Cite this article Editorial

Fazeres-Ferradosa T, Rosa-Santos P, Taveira-Pinto F et al. (2019)

Editorial: Advanced research on offshore structures and foundation design: part 1. ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Maritime Engineering 172(4): 118–123,
https://doi.org/10.1680/jmaen.2019.172.4.118

Maritime Engineering

Editorial: Advanced research on offshore

structures and foundation design: part 1
T. Fazeres-Ferradosa F. Taveira-Pinto
CIIMAR - Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental CIIMAR - Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research of
Research of the University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do the University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida
Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, Matosinhos, General Norton de Matos, Matosinhos, Portugal; FEUP - Faculty of
Portugal; FEUP - Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, Engineering of the University of Porto, Department of Civil Engineering,
Department of Civil Engineering, rua Dr. Roberto Frias, Porto, rua Dr. Roberto Frias, Porto, Portugal
Portugal E. Vanem
P. Rosa-Santos DNV GL Group Technology and Research, Veritasveien, Høvik, Norway
CIIMAR - Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental H. Carvalho
Research of the University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Department of Structural Engineering, Federal Univeristy of Minas Gerais,
Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, Matosinhos, Belo Horizonte – MG
Portugal; FEUP - Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto,
Department of Civil Engineering, rua Dr. Roberto Frias, Porto, J. Correia
Portugal FEUP - Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, Department of
Civil Engineering, rua Dr. Roberto Frias, Porto, Portugal

Introduction competitive levelized costs of energy. The current stage of oil

Engineering practice and design of offshore structures and foun- and gas industry, allied to the untapped renewable energy at
dations stands as a mirror of mankind’s ambition to unveil the sea, is now contributing to an attractive energy mix around the
unknown resources existent at sea. The first main drive to world, thus leading to increasing investments in the offshore
develop offshore engineering goes back to the 1890’s. In the industry. A good example of this market growth lies in the
USA, the offshore oil and gas industry expanded to the coastline European offshore wind, which in 2018 had an increase in the
and the Outer Continental Shelf. By then, the first oil wells were number of offshore wind foundations placed at sea. Additional
drilled in ocean from wooden piers attached to shore, which 416 foundations, with connected turbines to the grid, were
would later become impossible due to increasing distances to placed (Table 2) and 361 were newly installed (Table 3).
shore (NASEM, 2016). The first free-standing structure for oil
drilling was placed in the Gulf of Mexico, 1·5 miles offshore, In fact, major players of the oil and gas industry, such as
whereas in 1947 the first out of site well was installed 12 miles of Shell, Total, British Petroleum, ExxonMobil, Eni, Equinor and
the coast of Louisiana (Priest, 2008). The number of oil rigs Petrobrás are now driving the investments in renewable energy,
throughout the World currently surpasses the 1300 units allocating a large portion of their revenue in energy sources as
(Table 1), whereas new ones arise constantly and others are the offshore wind and solar energy (Pickl, 2019).
decommissioned. The first incursions, towards offshore locations,
marked the beginning of a new energetic era that endures till Furthermore, the international context on policies to improve
nowadays. This historical period had extended contributions to the adaptation to climate change is also contributing to a
key fields for economical and social progress, including the sus- growing number and type of projects, structures and foun-
tainable development of marine renewable energy (Taveira-Pinto dations. Also new projects arise for offshore structures repower-
et al., 2019), development of met-ocean data acquisition, moni- ing and lifetime extension (Fazeres-Ferradosa et al., 2019), and
toring and prediction (Bitner-Gregersen et al., 2016; Vanem even for reconversion of former oil and gas platforms to renew-
et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2018) and general knowledge on struc- able energy production units (Leporini et al., 2019). New market
tures’ design and construction at deep sea (Chakrabarti, 2005). trends as the installation of offshore foundations at increasing
water depths, increasing size of structure’s components (such as
In addition to the key role of oil and gas energy resources, the rotors, blades, monopile diameters), the use of new building
estimates of the theoretical potential of marine renewable materials, the advanced design on subsea structures (manifolds,
energy sum-up to more than 343 000 TWh/yr, if energy pipelines and risers, aquaculture frames), among other aspects,
resources such as marine biomass, offshore wind and offshore also set the pace for the challenges arising in this field.
solar, waves, and tides and marine currents are considered
(Taveira-Pinto et al., 2019). While in some fields, like wave The advanced research on this topic is of greater importance
energy, the technology readiness levels are quite low, in others, not only due to the direct impact in the global energy sector,
such as the offshore wind and tidal power dams, the commer- but also due to the considerable spin-off effects on many fields
cial stage has been achieved and is moving towards more related to maritime engineering.

