute System is divided into 4 components:-

1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O
devices).
2. Operating system – controls and coordinates the use of the hardware
among the various application programs for the various users.
3. Applications programs – define the ways in which the system resources
are used to solve the computing problems of the users (compilers,
database systems, video games, business programs).
4. Users (people, machines, other computers).

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 Introduction of Operating System
Abstract View of System Components

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 Functions of Operating System
1. Interface between the user and the computer:- An OS provides a very easy way
to interact with the computer. It provides different features and GUI so that we can
easily work on a computer. We have to interact just by clicking the mouse or through
the keyboard. Thus, we can say that an OS makes working very easy and efficient.

2. Booting :- Booting is basically the process of starting the computer. When the CPU is
first switched ON it has nothing inside the memory. So, to start the computer, we
load the operating system into the main memory. Therefore, loading the OS to the
main memory to start the computer is booting. Hence, the OS helps to start the
computer when the power is switched ON.

3. Managing the input/output devices:-The OS helps to operate the different

input/output devices. The OS decides which program or process can use which
device. Moreover, it decides the time for usage. In addition to this, it controls the
allocation and de allocation of devices.

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 Functions of Operating System
4. Multitasking :- The OS helps to run more than one application at a time on the
computer. It plays an important role while multitasking. Since it manages memory
and other devices during multitasking. Therefore, it provides smooth multitasking on
the system.
5. Platform for other application software:- Users require different application
programs to perform specific tasks on the system. The OS manages and controls
these applications so that they can work efficiently. In other words, it acts as an
interface between the user and the applications.

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 Functions of Operating System
Some other uses/need for operating system are:
6. Manages the memory :-It helps in managing the main memory of the computer.
Moreover, It allocates and de allocates memory to all the applications/tasks.

7. Manages the system files:-It helps to manage files on the system. As we know, all
the data on the system is in the form of files. It makes interaction with the files easy.

8. Provides Security:-It keeps the system and applications safe through authorization.
Thus, the OS provides security to the system.

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 Functions of Operating System

Memory Management:
• It is the management of the main or primary memory. Whatever program is executed,
it has to be present in the main memory. Main memory is a quick storage area that
may be accessed directly by the CPU. When the program execution is completed, the
memory region is released and can be used by other programs. Therefore, there can
be more than one program present at a time. Hence, it is required to manage the
memory.
The operating system:
• Allocates and de allocates the memory.
• Keeps a record of which part of primary memory is used by whom and how much.
• Distributes the memory while multiprocessing.
• In multiprogramming, the operating system selects which processes acquire memory
when and how much memory they get.

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 Functions of Operating System
Processor Management: Every software that runs on a computer, whether in the background or
in the frontend, is a process. Processor management is an execution unit in which a
program operates. The operating system determines the status of the processor and processes,
selects a job and its processor, allocates the processor to the process, and de-allocates the
processor after the process is completed.
• When more than one process runs on the system, the OS decides how and when a process will
use the CPU. Hence, the name is also CPU Scheduling.
The OS:
• Allocates and de allocates processor to the processes.
• Keeps record of CPU status.
Certain algorithms used for CPU scheduling are as follows:
• First Come First Serve (FCFS)
• Shortest Job First (SJF)
• Round-Robin Scheduling
• Priority-based scheduling etc.
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 Functions of Operating System
Device Management:
• An operating system regulates device connection using drivers. The processes may require
devices for their use. This management is done by the OS.
The OS:
• Allocates and de allocates devices to different processes.
• Keeps records of the devices.
• Decides which process can use which device for how much time.

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 Functions of Operating System
File Management:
• The operating system manages resource allocation and de-allocation. It specifies which process
receives the file and for how long. It also keeps track of information, location, uses, status, and
so on. These groupings of resources are referred to as file systems. The files on a system are
stored in different directories.
The OS:
• Keeps records of the status and locations of files.
• Allocates and de allocates resources.
• Decides who gets the resources.

