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Higher Engineering Mathematics

Now in its eighth edition, Higher Engineering Mathe- John Bird, BSc (Hons), CMath, CEng, CSci, FITE,
matics has helped thousands of students succeed in their FIMA, FCollT, is the former Head of Applied Electron-
exams. Theory is kept to a minimum, with the emphasis ics in the Faculty of Technology at Highbury College,
firmly placed on problem-solving skills, making this a Portsmouth, UK. More recently he has combined free-
thoroughly practical introduction to the advanced engi- lance lecturing and examining, and is the author of
neering mathematics that students need to master. The over 130 textbooks on engineering and mathemati-
extensive and thorough topic coverage makes this an cal subjects with worldwide sales of over one mil-
ideal text for upper-level vocational courses and for lion copies. He is currently lecturing at the Defence
undergraduate degree courses. It is also supported by School of Marine Engineering in the Defence Col-
a fully updated companion website with resources for lege of Technical Training at HMS Sultan, Gosport,
both students and lecturers. It has full solutions to all Hampshire, UK.
2,000 further questions contained in the 277 practice
exercises.

Why is knowledge of mathematics important in engineering?

A career in any engineering or scientific field will Aerospace engineers require mathematics to perform
require both basic and advanced mathematics. Without a variety of engineering work in designing, construct-
mathematics to determine principles, calculate dimen- ing, and testing aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft; they
sions and limits, explore variations, prove concepts, and conduct basic and applied research to evaluate adapt-
so on, there would be no mobile telephones, televisions, ability of materials and equipment to aircraft design and
stereo systems, video games, microwave ovens, comput- manufacture and recommend improvements in testing
ers, or virtually anything electronic. There would be no equipment and techniques.
bridges, tunnels, roads, skyscrapers, automobiles, ships,
Nuclear engineers require mathematics to conduct
planes, rockets or most things mechanical. There would
research on nuclear engineering problems or apply prin-
be no metals beyond the common ones, such as iron
ciples and theory of nuclear science to problems con-
and copper, no plastics, no synthetics. In fact, society
cerned with release, control, and utilisation of nuclear
would most certainly be less advanced without the use
energy and nuclear waste disposal.
of mathematics throughout the centuries and into the
future. Petroleum engineers require mathematics to devise
Electrical engineers require mathematics to design, methods to improve oil and gas well production and
develop, test, or supervise the manufacturing and instal- determine the need for new or modified tool designs;
lation of electrical equipment, components, or systems they oversee drilling and offer technical advice to
for commercial, industrial, military, or scientific use. achieve economical and satisfactory progress.

Mechanical engineers require mathematics to perform Industrial engineers require mathematics to design,
engineering duties in planning and designing tools, develop, test, and evaluate integrated systems for man-
engines, machines, and other mechanically functioning aging industrial production processes, including human
equipment; they oversee installation, operation, mainte- work factors, quality control, inventory control, logis-
nance, and repair of such equipment as centralised heat, tics and material flow, cost analysis, and production
gas, water, and steam systems. co-ordination.
Environmental engineers require mathematics to mathematical tools such as differential equations, tensor
design, plan, or perform engineering duties in the analysis, field theory, numerical methods and operations
prevention, control, and remediation of environmen- research.
tal health hazards, using various engineering disci- Knowledge of mathematics is therefore needed by each
plines; their work may include waste treatment, site of the engineering disciplines listed above.
remediation, or pollution control technology.
It is intended that this text – Higher Engineering Mathe-
Civil engineers require mathematics in all levels in matics – will provide a step-by-step approach to learning
civil engineering – structural engineering, hydraulics fundamental mathematics needed for your engineering
and geotechnical engineering are all fields that employ studies.
Higher Engineering Mathematics

Eighth Edition

John Bird
Eighth edition published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2017 John Bird

The right of John Bird to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Elsevier 1993

Seventh edition published by Routledge 2014

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Names: Bird, J. O.Title: Higher engineering mathematics / John Bird.
Description: 8th ed. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2017. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016038671 | ISBN 9781138673571
Subjects: LCSH: Engineering mathematics.
Classification: LCC TA330 .B52 2017 | DDC 620.001/51–dc23LC
record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016038671

ISBN: 978-1-138-67357-1 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-26502-5 (ebk)

Typeset in Times by
Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire

Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/bird

To Sue
Contents

Preface xiii
Revision Test 1 49
Syllabus guidance xv
6 Arithmetic and geometric progressions 50
6.1 Arithmetic progressions 50
Section A Number and algebra 1 6.2 Worked problems on arithmetic progressions 51
6.3 Further worked problems on arithmetic
1 Algebra 3 progressions 52
1.1 Introduction 3 6.4 Geometric progressions 53
1.2 Revision of basic laws 3 6.5 Worked problems on geometric progressions 54
1.3 Revision of equations 5 6.6 Further worked problems on geometric
1.4 Polynomial division 8 progressions 55
1.5 The factor theorem 10
7 The binomial series 58
1.6 The remainder theorem 12
7.1 Pascal’s triangle 58
2 Partial fractions 15 7.2 The binomial series 60
2.1 Introduction to partial fractions 15 7.3 Worked problems on the binomial series 60
2.2 Worked problems on partial fractions with 7.4 Further worked problems on the binomial
linear factors 16 series 62
2.3 Worked problems on partial fractions with 7.5 Practical problems involving the binomial
repeated linear factors 18 theorem 64
2.4 Worked problems on partial fractions with
8 Maclaurin’s series 68
quadratic factors 20
8.1 Introduction 69
3 Logarithms 22 8.2 Derivation of Maclaurin’s theorem 69
3.1 Introduction to logarithms 22 8.3 Conditions of Maclaurin’s series 70
3.2 Laws of logarithms 24 8.4 Worked problems on Maclaurin’s series 70
3.3 Indicial equations 27 8.5 Numerical integration using Maclaurin’s
3.4 Graphs of logarithmic functions 28 series 73
8.6 Limiting values 75
4 Exponential functions 29
4.1 Introduction to exponential functions 29
4.2 The power series for ex 30 Revision Test 2 78
4.3 Graphs of exponential functions 32
4.4 Napierian logarithms 33 9 Solving equations by iterative methods 79
4.5 Laws of growth and decay 36 9.1 Introduction to iterative methods 79
4.6 Reduction of exponential laws to linear form 40 9.2 The bisection method 80
9.3 An algebraic method of successive
5 Inequalities 43 approximations 83
5.1 Introduction to inequalities 43 9.4 The Newton-Raphson method 86
5.2 Simple inequalities 44
10 Binary, octal and hexadecimal numbers 90
5.3 Inequalities involving a modulus 44
10.1 Introduction 90
5.4 Inequalities involving quotients 45
10.2 Binary numbers 91
5.5 Inequalities involving square functions 46
10.3 Octal numbers 94
5.6 Quadratic inequalities 47
10.4 Hexadecimal numbers 96
 Contents vii