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 Maritime Engineering Editorial: Advanced research on offshore
Volume 172 Issue MA4 structures and foundation design: part 1
Fazeres-Ferradosa

Table 1. Location and distribution of Offshore oil rigs worldwide in 2018 (Statista, 2019)
Location Number of offshore oil rigs Location Number of offshore oil rigs

North Sea 184 Rest of South America and Caribbean 30

Gulf of Mexico (U.S.) 175 Rest of U.S 28
Persian Gulf 159 Mediterranean 26
Far East Asia 155 Black Sea 18
Southeast Asia 152 Red Sea 17
Mexico 88 Australia 11
Western Africa 75 Canadian Atlantic 7
South Asia 58 Alaska (U.S.) 5
Brazil 51 Rest of Africa 5
Venezuela 46 Eastern Europe 3
Caspian Sea 37 Canadian Pacific & Artic 2

Table 2. Foundations with connected turbines to the grid in 2018 in the European offshore wind sector (WindEurope, 2019).
Wind Farm Connected capacity in 2018 (MW) No. of turbines connected in 2018 Type of Foundation

Walney Extension Phase East 329 47 Bottom-fixed

Galloper 277·2 44 Bottom-fixed
Beatrice 273 39 Bottom-fixed
Rampion 220·8 64 Bottom-fixed
EOWDC 93·2 11 Bottom-fixed
Walney Extension Phase West 66 8 Bottom-fixed
Race Bank 50·4 8 Bottom-fixed
Kincardine Pilot 2 1 Floating
Borkum Riffgrund II 464·8 56 Bottom-fixed
Arkona 384 60 Bottom-fixed
Merkur Offshore 120 20 Bottom-fixed
Rentel 308·7 42 Bottom-fixed
Horns Rev 3 33·2 4 Bottom-fixed
Nissum Bredning 28 4 Bottom-fixed
Elisa Elican 5 1 Bottom-fixed
Blockstigen 3·3 5 Bottom-fixed
Floatgen 2 1 Floating
Eolink Prototype 0·2 1 Floating
Total amount 2660·8 416 –

However, the knowledge on the design of offshore structures Table 3. Offshore wind foundations installed in 2018 in Europe
and foundations is often restricted to a small number of scien- (WindEurope, 2019).
tists and professionals. This is, to a large extent, related with Foundations Type of
the confidential policies adopted by the majority of the stake- Wind Farm installed in 2018 Foundation
holders. Therefore, the need to address specific developments
Est Anglia 1 37 Bottom-fixed
of offshore structures and foundations’ design is a key step to Hornsea One 156 Bottom-fixed
enhance knowledge sharing across the world-wide community, Deutche Bucht 29 Bottom-fixed
thus contributing for break-through research in the field. Hohe See 63 Bottom-fixed
Trianel Windpark Borkum 2 32 Bottom-fixed
Design and offshore structures and Norther 44 Bottom-fixed
Total amount 361 Bottom-fixed
foundations
Marine structures such as vessels, subsea and offshore structures
present numerous peculiarities that contribute to a higher com-
plexity and enhanced difficulties in their design. They have very placed at sea needs to be properly designed to endure common
large dimensions, are capital-intensive and placed in the most loads, such as self-weight, cargo-weight, fatigue or wind.
unfriendly and destructive environment, the sea (Pedersen, 2015). However, a particular attention is required to maritime specific
loads and phenomena, such as wave-loading, ocean currents,
Regardless of the purpose (e.g. marine energy harvesting, oil scour and erosion, soil liquefaction, thermal gradients, marine
and gas transfer to shore, monitoring actives), any structure growth or corrosion. Such design is, therefore, very site specific

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 Maritime Engineering Editorial: Advanced research on offshore
Volume 172 Issue MA4 structures and foundation design: part 1
Fazeres-Ferradosa

with certain aspects that might be difficult to approach in a The 2019 edition also counted with the partnership of the
standard generalised manner. Institute of Hydraulics and Water Resources (IHRH).