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 Functions of Operating System
Storage Management:
• Storage management is a procedure that allows users to maximize the utilization of storage
devices while also protecting data integrity on whatever media on which it lives. Network
virtualization, replication, security, compression, de duplication, traffic analysis, process
automation, storage provisioning, and memory management are some of the features that may be
included.
• The operating system is in charge of storing and accessing files. The creation of files, the creation
of directories, the reading and writing of data from files and directories, as well as the copying of
the contents of files and directories from one location to another are all included in storage
management.
The OS uses storage management for:
• Improving the performance of the data storage resources.
• It optimizes the use of various storage devices.
• Assists businesses in storing more data on existing hardware, speeding up the data retrieval
process, preventing data loss, meeting data retention regulations, and lowering IT costs.

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 Classifications of Operating System

Bare Machine Approach

•Machine with no OS.
• Computer used to be programmed directly in machine language,
without any system software approach.
•Program could be entered into RAM through front-panel switches.
•Results of execution could be displayed on a set of LEDs mounted
on front cover itself.

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 Classifications of Operating System

Serial Processing:
The programs were executed strictly in a serial manner, wherein
program source code written in assembly or high level language.

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 Classifications of Operating System

The various kind of Operating systems are:-

• Batch Operating System
• Multiprogramming Operating System
• Multiprocessor Operating System
• Time Sharing Operating System
• Real Time Operating System
• Distributed Operating System
• Network Operating System
• Embedded Operating System
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 Classifications of Operating System
1. Batch Processing:- A Batch is a group of Programs.
In initial days the job was submitted to the computer operator in form of
punch cards. At some later time the output appeared. the role of OS was
to transfer control automatically from one job to another i.e in order to
reduce the wastage of time during job transaction, automatically job
sequencing was developed for which Ist OS known as Resident
Monitor comes into existence.

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 Classifications of Operating System
Batch Processing :-Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System
collects the programs and data together in a batch before processing starts. An
operating system does the following activities related to batch processing −

• The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and
data as a single unit.

• The OS keeps a number of jobs in memory and executes them without any manual
information.

• Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.

• When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the
job gets copied into an output pool for later printing or processing.
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 Classifications of Operating System
Batch Processing

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 Classifications of Operating System

Batch Processing
Advantages
•Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
•Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is
finished, without any manual intervention.
Disadvantages
•Difficult to debug program.
•A job could enter an infinite loop.
•Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.

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 Classifications of Operating System

2. Multiprogramming:- Multiprogramming is a technique to execute number

of programs simultaneously by a single processor.
• In Multiprogramming, number of processes reside in main memory at a time.
• The OS picks and begins to executes one of the jobs in the main memory.
• If any I/O wait happened in a process, then CPU switches from that job to
another job.
• Hence CPU in not idle at any time

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 Classifications of Operating System

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 Classifications of Operating System

An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

•The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
•This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
•The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
•Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and
system resources using memory management programs to ensure that the CPU is never
idle, unless there are no jobs to process.
Advantage:
•High CPU utilization.
•It appears that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
•Due to difference in size of jobs, memory mgt. in needed to store them in memory.
•CPU scheduling is needed.

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 Classifications of Operating System
3. Multiprocessor Operating System : Also known as Parallel System or Tightly Coupled
Systems. Multiprocessing System have more than one processor in close communication,
sharing the computer bus, the clock and sometimes the memory and peripheral devices.

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 Classifications of Operating System
Advantage:
• Increased throughput.
• Economics
• Increased Reliability.
.
Symmetrical Multiprocessing Asymmetric Multiprocessing
S. No. S. No.
System System
1. All processors are identical 1. All processors may be different
2. Have identical copy of O.S. 2. May not have same O.S.
3. Any processor can perform any of 3. Different processor do different work,
the task. (1/0, Interrupt etc.) i.e., specific task.
4. No master slave. 4. Master slave relationship.
5. If one processor fails system works. 5. If master fails system fails.
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 Classifications of Operating System
4. Time Sharing Operating System:-Also called Multitasking is a logical
extension of multiprogramming. The CPU executes multiple jobs by
switching among them, but the switch occurs so frequently that the user can
interact with each program while it is running.
Each task gets equal amount of time for execution. The time
allocated to execute one task is called quantum, as soon as the time is
executed one task is completed, the system switches over to another
A time sharing O.S. uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming.