11 Boolean algebra and logic circuits 100 15.2 Angles of any magnitude 163
11.1 Boolean algebra and switching circuits 101 15.3 The production of a sine and cosine wave 166
11.2 Simplifying Boolean expressions 105 15.4 Sine and cosine curves 167
11.3 Laws and rules of Boolean algebra 105 15.5 Sinusoidal form A sin(ωt ±α) 171
11.4 De Morgan’s laws 107 15.6 Harmonic synthesis with complex
11.5 Karnaugh maps 108 waveforms 174
11.6 Logic circuits 112
16 Hyperbolic functions 180
11.7 Universal logic gates 116
16.1 Introduction to hyperbolic functions 180
16.2 Graphs of hyperbolic functions 182
Revision Test 3 119 16.3 Hyperbolic identities 184
16.4 Solving equations involving hyperbolic
functions 186
Section B Geometry and trigonometry 121 16.5 Series expansions for cosh x and sinh x 188

17 Trigonometric identities and equations 190

12 Introduction to trigonometry 123 17.1 Trigonometric identities 190
12.1 Trigonometry 124 17.2 Worked problems on trigonometric
12.2 The theorem of Pythagoras 124 identities 191
12.3 Trigonometric ratios of acute angles 125 17.3 Trigonometric equations 192
12.4 Evaluating trigonometric ratios 127 17.4 Worked problems (i) on trigonometric
12.5 Solution of right-angled triangles 131 equations 193
12.6 Angles of elevation and depression 133 17.5 Worked problems (ii) on trigonometric
12.7 Sine and cosine rules 134 equations 194
12.8 Area of any triangle 135 17.6 Worked problems (iii) on trigonometric
12.9 Worked problems on the solution of equations 195
triangles and finding their areas 135 17.7 Worked problems (iv) on trigonometric
12.10 Further worked problems on the solution equations 195
of triangles and finding their areas 136 18 The relationship between trigonometric and
12.11 Practical situations involving trigonometry 138 hyperbolic functions 198
12.12 Further practical situations involving 18.1 The relationship between trigonometric
trigonometry 140 and hyperbolic functions 198
18.2 Hyperbolic identities 199
13 Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 143
13.1 Introduction 144 19 Compound angles 202
13.2 Changing from Cartesian into polar 19.1 Compound angle formulae 202
co-ordinates 144 19.2 Conversion of a sin ωt + b cos ωt into
13.3 Changing from polar into Cartesian R sin(ωt + α) 204
co-ordinates 146 19.3 Double angles 208
13.4 Use of Pol/Rec functions on calculators 147 19.4 Changing products of sines and cosines
into sums or differences 210
14 The circle and its properties 149
19.5 Changing sums or differences of sines and
14.1 Introduction 149
cosines into products 211
14.2 Properties of circles 149
19.6 Power waveforms in a.c. circuits 212
14.3 Radians and degrees 151
14.4 Arc length and area of circles and sectors 152 Revision Test 5 216
14.5 The equation of a circle 155
14.6 Linear and angular velocity 156
14.7 Centripetal force 158 Section C Graphs 217

Revision Test 4 160 20 Functions and their curves 219

20.1 Standard curves 219
15 Trigonometric waveforms 162 20.2 Simple transformations 222
15.1 Graphs of trigonometric functions 162 20.3 Periodic functions 227
viii Contents

20.4 Continuous and discontinuous functions 227 25.2 Solution of simultaneous equations by
20.5 Even and odd functions 228 determinants 290
20.6 Inverse functions 229 25.3 Solution of simultaneous equations using
20.7 Asymptotes 231 Cramer’s rule 293
20.8 Brief guide to curve sketching 237 25.4 Solution of simultaneous equations using
20.9 Worked problems on curve sketching 238 the Gaussian elimination method 294
25.5 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 296
21 Irregular areas, volumes and mean values of
waveforms 241 Revision Test 7 302
21.1 Areas of irregular figures 241
21.2 Volumes of irregular figures 244
21.3 The mean or average value of a waveform 245 Section F Vector geometry 303

Revision Test 6 250 26 Vectors 305

26.1 Introduction 305
26.2 Scalars and vectors 305
Section D Complex numbers 251
26.3 Drawing a vector 306
26.4 Addition of vectors by drawing 307
22 Complex numbers 253 26.5 Resolving vectors into horizontal and
22.1 Cartesian complex numbers 254 vertical components 309
22.2 The Argand diagram 255 26.6 Addition of vectors by calculation 310
22.3 Addition and subtraction of complex 26.7 Vector subtraction 314
numbers 255 26.8 Relative velocity 316
22.4 Multiplication and division of complex 26.9 i, j and k notation 317
numbers 256
22.5 Complex equations 258 27 Methods of adding alternating waveforms 319
22.6 The polar form of a complex number 259 27.1 Combination of two periodic functions 319
22.7 Multiplication and division in polar form 261 27.2 Plotting periodic functions 320
22.8 Applications of complex numbers 262 27.3 Determining resultant phasors by
drawing 321
23 De Moivre’s theorem 266 27.4 Determining resultant phasors by the sine
23.1 Introduction 267 and cosine rules 323
23.2 Powers of complex numbers 267 27.5 Determining resultant phasors by
23.3 Roots of complex numbers 268 horizontal and vertical components 324
23.4 The exponential form of a complex number 270 27.6 Determining resultant phasors by using
23.5 Introduction to locus problems 271 complex numbers 326

28 Scalar and vector products 330

Section E Matrices and determinants 275 28.1 The unit triad 330
28.2 The scalar product of two vectors 331
28.3 Vector products 335
24 The theory of matrices and determinants 277
24.1 Matrix notation 277 28.4 Vector equation of a line 339
24.2 Addition, subtraction and multiplication Revision Test 8 341
of matrices 278
24.3 The unit matrix 281
24.4 The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix 281 Section G Introduction to calculus 343
24.5 The inverse or reciprocal of a 2 by 2 matrix 282
24.6 The determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix 283
24.7 The inverse or reciprocal of a 3 by 3 matrix 285 29 Methods of differentiation 345
29.1 Introduction to calculus 345
25 Applications of matrices and determinants 287 29.2 The gradient of a curve 345
25.1 Solution of simultaneous equations by 29.3 Differentiation from first principles 346
matrices 288 29.4 Differentiation of common functions 347
 Contents ix