Into the bargain there is also a variety of standards, rec- In the first part of this themed issue, two research papers are
ommended practices and norms that can be used in designing presented addressing innovative fields of applied engineering: i)
an offshore structure. While in Northern European countries new materials applied to offshore structures (Pavlou, 2019) and
(e.g. Norway, Denmark, Belgium or Germany) the use of ii) statistical description of met-ocean data (Vanem et al., 2019).
Det Norske Veritas GL rules and standards might prevail,
e.g. DNV GL-ST-0119 (DNV GL, 2018), countries like Angola The need for an improved structural behaviour in offshore
or the United States of America use the American Petroleum environmental conditions has been a main driver to promote
Institute (API) standards, e.g. API-RP-2FPS. Therefore, design the use of new composite materials in offshore structures,
of offshore structures and foundations requires technical exper- pipelines or production risers, among others. The composite
tise that is combined with the knowledge of the legal instru- materials have become an attractive solution and a novel
ments applicable to the precise location of the project. concept whose application is growing in the offshore industry
(Amaechi et al., 2019), by several reasons. For instance, the off-
Such complex regulation and heavy technical requirements shore industry has moved from shallow waters to deep waters
were often improved as a result of learned lessons from a not and thus lighter structures are required, such as composite risers
so distant past. Over the past few decades, major offshore inci- and wind turbine blades (Amaechi et al., 2019). In fact, fibre-
dents that claimed hundreds of lives, damaged the environment reinforced polymer (FRP) materials have been used in pipelines
critically and caused billions of dollars of property and and risers due to the potential weight savings and improved
environmental losses, e.g. Sea Gem collapse, Santa Barbara resistance to corrosion. In addition, they also present consider-
blowout, Alexander L. Kielland capsize, Piper Alpha disaster ably better dynamic behaviour than steel, due to comparatively
(Tamim et al., 2019). This pushed the industry to develop new high bending stiffness, while having good performance in
sets of rules, standards and safety requirements to prevent such fatigue and yield stress (Pavlou, 2019).
catastrophes (Christou and Konstantinidou, 2012; Tamim
et al., 2019). Table 4 summarizes some of the previous major In this context, a comprehensive flow-induced dynamic instabil-
accidents reported in the literature. ity analysis for curved FRP risers is presented in Pavlou (2019).
Curved risers present considerable centrifugal forces, which yield
However, in spite of improvements and developments made in dynamic motion that is counteracted by the Coriolis forces
regulations, technical standards, norms and recommended prac- caused by the inner fluid flow. Therefore, the dynamic response
tices, there are empirical approaches that require further study of the riser results from a balance between the centrifugal,
and knowledge deepening, whereas new fields of the industry Coriolis, inertial, flexural restoring and drag forces, thus being a
arise with the lack of specific norms developed, e.g. dynamic complex system to be analysed and further designed. Existing
scour protections for offshore wind (Fazeres-Ferradosa et al., methods for dynamic response analysis are based on simplifica-
2018a, 2018b), new constructive materials applied to subsea tions, which ignore the multi-phase flow, the internal instability
structures (e.g. Pavlou, 2019), or the analysis of met-ocean and the anisotropy of the material of the flexible riser Pavlou
data in cases were recommended approaches have a lack of (2019). Researchers working on hydrodynamics often take into
goodness-of-fit (e.g. Vanem et al., 2019). account only the effect of the external cross flow and ignore the
inner axial flow-pipe interaction and the effect of the mass of
Themed issue Advanced Research on Offshore the pump. Furthermore, only methods for the dynamic response
Structures & Foundation Design of risers made for isotropic material are available in the litera-
The previously described context of relevant market and indus- ture. This gap is attempted to be filled by Pavlou (2019). In this
try’s growth, along with the restrict knowledge sharing and the work, the instability of curved risers made of multi-layered FRP
need for a constant update and improvement on engineering material is analysed and the motion equation and boundary
practices, motivated further the need to perform research dedi- conditions are treated with the Transfer Matrix Method. The
cated to offshore structures and foundations. Therefore, the pres- proposed method is also applied to representative examples and
ent issue compiles works on topics related to the keynote lectures the results discussed. This paper is of great utility for researchers
provided at the International Offshore Structures Design (IOSD) and professionals seeking for more accurate and detailed
course, held in the Faculty of Engineering of the University of methods to analyse structures, such as deep-sea mining risers or
Porto, in May 2019. The IOSD course series started in 2016 and free hanging catenary risers with hanged pump. Moreover, it
resulted from the R&D activities within the Marine Energy provides interesting cost and benefit comparisons between FRP
Research Group from the Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and and steel materials in offshore risers. As result, Pavlou (2019)
Environmental Research of the University of Porto (CIIMAR). proposes a methodology that can be applied in the automatic