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 Classifications of Operating System

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 Classifications of Operating System
5. Real Time Operating System :- A real time system is one in which the correctness of
the computations not only depends upon the logical correctness of the computation but
also upon the time at which the result is produced. If the timing constraints of the system
are not met, system failure is said to have occurred.

•Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application.

•A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise
the system will fail.

•For example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control

systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
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 Classifications of Operating System
• Hard real-time system. - Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete
on time. In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the
data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
• Soft real-time system - Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time
task gets priority over other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-
time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example,
multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and
planetary rovers, etc.
S. No. Soft Real Time System S. No. Hard Real Time System
1. If certain deadlines are 1. If certain deadlines are missed
missed, disaster will not occur disaster will occur and system fails.
but performance will be
degraded.
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 Classifications of Operating System

Advantages of Real-time operating system:

•Easy to layout, develop and execute real-time applications under the real-
time operating system.
•In a Real-time operating system, the maximum utilization of devices and
systems.
Disadvantages of Real-time operating system:
•Real-time operating systems are very costly to develop.
•Real-time operating systems are very complex and can consume critical
CPU cycles.

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 Classifications of Operating System
6. Network Operating System :- A network operating system(NOS) is
software that connects multiple devices and computers on the network and
allows them to share resources on the network.
• A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the
capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other
networking functions.
• The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared
file and printer access among multiple computers in a network, typically a
local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.

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 Classifications of Operating System

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 Classifications of Operating System
Types of Network operating systems : There are mainly two types of networks,
one is peer to peer and another is client/server.
Peer to Peer –The peer-to-peer NOS allows users to share the resources and files
located in their computers. Moreover, it also provides access to shared resources on other
computers. Furthermore, all the machines connected with the network have the same
privileges to use resources:

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 Classifications of Operating System

Client/server –In the client-server structure, there’s a central system. All other
machines connected with the central system access and share resources. This structure
provides better security. We use the client-server structure of NOS in data centers and
cloud-based architectures:

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 Classifications of Operating System

Advantages of Network Operating System

•In this type of operating system, network traffic reduces due to the
division between clients and the server.
•This type of system is less expensive to set up and maintain.
Disadvantages of Network Operating System
•In this type of operating system, the failure of any node in a system
affects the whole system.
•Security and performance are important issues. So trained network
administrators are required for network administration.

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 Classifications of Operating System

7. Distributed Operating system:- is not installed on a single machine, it is divided into

parts, and these parts are loaded on different machines. A part of the distributed Operating
system is installed on each machine to make their communication possible. Distributed
Operating systems are much more complex, large, and sophisticated than Network
operating systems because they also have to take care of varying networking protocols.

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 Classifications of Operating System
There are three types of Distributed OS.
Client-Server Systems − It is a tightly coupled operating system. It is used for
multiprocessors and homogeneous multicomputer. Client-Server Systems works as a
centralized server because it provides the approval to all requests, which are generated by
the client systems side.
Peer-to-Peer Systems − It is a loosely coupled system. It is implemented in the computer
network application because it contains a bunch of processors, and they are not shareable
memories or clocks as well. Every processor consists of its own local memory, and these
processors communicate with each other through various communication media such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines.
Middleware − It allows the interoperability in the between of all applications, which are
running on other operating systems. By using these services those applications are capable
of transferring all data to each other. It allows distribution transparency.
.
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 Classifications of Operating System

Advantages of Distributed Operating System

•The distributed operating system provides sharing of resources.
•This type of system is fault-tolerant.
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System
•Protocol overhead can dominate computation cost.

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Network OS Distributed OS
Connect multiple computer on a Join Multiple computers over bus
network to share resources and make them work as a single unit
Runs on a server and every
Each Machine connected to the
device that is connected with
network bus must have same
network can have their own
operating system
indivisual operating system
Easy to install and economical Very costly and complex to install

Less reliable More reliable

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8.Embedded Operating system:-An operating system designed for used to

perform specified tasks for non-computer devices. These operating systems are
designed to be small, resource-efficient, dependable, and reduce many features
that aren't required by specialized applications.
An embedded operating system is a combination of software and hardware.
It produces an easily understandable result by humans in many formats such
as images, text, and voice
The embedded operating system improves overall efficiency by controlling
all hardware resources and minimizing response times for specific tasks for
which devices were built.