29.5 Differentiation of a product 350 34.3 Differentiation in parameters 414

29.6 Differentiation of a quotient 352 34.4 Further worked problems on
29.7 Function of a function 353 differentiation of parametric equations 416
29.8 Successive differentiation 355
35 Differentiation of implicit functions 419
30 Some applications of differentiation 357 35.1 Implicit functions 419
30.1 Rates of change 357 35.2 Differentiating implicit functions 419
30.2 Velocity and acceleration 359 35.3 Differentiating implicit functions
30.3 Turning points 362 containing products and quotients 420
30.4 Practical problems involving maximum 35.4 Further implicit differentiation 421
and minimum values 365
30.5 Points of inflexion 369 36 Logarithmic differentiation 425
30.6 Tangents and normals 371 36.1 Introduction to logarithmic
differentiation 425
30.7 Small changes 372
36.2 Laws of logarithms 425
36.3 Differentiation of logarithmic functions 426
Revision Test 9 375
36.4 Differentiation of further logarithmic
functions 426
31 Standard integration 376 36.5 Differentiation of [f (x)] x 428
31.1 The process of integration 376
31.2 The general solution of integrals of the
form ax n 377 Revision Test 11 431
31.3 Standard integrals 377
31.4 Definite integrals 380 37 Differentiation of hyperbolic functions 432
37.1 Standard differential coefficients of
32 Some applications of integration 383 hyperbolic functions 432
32.1 Introduction 384
37.2 Further worked problems on
32.2 Areas under and between curves 384 differentiation of hyperbolic functions 433
32.3 Mean and rms values 385
32.4 Volumes of solids of revolution 386 38 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric and
32.5 Centroids 388 hyperbolic functions 435
32.6 Theorem of Pappus 390 38.1 Inverse functions 435
32.7 Second moments of area of regular sections 392 38.2 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric
functions 437
33 Introduction to differential equations 400 38.3 Logarithmic forms of the inverse
33.1 Family of curves 400 hyperbolic functions 440
33.2 Differential equations 401 38.4 Differentiation of inverse hyperbolic
33.3 The solution of equations of the form functions 442
dy
= f (x) 402
dx 39 Partial differentiation 446
33.4 The solution of equations of the form 39.1 Introduction to partial differentiation 446
dy
= f (y) 403 39.2 First order partial derivatives 446
dx
33.5 The solution of equations of the form 39.3 Second order partial derivatives 449
dy
= f (x).f (y) 405 40 Total differential, rates of change and small
dx
changes 452
40.1 Total differential 452
Revision Test 10 409
40.2 Rates of change 453
40.3 Small changes 456
Section H Further differential calculus 411
41 Maxima, minima and saddle points for functions
of two variables 459
34 Differentiation of parametric equations 413 41.1 Functions of two independent
34.1 Introduction to parametric equations 413 variables 459
34.2 Some common parametric equations 414 41.2 Maxima, minima and saddle points 460
x Contents

41.3 Procedure to determine maxima, minima θ

45.3 Further worked problems on the t = tan
and saddle points for functions of two 2
substitution 496
variables 461
41.4 Worked problems on maxima, minima and
saddle points for functions of two variables 461 Revision Test 13 499
41.5 Further worked problems on maxima,
minima and saddle points for functions of 46 Integration by parts 500
two variables 464 46.1 Introduction 500
46.2 Worked problems on integration by
Revision Test 12 469 parts 500
46.3 Further worked problems on integration
by parts 502
Section I Further integral calculus 471
47 Reduction formulae 506
47.1 Introduction 506
42 Integration using algebraic substitutions 473
42.1 Introduction 473 47.2 Using reduction formulae for integrals of
the form x n ex dx

506
42.2 Algebraic substitutions 473
47.3 Using reduction formulae for
 integrals of
42.3 Worked problems on integration using
the form x n cos x dx and x n sin x dx

507
algebraic substitutions 474
47.4 Using reduction formulae for integrals of
42.4 Further worked problems on integration
the form sinn x dx and cosn x dx

510
using algebraic substitutions 475
47.5 Further reduction formulae 512
42.5 Change of limits 476

43 Integration using trigonometric and hyperbolic 48 Double and triple integrals 515
substitutions 478 48.1 Double integrals 515
43.1 Introduction 478 48.2 Triple integrals 517
42.2 Worked problems on integration of sin2 x,
cos2 x, tan2 x and cot2 x 478 49 Numerical integration 520
43.3 Worked problems on integration of powers 49.1 Introduction 520
of sines and cosines 481 49.2 The trapezoidal rule 520
43.4 Worked problems on integration of 49.3 The mid-ordinate rule 523
products of sines and cosines 482 49.4 Simpson’s rule 524
43.5 Worked problems on integration using the 49.5 Accuracy of numerical integration 528
sin θ substitution 483
43.6 Worked problems on integration using the Revision Test 14 529
tan θ substitution 484
43.7 Worked problems on integration using the
sinh θ substitution 485 Section J Further differential equations 531
43.8 Worked problems on integration using the
cosh θ substitution 487
50 Homogeneous first order differential equations 533
44 Integration using partial fractions 489 50.1 Introduction 533
44.1 Introduction 489 50.2 Procedure to solve differential equations
44.2 Worked problems on integration using dy
of the form P =Q 533
partial fractions with linear factors 489 dx
44.3 Worked problems on integration using 50.3 Worked problems on homogeneous first
partial fractions with repeated linear factors 491 order differential equations 534
44.4 Worked problems on integration using 50.4 Further worked problems on homogeneous
partial fractions with quadratic factors 492 first order differential equations 535

θ 51 Linear first order differential equations 537

45 The t = tan 494
2 51.1 Introduction 537
45.1 Introduction 494
θ 51.2 Procedure to solve differential equations
45.2 Worked problems on the t = tan dy
2 of the form + Py = Q 538
substitution 495 dx
 Contents xi

51.3 Worked problems on linear first order 55 Power series methods of solving ordinary
differential equations 538 differential equations 577
51.4 Further worked problems on linear first 55.1 Introduction 577
order differential equations 539 55.2 Higher order differential coefficients as
series 578
52 Numerical methods for first order differential 55.3 Leibniz’s method 579
equations 542 55.4 Power series solution by the
52.1 Introduction 542 Leibniz-Maclaurin method 582
52.2 Euler’s method 543 55.5 Power series solution by the Frobenius
52.3 Worked problems on Euler’s method 544 method 584
52.4 The Euler–Cauchy method 548 55.6 Bessel’s equation and Bessel’s functions 591
52.5 The Runge-Kutta method 553 55.7 Legendre’s equation and Legendre
polynomials 596
Revision Test 15 559
56 An introduction to partial differential equations 601
56.1 Introduction 602
53 First order differential equations of the form 56.2 Partial integration 602
d2 y dy 56.3 Solution of partial differential equations
a 2 + b + cy = 0 560 by direct integration 602
dx dy
53.1 Introduction 560 56.4 Some important engineering partial
53.2 Procedure to solve differential equations differential equations 604
d2 y dy 56.5 Separating the variables 605
of the form a 2 + b + cy = 0 561 56.6 The wave equation 606
dx dx
53.3 Worked problems on differential equations 56.7 The heat conduction equation 610
d2 y dy 56.8 Laplace’s equation 612
of the form a 2 + b + cy = 0 561
dx dx
53.4 Further worked problems on practical
Revision Test 16 615
differential equations of the form
d2 y dy
a 2 +b + cy = 0 563
dx dx
Section K Statistics and probability 617
54 First order differential equations of the form
d2 y dy
a 2 + b + cy = f (x) 567 57 Presentation of statistical data 619
dx dx
57.1 Some statistical terminology 620
54.1 Complementary function and particular
57.2 Presentation of ungrouped data 621
integral 568
57.3 Presentation of grouped data 624
54.2 Procedure to solve differential equations
d2 y dy
of the form a 2 + b + cy = f (x) 569 58 Mean, median, mode and standard deviation 631
dx dx 58.1 Measures of central tendency 631
54.3 Worked problems on differential equations
58.2 Mean, median and mode for discrete data 632
d2 y dy
of the form a 2 + b + cy = f (x) 58.3 Mean, median and mode for grouped data 633
dx dx
where f(x) is a constant or polynomial 569 58.4 Standard deviation 634
54.4 Worked problems on differential equations 58.5 Quartiles, deciles and percentiles 636
d2 y dy
of the form a 2 + b + cy = f (x) 59 Probability 639
dx dx
where f(x) is an exponential function 570 59.1 Introduction to probability 640
54.5 Worked problems on differential equations 59.2 Laws of probability 640
d2 y dy 59.3 Worked problems on probability 641
of the form a 2 + b + cy = f (x) 59.4 Further worked problems on probability 642
dx dx
where f(x) is a sine or cosine function 572 59.5 Permutations and combinations 645
54.6 Worked problems on differential equations 59.6 Bayes’ theorem 646
d2 y dy
of the form a 2 + b + cy = f (x)
dx dx Revision Test 17 649
where f(x) is a sum or a product 574
xii Contents