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 Table 4. Examples of landmark accidents from offshore engineering past (compiled and adapted from Christou and Konstantinidou (2012), Oil Rig Disasters (2019) and com-

Volume 172 Issue MA4

Maritime Engineering
pleted with own research).
Accident Location Losses Description Relevant outcomes

Sea Gem Rig UK Continental Total property loss and 13 life losses Two of the rig’s ten legs failed, leading the rig –
Collapse Shelf, 1965 to fall sideways. Subsequently, the rig was
(United Kingdom) reported to capsize and sank with one leg
remaining above the sea
Santa Barbara California coastline, More than 71,400 barrels of crude loss and A first well blew out, spewing oil and gas, which This event is considered to have led to the
Oil Spill 1969 (USA) unprecedented environmental destruction then led to an explosion that cracked the sea signing of the National Environmental Policy
floor in 5 places and released 1,000 gallons of Act, which required the creation of
oil an hour. A second blow out in a different environmental impact reports on major
well followed on two months later projects. It is also known for its positive impact
on environmental awareness by regular
Americans towards offshore drilling and
exploitation
Ekofisk B North Sea, 1977 Estimated production loss between 80,000 to Oil well blowout occurred at the Ekofisk Bravo –
Blowout (Norway) 126,000 barrels, largest blowout in North platform, due to an incorrectly installed
Sea downhole safety valve. This resulted in the
well blowing out with an uncontrolled release
of oil and gas. Human errors were the major
factor which led to the mechanical failure of
the safety valve. These errors included faults in
the installation documentation and equipment
identification and misjudgements, improper
planning and improper well control
Ixtoc I Blowout Gulf of Mexico, 1979 Extensive damage along the US coast with Well suffered a blowout, with oil and gas –

Fazeres-Ferradosa
structures and foundation design: part 1
Editorial: Advanced research on offshore
(Mexico) the Texas coast suffering the greatest. flowing to unrestricted surface igniting and
Biggest single spill before the occurrence of engulfing the semi-sub Sedco 135F in flames.
Macondo accident, with an estimated 3·5 Later the rig collapsed and sank onto the
million barrels of oil lost wellhead area on the seabed. Oil and gas
leakage lasted for 9 months ending in an oil
slick of 180 km by 80 km
Bohai 2 Jack-up Gulf of Bohai, 1979 72 life losses (2 survivors) Jack-up faced major storm waves and wind Improvements were made in regulations and
(China) loads which overtopped the main deck and standards related to emergency and
broke a ventilator pump free, causing it to fall evacuation procedures, usage of lifesaving
and puncture the deck, which caused a flood equipment and proper equipment storage at
in the pump-room. The rig became unstable platforms
and due to harsh weather conditions the jack-
up capsized and sank
Alexander North Sea, 1980 123 life losses (89 survivors); Total asset loss Failure of supporting leg due to severe gale force Improvement of failure cause analysis and
L. Kielland (Norway) winds, but not severe storm. Problems were increasing standards for evacuation and rescue
capsize – detected in a weld of an instrument connection operations
floating hotel on the bracing which contained cracks
Piper Alpha North Sea, 1988 167 life losses, including 2 operators of a Fast Condensate leak resulting from maintenance The Cullen inquiry resulted in more than 100
explosion (Scotland) Rescue Craft (62 survivors) and property work being carried out simultaneously on a recommendations that re-shaped offshore
damage estimated in E 2 billion pump and related safety valve led to gas safety legislation and practices, namely in chains
ignition and explosion, causing fire and of command and communication procedures
sequential explosions in risers and structural for platform’s crew. Necessity of creating fire
damage with the further release of gas and oil and blast walls at the platforms. Increased
regulations on safety at offshore installations
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 Maritime Engineering Editorial: Advanced research on offshore
Volume 172 Issue MA4 structures and foundation design: part 1
Fazeres-Ferradosa

control of deep-sea mining risers or the deflection control of oil

due in part to the prior recommendation that

and gas production risers, while it also allows for design optim-
platform were evacuated with no casualties,

procedures, including the need to separate

Recommendations were produced regarding
More than 150 workers on the jack-up and

isation to avoid flow-induced resonance.