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Advantages
•It is small in size and faster to load.
•It is low cost.
•It helps to increase the product quality.
Disadvantages
•It has limited resources for memory.
•It isn't easy to take a back of embedded files.
•You can't change, improve, or upgrade an embedded system once it's been
developed.
•If any problem occurs, you need to reset the setting.
•Its hardware is limited.

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 Structures of Operating Systems

Before we discuss the structure of an O.S. we discuss what does actually an

O.S. comprise of?
Kernel: The Kernel is the layer of O.S. code that is just above the hardware
abstraction layer [O.S runs on multiple hardware platform and platform-
specific details are masked to the rest of O.S by a layer called hardware
abstraction layer].
Kernel is the part of O.S that is loaded into memory during
computer boot (up and remain in main memory) and takes computer control,
i.e., starts up all the processes needed to communicate with the user and the
rest of environment.
When system works in Kernel mode, Kernel has direct access to the
hardware.
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The kernel is the essential foundation of a computer's operating
system (OS). It is the core that provides basic services for all other
parts of the OS. It is the main layer between the OS and underlying
computer hardware, and it helps with tasks such as process
and memory management, file systems, device control and
networking.
The major functions of Kernel are
• Handle hardware exceptions and interrupts.
• Schedule, prioritize and dispatch threads.
• Synchronize execution across processors in a multiprocessor
environment
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Shell: It is a process that accepts your command line input and execute
whatever program you have called, i.e., it is the interface between the user
and the O.S.
• Shell is an executable file responsible for interpreting commands,
transmitting them to system and returning the results.

Command Processor: It is that part of O.S which receives and executes

Operating System commands. It perform it by
• Command prompt (DOS).
• Interprates mouse operation (GUI).

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 Structures of Operating Systems
Structures of Operating Systems : Structures of Operating
Systems: The structure of the OS depends mainly on how the
various common components of the operating system are
interconnected and melded into the kernel. Depending on this we
have following structures of the operating system:
1. Simple structure
2. Monolithic Structure
3. Layered structure
4. Micro-kernel

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1. Simple structure: Such operating systems do not have well defined

structure and are small, simple and limited systems. The interfaces and
levels of functionality are not well separated. MS-DOS is an example of
such operating system. These types of operating system cause the entire
system to crash if one of the user programs fails.

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Advantages of Simple structure:

•It delivers better application performance because of the few interfaces
between the application program and the hardware.
•Easy for kernel developers to develop such an operating system.
Disadvantages of Simple structure:
•The structure is very complicated as no clear boundaries exists between
modules.
•It does not enforce data hiding in the operating system.

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 Structures of Operating Systems

2. Monolithic Structure: all the major components of the OS are located in

the kernel space( it is a computer program at the core of OS). The kernel
controls all the major features like memory management, process
management, file management, and device management. It is a
straightforward and vintage operating system that was first introduced in
1970. It was then used for small work like batch processing and time-
sharing.
The kernel handles the OS services like CPU scheduling, memory
management, etc. The application requests services from the kernel; system
calls do it. When an application requests a service hardware address space,
the application switches to the hardware address of the OS; these operating
systems also have a high-level virtual interface over computer hardware.
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Advantages
•Fast: Monolithic operating systems are fast.
•Easy and Simple: Its structure is easy and simple as all the components
are located in the same address space.
Disadvantages
•Prone to Errors :Monolithic OS can generate errors and bugs in the
system. It is because user programs use the same address space as the
kernel.
•Difficult to Update :In monolithic OS, all the OS code is in a single big
chunk; therefore, it is difficult to add or remove features in the OS.
•Not Portable: The code written in monolithic OS is difficult to carry with
or transfer to another system: this is because all the code works in a big
chunk
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 Structures of Operating Systems

3. Layered structure :- In the layered operating structure, all layers exist

separately to perform certain functionality, and modification in one layer
does not affect other layers. The layered architecture was developed to
overcome the limitations of the monolithic operating system.