60 The binomial and Poisson distributions 651 67.2 Definition of a Laplace transform 736
60.1 The binomial distribution 651 67.3 Linearity property of the Laplace transform 736
60.2 The Poisson distribution 654 67.4 Laplace transforms of elementary functions 736
67.5 Worked problems on standard Laplace
61 The normal distribution 658 transforms 738
61.1 Introduction to the normal distribution 658
61.2 Testing for a normal distribution 663 68 Properties of Laplace transforms 741
68.1 The Laplace transform of eat f (t) 741
62 Linear correlation 666
68.2 Laplace transforms of the form eat f (t) 741
62.1 Introduction to linear correlation 666
68.3 The Laplace transforms of derivatives 743
62.2 The Pearson product-moment formula for
determining the linear correlation 68.4 The initial and final value theorems 745
coefficient 666
69 Inverse Laplace transforms 747
62.3 The significance of a coefficient of
69.1 Definition of the inverse Laplace
correlation 667
transform 747
62.4 Worked problems on linear correlation 667
69.2 Inverse Laplace transforms of simple
63 Linear regression 671 functions 747
63.1 Introduction to linear regression 671 69.3 Inverse Laplace transforms using partial
63.2 The least-squares regression lines 671 fractions 750
63.3 Worked problems on linear regression 672 69.4 Poles and zeros 752

70 The Laplace transform of the Heaviside function 754

Revision Test 18 677 70.1 Heaviside unit step function 754
70.2 Laplace transforms of H(t – c) 758
64 Sampling and estimation theories 678 70.3 Laplace transforms of H(t – c).f(t – c) 758
64.1 Introduction 678
70.4 Inverse Laplace transforms of Heaviside
64.2 Sampling distributions 678 functions 759
64.3 The sampling distribution of the means 679
65.4 The estimation of population parameters 71 The solution of differential equations using
based on a large sample size 682 Laplace transforms 761
64.5 Estimating the mean of a sample of a 71.1 Introduction 761
population based on a small sample size 687 71.2 Procedure to solve differential equations
using Laplace transforms 761
65 Significance testing 691 71.3 Worked problems on solving differential
65.1 Hypotheses 691
equations using Laplace transforms 762
65.2 Type I and type II errors 692
65.3 Significance tests for population means 698 72 The solution of simultaneous differential
65.4 Comparing two sample means 703 equations using Laplace transforms 766
72.1 Introduction 766
66 Chi-square and distribution-free tests 708 72.2 Procedure to solve simultaneous
66.1 Chi-square values 708 differential equations using Laplace
66.2 Fitting data to theoretical distributions 710 transforms 766
66.3 Introduction to distribution-free tests 716 72.3 Worked problems on solving simultaneous
66.4 The sign test 716 differential equations using Laplace
66.5 Wilcoxon signed-rank test 719 transforms 767
66.6 The Mann-Whitney test 723
Revision Test 20 772
Revision Test 19 730

Section M Fourier series 773

Section L Laplace transforms 733
73 Fourier series for periodic functions of period 2π 775
67 Introduction to Laplace transforms 735 73.1 Introduction 776
67.1 Introduction 736 73.2 Periodic functions 776
 Contents xiii

73.3 Fourier series 776 78 The complex or exponential form of a Fourier

73.4 Worked problems on Fourier series of series 809
periodic functions of period 2π 777 78.1 Introduction 809
78.2 Exponential or complex notation 809
74 Fourier series for a non-periodic function over 78.3 Complex coefficients 810
period 2π 782 78.4 Symmetry relationships 814
74.1 Expansion of non-periodic functions 782
78.5 The frequency spectrum 817
74.2 Worked problems on Fourier series of
78.6 Phasors 818
non-periodic functions over a range of 2π 783

75 Even and odd functions and half-range Fourier Section N Z-transforms 823
series 788
75.1 Even and odd functions 788
75.2 Fourier cosine and Fourier sine series 788 79 An introduction to z-transforms 825
75.3 Half-range Fourier series 792 79.1 Sequences 826
79.2 Some properties of z-transforms 829
76 Fourier series over any range 795 79.3 Inverse z-transforms 832
76.1 Expansion of a periodic function of 79.4 Using z-transforms to solve difference
period L 795 equations 834
76.2 Half-range Fourier series for functions
defined over range L 799 Revision Test 21 838
77 A numerical method of harmonic analysis 801
77.1 Introduction 801 Essential formulae 839
77.2 Harmonic analysis on data given in tabular
Answers to Practice Exercises 856
or graphical form 801
77.3 Complex waveform considerations 805 Index 900
Preface
This eighth edition of Higher Engineering Mathemat- mechanical engineering, aeronautical engineering, elec-
ics covers essential mathematical material suitable for trical and electronic engineering, communications engi-
students studying Degrees, Foundation Degrees, and neering, systems engineering and all variants of control
Higher National Certificate and Diploma courses in engineering.
Engineering disciplines. In Higher Engineering Mathematics 8 t h Edi-
The text has been conveniently divided into the fol- tion,theory is introduced in each chapter by a full outline
lowing fourteen convenient categories: number and of essential definitions, formulae, laws, procedures, etc;
algebra, geometry and trigonometry, graphs, complex problem solving is extensively used to establish and
numbers, matrices and determinants, vector geometry, exemplify the theory. It is intended that readers will gain
introduction to calculus, further differential calculus, real understanding through seeing problems solved and
further integral calculus, further differential equations, then through solving similar problems themselves.
statistics and probability, Laplace transforms, Fourier Access to software packages such as Maple, Mathe-
series and z-transforms. matica and Derive, or a graphics calculator, will enhance
Increasingly, difficulty in understanding algebra understanding of some of the topics in this text.
is proving a problem for many students as they com- Each topic considered in the text is presented in a
mence studying engineering courses. Inevitably there way that assumes in the reader only knowledge attained
are a lot of formulae and calculations involved with in BTEC National Certificate/Diploma, or similar, in an
engineering studies that require a sound grasp of alge- Engineering discipline.
bra. On the website www.routledge.com/cw/bird/ is a Higher Engineering Mathematics 8th Edition pro-
document which offers a quick revision of the main vides a follow-up to Engineering Mathematics 8 t h
areas of algebra essential for further study, i.e. basic Edition.
algebra, simple equations, transposition of formulae, This textbook contains over 1050 worked prob-
simultaneous equations and quadratic equations. lems, followed by nearly 2000 further problems (with
In this new edition, all of the chapters of the pre- answers), arranged within 277 Practice Exercises.
vious edition are included, plus one extra, but the Some 552 line diagrams further enhance understand-
order of presenting some of the calculus chapters has ing.
been changed. New material has been added on the Worked solutions to all 2000 of the further
introduction to numbering systems, Bayes’ theorem in problems have been prepared and can be accessed
probability, the comparison of numerical methods and free by students and staff via the website
z-transforms. www.routledge.com/cw/bird/
The primary aim of the material in this text is to At the end of the text, a list of Essential Formulae
provide the fundamental analytical and underpinning is included for convenience of reference.
knowledge and techniques needed to successfully com- At intervals throughout the text are some 21 Revision
plete scientific and engineering principles modules of Tests to check understanding. For example, Revision
Degree, Foundation Degree and Higher National Engi- Test 1 covers the material in chapters 1 to 5, Revi-
neering programmes. The material has been designed sion Test 2 covers the material in chapters 6 to 8,
to enable students to use techniques learned for the Revision Test 3 covers the material in chapters 9 to
analysis, modelling and solution of realistic engineering 11, and so on. An Instructor’s Manual, containing
problems at Degree and Higher National level. It also full solutions to the Revision Tests, is available free to
aims to provide some of the more advanced knowl- lecturers/instructors via the website (see below).
edge required for those wishing to pursue careers in
 Preface xv