safety, risk and emergency management

leasing from safety oversight regulatory

production activities be ceased as a

Another important aspect for design practice is the multivariate

analysis of met-ocean conditions. The understanding of ocean
wave climate is a crucial step in the design of offshore structures,
precautionary measure

foundations and its components. Finding joint models for sea-

Relevant outcomes

state characteristics is often difficult due to the complex nature

of the wave climate and its physical constraints. The available
records of wave characteristics are often very asymmetric in their
functions

nature, which makes it difficult the use of common marginal dis-

tributions, e.g. normal, logarithmic or Weibull distributions
(Fazeres-Ferradosa et al., 2018b). Moreover, the structural safety
–

of offshore structures is heavily dependent on the uncertainty

drill column, expanded onto the platform, and
An explosion was followed by fire, which then
Gas blowout occurred during drilling operations.

then ignited and exploded. Fire then engulfed

Seacrest and none of its lifeboats were found,
Drillship capsized in heavy seas during Typhoon

Wellhead Platform an uncontrolled release of

oil and gas occurred from the H1 well. In the
Gay. No distress signals were heard from the

suggesting that capsize occurred too quickly

pressure, shot all the way up and out of the

related to environmental loads, which acquires additional impor-

operations to complete the “well kill”, fire
broke out on the West Atlas rig and the

tance when Climate Change effects are considered. Nevertheless,

During drilling operations at the Montara

Methane gas from the well, under high

there are cases, in which widely used methods, foreseen in off-

the platform, which eventually sank
spread to the Petrobel-run platform

shore standards do not present an acceptable goodness-of-fit,

thus not being suitable for a proper statistical description of site
Montara Wellhead Platform

conditions, e.g. the use of the Conditional Modelling Approach

for the crew to respond

(DNV GL, 2017) applied to Horns Rev 3 data (see Fazeres-

Ferradosa et al., 2018b). This justifies the study and develop-
ment of more complex multivariate models, which are reviewed
Description

and analysed in Vanem et al. (2019).

Vanem et al. (2019) present a detailed review on the statistical

description and multi-variate modelling of extreme ocean wave
11 life losses. More than 4 million barrels spilled
For a period of just over 10 weeks, oil and gas

conditions, along with some brief examples of state-of-the-art

continued to flow into the sea, and patches

affected at various times an area as large as

unprecedented environmental consequences

into the Gulf of Mexico, disrupting the entire

habitats. The leakage lasted for 87 days with

joint modelling techniques and a discussion of such models

salvageable, the platform was damaged
Adriatic IV was declared as sunk and not

region’s economy, fisheries and critical

of sheen or weathered oil could have

utility in marine engineering applications. In addition, the

authors highlighted the importance of environmental contours
91 life losses and total asset loss

as a tool to characterize extreme ocean environments for struc-

tural design and risk assessment purposes. This paper includes
also applications to stationary and non-stationary univariate
analysis as well as multivariate analysis and spatial extreme value
analysis. Some other examples of the models under analysis are
beyond repair

90,000 km2

the copula-based ones, the conditional modelling approach or

the conditional extremes. The present review becomes an atten-
Losses

tion-grabbing paper, for those dealing with met-ocean data and

design, as it provides a solid background on the subject and a
better understanding on the advantages and the pitfalls of
Gulf of Mexico, 2010
Mediterranean Sea,
Gulf of Thailand,
1989 (Thailand)
Platong Gas Field,

various techniques. Furthermore, Vanem et al. (2019) dedicates a

Timor Sea, 2009
2004 (Egypt)

full section to examples for marine engineering applications,

(Australia)

where the applicability to reliability methods, as the First- and

Location

(USA)

Second-Order-Reliability-Method, is also pointed.

Table 4. Continued

Conclusions
Seacrest Drillship

Macondo Well –

The engineering practice and design of offshore structures and

Deepwater

foundations registered an intense progress over the past 70

Blowout

Blowout

Blowout
Adriatic IV

Horizon
Accident

Montara

years. Such developments were in fact a result of the main

drive provided by the Oil and Gas industry, which somehow
opened the way for further maritime and offshore activities,

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 Maritime Engineering Editorial: Advanced research on offshore
Volume 172 Issue MA4 structures and foundation design: part 1
Fazeres-Ferradosa

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