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 Structures of Operating Systems

There are mainly six main layers in layered operating systems:-

Layer-1: Hardware
Layer-2: CPU Layer
Layer-3: Memory Management
Layer-4: Process Management
Layer-5: Input-Output Buffer
Layer-6: User Programs

These layers are so designed that each layer uses the functions of the lower
level layers only

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 Structures of Operating Systems
Advantages of Layered structure:
•Layering makes it easier to enhance the operating system as
implementation of a layer can be changed easily without affecting the other
layers.
•It is very easy to perform debugging and system verification.
Disadvantages of Layered structure:
•In this structure the application performance is degraded as compared to
simple structure.
•It requires careful planning for designing the layers as higher layers use
the functionalities of only the lower layers.

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 Structures of Operating Systems
Parameter Monolithic Operating System Layered Operating System
Working Complete operating system The operating system is divided
operating in kernel space. into several layers, each
performing a specific task.
Number of Levels Mainly, three layers are present. Multiple layers are present in
layered os.
Modularity In monolithic OS, all the The layered architecture is
components and the kernel can modular; therefore, it is easy to
directly interact, making it less debug and update.
modular.
Modification and Updates These are difficult to modify These are easier to update since
and update because all the code the code of the concerned layer
needs to be recompiled again needs to be modified only.
after a minor update.

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 Structures of Operating Systems

4. Micro-kernel: This structure designs the operating system by removing all

non-essential components from the kernel and implementing them as system
and user programs. This result in a smaller kernel called the micro-kernel.
The main function of the micro-kernel is to provide a communication
facility between the client program and the various services that are also
running in user space.
In this Architecture, services such as device deceives, file system,
window management, security services and process scheduling are not part of
kernel.

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Advantages of Micro-kernel structure:

•Ease of extending the operating system: New services are added
to user space so Kernel do not required modification.
•Easier to port from one hardware design to another.
•More security and reliability:
•If a services fails, the rest of O.S remains untouched.
Disadvantages of Micro-kernel structure:
•Increased level of inter module communication degrades system
performance.

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 Structures of Operating Systems

Features Monolithic Kernel Microkernel

Size It is bigger than the microkernel. It is smaller in size.

Speed Its process execution is faster. Its process execution is slower.

It implements both user and kernel It implements kernel and user services in
Basic
services in the same address space. different address spaces.
It is more secure than the monolithic
Security It is less secure than the microkernel.
kernel.
In a monolithic kernel, if a service fails, A single process failure does not affect
Stability
the entire system fails. other processes.
Extendible It is hard to extend. It is easy to extend.
Inter-
use signals and sockets to achieve IPC. use the messaging queues to achieve IPC.
Process
Debug It is hard to debug. It is easy to debug.
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 Structures of Operating Systems

5.Modular Structure

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 Structures of Operating Systems

6. Exo-Kernel Architecture: It is the further extension of micro-

kernel architecture of an O.S. This Architecture will state that
“Nothing is implemented in Kernel mode”. This type of
Architecture is presently in “Research Mode”.

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 Structures of Operating Systems

Difference between Process and Kernel Thread

1. Process:
Process is an activity of executing a program. Process control block controls the operation of
the process.
2. Kernel Thread:
Kernel thread is a type of thread in which threads of a process are managed at kernel level.
Kernel threads are scheduled by operating system (kernel mode).

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 Structures of Operating Systems

PROCESS KERNEL THREAD

Process is a program being Kernel thread is the thread managed

executed. at kernel level.
There is no sharing between
Kernel threads share address space.
processes.
Process is scheduled by operating Kernel thread is scheduled by
system using process table. operating system using thread table.

It can be suspended. It can not be suspended.

Suspension of a process does not Suspension of kernel thread leads to
affect other processes. all the threads stop running.
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 Course Outcome of Unit 1

After completion of this Unit students will be able to:-

CO1:Understand the structure and functions of OS

.

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 Faculty Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL Video Links and Online
Courses Details

Youtube/other Video Links

• https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLBlnK6fEyqRiVhbXDGLXDk_OQAeuVcp2O
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106108101

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