‘Learning by example’ is at the heart of Higher

Engineering Mathematics 8th Edition. Free Web downloads
The following support material is available from
JOHN BIRD www.routledge.com/cw/bird/
Royal Naval Defence College of Marine and Air
For Students:
Engineering, HMS Sultan,
formerly University of Portsmouth 1. Full solutions to all 2000 further questions
and Highbury College, Portsmouth contained in the 277 Practice Exercises
2. Revision of some important algebra topics
3. A list of Essential Formulae
John Bird is the former Head of Applied Electron-
ics in the Faculty of Technology at Highbury College, 4. Information on 32 Mathematicians/Engineers
Portsmouth, UK. More recently, he has combined free- mentioned in the text
lance lecturing at the University of Portsmouth with For Lecturers/Instructors:
examiner responsibilities for Advanced Mathematics 1. Full solutions to all 2000 further questions
with City and Guilds, and examining for International contained in the 277 Practice Exercises
Baccalaureate. He is the author of some 130 textbooks
on engineering and mathematical subjects with world- 2. Revision of some important algebra topics
wide sales of one million copies. He is a chartered 3. Full solutions and marking scheme for each
engineer, a chartered mathematician, a chartered scien- of the 21 Revision Tests; also, each test may
tist and a Fellow of three professional institutions, and be downloaded for distribution to students. In
is currently lecturing at the Defence College of Marine addition, solutions to the Revision Test given
and Air Engineering in the Defence College of Technical in the ‘Revision of Algebra Topics’ is also
Training at HMS Sultan, Gosport, Hampshire, UK. included.
4. A list of Essential Formulae
5. Information on 32 Mathematicians/Engineers
mentioned in the text
6. All 552 illustrations used in the text may
be downloaded for use in PowerPoint
presentations
Syllabus guidance

This textbook is written for undergraduate engineering degree and foundation degree courses; however, it is
also most appropriate for BTEC levels 4 and 5 HNC/D studies in engineering and three syllabuses are covered.
The appropriate chapters for these three syllabuses are shown in the table below.

Chapter Analytical Further Advanced

Methods Analytical Mathematics
for Engineers Methods for for
Engineers Engineering
1. Algebra ×
2. Partial fractions ×
3. Logarithms ×
4. Exponential functions ×
5. Inequalities
6. Arithmetic and geometric progressions ×
7. The binomial series ×
8. Maclaurin’s series ×
9. Solving equations by iterative methods ×
10. Binary, octal and hexadecimal ×
11. Boolean algebra and logic circuits ×
12. Introduction to trigonometry ×
13. Cartesian and polar co-ordinates ×
14. The circle and its properties ×
15. Trigonometric waveforms ×
16. Hyperbolic functions ×
17. Trigonometric identities and equations ×
18. The relationship between trigonometric and hyperbolic ×
functions
19. Compound angles ×
20. Functions and their curves ×
21. Irregular areas, volumes and mean value of waveforms ×
22. Complex numbers ×
23. De Moivre’s theorem ×
24. The theory of matrices and determinants ×
25. Applications of matrices and determinants ×

(Continued )
 Syllabus Guidance xvii

Chapter Analytical Further Advanced

Methods Analytical Mathematics
for Engineers Methods for for
Engineers Engineering
26. Vectors ×
27. Methods of adding alternating waveforms ×
28. Scalar and vector products ×
29. Methods of differentiation ×
30. Some applications of differentiation ×
31. Standard integration ×
32. Some applications of integration ×
33. Introduction to differential equations ×
34. Differentiation of parametric equations
35. Differentiation of implicit functions ×
36. Logarithmic differentiation ×
37. Differentiation of hyperbolic functions ×
38. Differentiation of inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic ×
functions
39. Partial differentiation ×
40. Total differential, rates of change and small changes ×
41. Maxima, minima and saddle points for functions of two ×
variables
42. Integration using algebraic substitutions ×
43. Integration using trigonometric and hyperbolic substitutions ×
44. Integration using partial fractions ×
45. The t = tan θ/2 substitution
46. Integration by parts ×
47. Reduction formulae ×
48. Double and triple integrals
49. Numerical integration ×
50. Homogeneous first-order differential equations
51. Linear first-order differential equations ×
52. Numerical methods for first-order differential equations × ×
53. Second-order differential equations of the form ×
d2 y dy
a 2 +b + cy = 0
dx dx
(Continued )
xviii Syllabus Guidance

Chapter Analytical Further Advanced

Methods Analytical Mathematics
for Engineers Methods for for
Engineers Engineering
54. Second-order differential equations of the form ×
d2 y dy
a 2 +b + cy = f (x)
dx dx
55. Power series methods of solving ordinary differential equations ×
56. An introduction to partial differential equations ×
57. Presentation of statistical data ×
58. Measures of central tendency and dispersion ×
59. Probability ×
60. The binomial and Poisson distributions ×
61. The normal distribution ×
62. Linear correlation ×
63. Linear regression ×
64. Sampling and estimation theories ×
65. Significance testing ×
66. Chi-square and distribution-free tests ×
67. Introduction to Laplace transforms ×
68. Properties of Laplace transforms ×
69. Inverse Laplace transforms ×
70. The Laplace transform of the Heaviside function
71. Solution of differential equations using Laplace transforms ×
72. The solution of simultaneous differential equations using ×
Laplace transforms
73. Fourier series for periodic functions of period 2π ×
74. Fourier series for non-periodic functions over range 2π ×
75. Even and odd functions and half-range Fourier series ×
76. Fourier series over any range ×
77. A numerical method of harmonic analysis ×
78. The complex or exponential form of a Fourier series ×
79. An introduction to z-transforms
 Section A
Number and algebra
 Chapter 1
Algebra
Why it is important to understand: Algebra, polynomial division and the factor and remainder theorems
It is probably true to say that there is no branch of engineering, physics, economics, chemistry or computer
science which does not require the understanding of the basic laws of algebra, the laws of indices, the
manipulation of brackets, the ability to factorise and the laws of precedence. This then leads to the ability
to solve simple, simultaneous and quadratic equations which occur so often. The study of algebra also
revolves around using and manipulating polynomials. Polynomials are used in engineering, computer
programming, software engineering, in management, and in business. Mathematicians, statisticians and
engineers of all sciences employ the use of polynomials to solve problems; among them are aerospace
engineers, chemical engineers, civil engineers, electrical engineers, environmental engineers, industrial
engineers, materials engineers, mechanical engineers and nuclear engineers. The factor and remainder
theorems are also employed in engineering software and electronic mathematical applications, through
which polynomials of higher degrees and longer arithmetic structures are divided without any complexity.
The study of algebra, equations, polynomial division and the factor and remainder theorems is therefore
of some considerable importance in engineering.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• understand and apply the laws of indices

• understand brackets, factorisation and precedence
• transpose formulae and solve simple, simultaneous and quadratic equations
• divide algebraic expressions using polynomial division
• factorise expressions using the factor theorem
• use the remainder theorem to factorise algebraic expressions

1.1 Introduction 1.2 Revision of basic laws

In this chapter, polynomial division and the factor (a) Basic operations and laws of indices
and remainder theorems are explained (in Sections 1.4 The laws of indices are:
to 1.6). However, before this, some essential algebra am
(i) a m × a n = a m+n (ii) = a m−n
revision on basic laws and equations is included. an √
m
For further algebra revision, go to the website: (iii) (a m )n = a m×n (iv) a n = n a m
www.routledge.com/cw/bird 1
(v) a −n = n (vi) a 0 = 1
a

Higher Engineering Mathematics. 978-1-138-67357-1, © 2017 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
 4 Higher Engineering Mathematics

√ √ 
Section A

Problem 1. Evaluate 4a 2 bc3−2ac when a = 2, (x 2 y)( x 3 y 2 )

b = 12 and c = 1 12 Problem 5. Simplify 1
(x 5 y 3 ) 2
  3  
2 3 1 32 3 √ √  1 1 2
4a bc − 2ac = 4(2) − 2(2) (x 2 y)( x 3 y 2 ) x2y 2 x 2 y 3
2 2 2 1
= 5 3
(x 5 y 3 ) 2 x2y2
4 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 12 1 5 1 2 3
= − = x 2+ 2 − 2 y 2 + 3 − 2
2×2×2×2 2 1
= x 0y − 3
= 27 − 6 = 21 1 1 1
= y − 3 or 1
or √
3 y
Problem 2. Multiply 3x + 2y by x − y y 3

3x + 2y Now try the following Practice Exercise

x−y
Practice Exercise 1 Basic algebraic
Multiply by x → 3x 2 + 2xy operations and laws of indices (Answers
on page 856)
Multiply by −y → − 3xy − 2y 2
1. Evaluate 2ab + 3bc − abc when a = 2,
Adding gives: 3x 2 − xy − 2y 2 b = −2 and c = 4

Alternatively, 2. Find the value of 5pq 2 r 3 when p = 52 ,

q = −2 and r = −1
(3x + 2y)(x − y) = 3x 2 − 3xy + 2xy − 2y 2
3. From 4x − 3y + 2z subtract x + 2y − 3z.
= 3x 2 − xy − 2y 2 4. Multiply 2a − 5b + c by 3a + b
5. Simplify (x 2 y 3 z)(x 3 yz2 ) and evaluate when
a 3 b2 c4
Problem 3. Simplify and evaluate when x = 21 , y = 2 and z = 3
abc−2
1
a = 3, b = 8 and c = 2 6.
3 1
Evaluate (a 2 bc−3 )(a 2 b− 2 c) when a =3,
1

b = 4 and c = 2
a 3 b2 c4 a 2 b + a 3b
= a 3−1 b2−1 c4−(−2) = a 2 bc6 7. Simplify
abc−2 a 2 b2
1 1 1 1
When a = 3, b = 8 and c = 2, (a 3 b 2 c− 2 )(ab) 3
8. Simplify √ √
    ( a 3 b c)
a 2 bc6 = (3)2 1 6 1
8 (2) = (9) 8 (64) = 72

x 2 y 3 + xy 2 (b) Brackets, factorisation and precedence

Problem 4. Simplify
xy
Problem 6. Simplify a 2 − (2a − ab) − a(3b + a)
x 2 y 3 + xy 2 x 2 y 3 xy 2
= +
xy xy xy a 2 − (2a − ab) − a(3b + a)
= x 2−1 y 3−1 + x 1−1 y 2−1 = a 2 − 2a + ab − 3ab − a 2

= xy 2 + y or y(xy + 1) = −2a − 2ab or −2a(1 + b)

 Algebra 5

Section A
Problem 7. Remove the brackets and simplify the Problem 10. Simplify
expression: (2a − 3) ÷4a + 5 × 6 −3a
2a − [3{2(4a − b) − 5(a + 2b)} + 4a]
(2a − 3) ÷4a + 5 × 6 − 3a
Removing the innermost brackets gives:
2a − 3
= + 5 × 6 − 3a
2a − [3{8a − 2b − 5a − 10b} + 4a] 4a
2a − 3
Collecting together similar terms gives: = + 30 − 3a
4a
2a − [3{3a − 12b} + 4a] 2a 3
= − + 30 − 3a
4a 4a
Removing the ‘curly’ brackets gives:
1 3 1 3
= − + 30 − 3a = 30 − − 3a
2a − [9a − 36b + 4a] 2 4a 2 4a

Collecting together similar terms gives:

Now try the following Practice Exercise
2a − [13a − 36b]

Removing the square brackets gives: Practice Exercise 2 Brackets, factorisation

and precedence (Answers on page 856)
2a − 13a + 36b = −11a + 36b or 1. Simplify 2(p + 3q − r) − 4(r − q + 2p) + p
36b − 11a
2. Expand and simplify (x + y)(x − 2y)
3. Remove the brackets and simplify:
Problem 8. Factorise (a) xy − 3xz
(b) 4a 2 + 16ab 3 (c) 3a 2 b − 6ab 2 + 15ab 24p − [2{3(5p − q) − 2(p + 2q)} + 3q]
4. Factorise 21a 2b2 − 28ab
(a) xy − 3xz = x(y − 3z) 5. Factorise 2xy 2 + 6x 2 y + 8x 3 y
(b) 4a 2 + 16ab 3 = 4a(a + 4b 3 ) 6. Simplify 2y + 4 ÷ 6y + 3 × 4 − 5y
(c) 3a 2 b − 6ab 2 + 15ab = 3ab(a − 2b + 5) 7. Simplify 3 ÷ y + 2 ÷ y − 1
8. Simplify a 2 − 3ab × 2a ÷ 6b + ab
Problem 9. Simplify 3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ 5c − 8c

The order of precedence is division, multiplication, 1.3 Revision of equations

addition, and subtraction (sometimes remembered
by BODMAS). Hence (a) Simple equations

3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ 5c − 8c Problem 11. Solve 4 − 3x = 2x − 11

c
= 3c + 2c × 4c + − 8c
5c Since 4 − 3x = 2x − 11 then 4 + 11 = 2x + 3x
1 15
= 3c + 8c 2 + − 8c i.e. 15 = 5x from which, x = =3
5 5
1 1
= 8c2 − 5c + or c(8c − 5)+ Problem 12. Solve
5 5
4(2a − 3) − 2(a − 4) = 3(a − 3) − 1
 6 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Removing the brackets gives:

Section A

Problem 16. √The impedance of an a.c. circuit is

8a − 12 − 2a + 8 = 3a − 9 − 1 given by Z = R 2 + X2 . Make the reactance X the
subject.
Rearranging gives:

8a − 2a − 3a = −9 − 1 + 12 − 8 R 2 + X2 = Z and squaring both sides gives
i.e. 3a = −6
R 2 + X2 = Z 2 , from which,
−6
and a= = −2 
3 X2 = Z 2 − R 2 and reactance X = Z2 − R2


3 4 D f +p

Problem 13. Solve = Problem 17. Given that =
x − 2 3x + 4 d f −p
express p in terms of D, d and f.
By ‘cross-multiplying’: 3(3x + 4) = 4(x − 2)

Removing brackets gives: 9x + 12 = 4x − 8 f +p

D
Rearranging gives: =
Rearranging gives: 9x − 4x = −8 − 12 f −p d
i.e. 5x = −20 f + p D2
Squaring both sides gives: = 2
f −p d
−20
and x= ‘Cross-multiplying’ gives:
5
= −4 d 2 (f + p) = D 2 (f − p)
Removing brackets gives:
√ 
t +3 d 2 f + d 2 p = D2 f − D2 p
Problem 14. Solve √ =2
t Rearranging gives: d 2 p + D2 p = D2 f − d 2 f
√
√ √ Factorising gives: p(d 2 + D 2 ) = f (D 2 − d 2 )

t +3
t √ =2 t
t
f (D 2 − d2 )
√ √ and p=
i.e. t + 3= 2 t (d2 + D 2 )
√ √
and 3= 2 t − t
√
i.e. 3= t Now try the following Practice Exercise
and 9= t
Practice Exercise 3 Simple equations
and transposition of formulae (Answers
(c) Transposition of formulae on page 856)

ft In problems 1 to 4 solve the equations

Problem 15. Transpose the formula v = u +
m
to make f the subject. 1. 3x − 2 − 5x = 2x − 4
2. 8 + 4(x − 1) − 5(x − 3) = 2(5 − 2x)
ft ft
u+ = v from which, = v−u 1 1
m m 3. + =0
 
ft 3a − 2 5a + 3
√
and m = m(v − u) 3 t
m 4. √ = −6
i.e. f t = m(v − u) 1− t
3(F − f )
m 5. Transpose y = for f
and f= (v − u) L
t
 Algebra 7

Substituting x = 4 in equation (5) gives:

Section A

l 4 − 8y = −20
6. Make l the subject of t = 2π from which, 4 + 20 = 8y and y = 3
g
µL
7. Transpose m = for L
L + rCR
8. Make r the subject of the formula (e) Quadratic equations
x 1 + r2
= Problem 20. Solve the following equations by
y 1 − r2
factorisation:
(a) 3x 2 − 11x − 4 = 0
(b) 4x 2 + 8x + 3 = 0
(d) Simultaneous equations
(a) The factors of 3x 2 are 3x and x and these are placed
Problem 18. Solve the simultaneous equations: in brackets thus:
7x − 2y = 26 (1) (3x )(x )

6x + 5y = 29 (2) The factors of −4 are +1 and −4 or −1 and

+4, or −2 and +2. Remembering that the prod-
5 × equation (1) gives: uct of the two inner terms added to the product
of the two outer terms must equal −11x, the only
35x − 10y = 130 (3)
combination to give this is +1 and −4, i.e.,
2 × equation (2) gives:
12x + 10y = 58 (4) 3x 2 − 11x − 4 = (3x + 1)(x − 4)
Equation (3) +equation (4) gives: Thus (3x + 1)(x − 4) = 0 hence
47x + 0 = 188 1
188 either (3x + 1) = 0 i.e. x = −
from which, x= =4 3
47 or (x − 4) = 0 i.e. x = 4
Substituting x = 4 in equation (1) gives:
28 − 2y = 26 (b) 4x 2 + 8x + 3 = (2x + 3)(2x + 1)
from which, 28 − 26 = 2y and y = 1 Thus (2x + 3)(2x + 1) = 0 hence
3
either (2x + 3) = 0 i.e. x = −
2
Problem 19. Solve 1
x 5 or (2x + 1) = 0 i.e. x = −
+ =y (1) 2
8 2
y Problem 21. The roots of a quadratic equation
11 + = 3x (2) are 13 and −2. Determine the equation in x.
3

8 × equation (1) gives: x + 20 = 8y (3) 1

If and −2 are the roots of a quadratic equation then,
3 × equation (2) gives: 33 + y = 9x (4) 3
1
(x − )(x + 2) = 0
i.e. x − 8y = −20 (5) 3
1 2
and 9x − y = 33 (6) i.e. x 2 + 2x − x − = 0
3 3
8 × equation (6) gives: 72x − 8y = 264 (7) 2 5 2
i.e. x + x− =0
3 3
Equation (7) − equation (5) gives:
or 3x2 + 5x − 2 = 0
71x = 284
284 Problem 22. Solve 4x 2 + 7x + 2 = 0 giving the
from which, x= =4 answer correct to 2 decimal places.
71
 8 Higher Engineering Mathematics

From the quadratic formula if ax 2 + bx + c = 0 then,

Section A

√ 1.4 Polynomial division

−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= Before looking at long division in algebra let us revise
2a
long division with numbers (we may have forgotten,
Hence if 4x 2 + 7x + 2 = 0 since calculators do the job for us!).
 208
−7 ± 72 − 4(4)(2) For example, is achieved as follows:
then x = 16
2(4)
√ 13
——–

−7 ± 17
= 16 208
8 16
−7 ± 4.123
= 48
8
−7 + 4.123 −7 − 4.123 48
= or —
8 8 ··
—
i.e. x = −0.36 or −1.39
(1) 16 divided into 2 won’t go

Now try the following Practice Exercise (2) 16 divided into 20 goes 1
(3) Put 1 above the zero
Practice Exercise 4 Simultaneous and (4) Multiply 16 by 1 giving 16
quadratic equations (Answers on page 856)
(5) Subtract 16 from 20 giving 4
In problems 1 to 3, solve the simultaneous equa- (6) Bring down the 8
tions
(7) 16 divided into 48 goes 3 times
1. 8x − 3y = 51
(8) Put the 3 above the 8
3x + 4y = 14
(9) 3 × 16 = 48
2. 5a = 1 − 3b (10) 48 − 48 = 0
2b + a + 4 = 0 208
Hence = 13 exactly
x 2y 49 16
3. + =
5 3 15 172
Similarly, is laid out as follows:
3x y 5 15
− + =0 11
7 2 7 ——–

4. Solve the following quadratic equations by 15 172
factorisation: 15
(a) x 2 + 4x − 32 = 0 22
15
(b) 8x 2 + 2x − 15 = 0 —
7
5. Determine the quadratic equation in x whose —
roots are 2 and −5 172 7 7
Hence = 11 remainder 7 or 11 + = 11
15 15 15
6. Solve the following quadratic equations, cor- Below are some examples of division in algebra, which
rect to 3 decimal places: in some respects is similar to long division with num-
(a) 2x 2 + 5x − 4 = 0 bers.
(Note that a polynomial is an expression of the form
(b) 4t 2 − 11t + 3 = 0
f (x) = a + bx + cx 2 + dx 3 + · · ·
 Algebra 9

and polynomial division is sometimes required when (1) x into 3x 3 goes 3x 2 . Put 3x 2 above 3x 3

Section A
resolving into partial fractions – see Chapter 2.)
(2) 3x 2 (x + 1) = 3x 3 + 3x 2
(3) Subtract
Problem 23. Divide 2x 2 + x − 3 by x − 1
(4) x into −2x 2 goes −2x. Put −2x above the
2x 2 + x − 3 is called the dividend and x − 1 the divi- dividend
sor. The usual layout is shown below with the dividend (5) −2x(x + 1) = −2x 2 − 2x
and divisor both arranged in descending powers of the
symbols. (6) Subtract
(7) x into 5x goes 5. Put 5 above the dividend
2x + 3
——————–

x − 1 2x 2 + x − 3 (8) 5(x + 1) = 5x + 5
2x 2 − 2x (9) Subtract
3x − 3 3x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 5
Thus = 3x 2 − 2x + 5
3x − 3 x +1
———
· ·
——— x3 + y3
Problem 25. Simplify
x+y
Dividing the first term of the dividend by the first term
2x 2
of the divisor, i.e. gives 2x, which is put above (1) (4) (7)
x
the first term of the dividend as shown. The divisor x 2 − xy + y 2
—————————–

is then multiplied by 2x, i.e. 2x(x − 1) = 2x 2 − 2x, x + y x3 + 0 + 0 + y3
which is placed under the dividend as shown. Subtract- x3 + x2y
ing gives 3x − 3. The process is then repeated, i.e. the
first term of the divisor, x, is divided into 3x, giving − x 2y + y3
+3, which is placed above the dividend as shown. Then − x 2 y − xy 2
3(x − 1) =3x − 3, which is placed under the 3x − 3. The ———————
xy 2 + y 3
remainder, on subtraction, is zero, which completes the
process. xy 2 + y 3
———–
· ·
Thus (2x 2 + x − 3) ÷ (x − 1) = (2x + 3) ———–

[A check can be made on this answer by multiplying (1) x into x 3 goes x 2 . Put x 2 above x 3 of dividend
(2x + 3) by (x − 1) which equals 2x 2 + x − 3.] (2) x 2 (x + y) = x 3 + x 2 y
(3) Subtract
Problem 24. Divide 3x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 5 by x + 1
(4) x into −x 2 y goes −xy. Put −xy above dividend
(1) (4) (7) (5) −xy(x + y) = −x 2 y − xy 2
3x 2 − 2x + 5
—————————
 (6) Subtract
x + 1 3x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 5
3x 3 + 3x 2 (7) x into xy 2 goes y 2 . Put y 2 above dividend

− 2x 2 + 3x + 5 (8) y 2 (x + y) = xy 2 + y 3
− 2x 2 − 2x
————– (9) Subtract
5x + 5
Thus
5x + 5
———
· · x3 + y3
= x 2 − xy + y 2
——— x+y
 10 Higher Engineering Mathematics
The zeros shown in the dividend are not normally shown,
Section A

but are included to clarify the subtraction process and

5. Divide (x 3 + 3x 2y + 3xy 2 + y 3 ) by (x + y)
to keep similar terms in their respective columns.
6. Find (5x 2 − x + 4) ÷ (x − 1)
Problem 26. Divide (x 2 + 3x − 2) by (x − 2) 7. Divide (3x 3 + 2x 2 − 5x + 4) by (x + 2)

x +5 8. Determine (5x 4 + 3x 3 − 2x + 1)/(x − 3)

——————–

x − 2 x 2 + 3x − 2
x 2 − 2x
5x − 2
1.5 The factor theorem
5x − 10
——— There is a simple relationship between the factors of
8
——— a quadratic expression and the roots of the equation
Hence obtained by equating the expression to zero.
For example, consider the quadratic equation
x 2 + 3x − 2 8
=x +5+ x 2 + 2x − 8 = 0
x−2 x−2 To solve this we may factorise the quadratic expression
x 2 + 2x − 8 giving (x − 2)(x + 4)
Problem 27. Divide 4a 3 − 6a 2b + 5b 3 by Hence (x − 2)(x + 4) = 0
2a − b Then, if the product of two numbers is zero, one or both
2 2 of those numbers must equal zero. Therefore,
2a − 2ab − b
———————————
 either (x − 2) = 0, from which, x = 2
2a − b 4a 3 − 6a 2b + 5b 3
or (x + 4) = 0, from which, x = −4
4a 3 − 2a 2 b
It is clear, then, that a factor of (x − 2) indicates a root
−4a 2 b + 5b 3 of +2, while a factor of (x + 4) indicates a root of −4
2
−4a b + 2ab 2 In general, we can therefore say that:
———— 2
−2ab + 5b 3
−2ab 2 + b3 a factor of (x − a) corresponds to a
—————–
4b 3 root of x = a
—————–
Thus
In practice, we always deduce the roots of a simple
4a 3 − 6a 2b + 5b 3 quadratic equation from the factors of the quadratic
2a − b expression, as in the above example. However, we could
4b3 reverse this process. If, by trial and error, we could deter-
= 2a 2 − 2ab − b2 + mine that x = 2 is a root of the equation x 2 + 2x − 8 = 0
2a − b
we could deduce at once that (x − 2) is a factor of the
expression x 2 + 2x − 8. We wouldn’t normally solve
Now try the following Practice Exercise
quadratic equations this way – but suppose we have
to factorise a cubic expression (i.e. one in which the
Practice Exercise 5 Polynomial division highest power of the variable is 3). A cubic equation
(Answers on page 856) might have three simple linear factors and the difficulty
of discovering all these factors by trial and error would
1. Divide (2x 2 + xy − y 2 ) by (x + y)
be considerable. It is to deal with this kind of case that
2. Divide (3x 2 + 5x − 2) by (x + 2) we use the factor theorem. This is just a generalised
version of what we established above for the quadratic
3. Determine (10x 2 + 11x − 6) ÷ (2x + 3)
expression. The factor theorem provides a method of
14x 2 − 19x − 3 factorising any polynomial, f (x), which has simple
4. Find
2x − 3 factors.
A statement of the factor theorem says:
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