Brain and Cognition 81 (2013) 10–17

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Brain and Cognition

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Decline in executive control during acute bouts of exercise as a function of

exercise intensity and fitness level
Véronique Labelle a,b, Laurent Bosquet c,d,1, Saïd Mekary b,c, Louis Bherer a,b,⇑
a
Département de Psychologie, Université du Québec à Montréal C.P. 8888 succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8
b
Centre de Recherche, Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, 4565, chemin Queen Mary Montréal, QC, Canada H3W 1W5
c
Département de Kinésiologie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, succursale Centre-ville Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3J7
d
Faculté des sciences du sport, Université de Poitiers, 8, allée Jean Monnet, 86000 Poitiers, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Studies on the effects of acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise on cognitive performances show contra-
Accepted 5 October 2012 dictory findings due to methodological differences (e.g., exercise intensity, cognitive function assessed,
Available online 10 November 2012 participants’ aerobic fitness level, etc.). The present study assessed the acute effect of exercise intensity
on cognition while controlling for key methodological confounds. Thirty-seven participants (Mage = 23.
Keywords: 8 years; SD = 2.6) completed a computerized modified-Stroop task (involving denomination, inhibition
Cardiovascular exercise and switching conditions) while pedalling at 40%, 60% and 80% of their peak power output (PPO). Results
Prefrontal lobes
showed that in the switching condition of the task, error rates increased as a function of exercise intensity
Fitness
Young adults
(from 60% to 80% of PPO) in all participants and that lower fit individuals showed increased reaction time
variability. This suggests that acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise can momentarily alter executive con-
trol and increase performance instability in lower fit individuals.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2007), while others showed deleterious effects of exercise on cog-

nition (Audiffren, Brisswalter, Brandet, & Bosquet, 1998; Audiffren,
The effect of acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise on cognition Tomporowski, & Zagrodnik, 2009; Del Giorno, Hall, O’Leary, Bixby,
has been a subject of increasing interest over the past few years. & Miller, 2010; Dietrich & Sparling, 2004; McMorris et al., 2009;
These studies can help understand the impact of physical efforts McMorris & Keen, 1994; Pontifex & Hillman, 2007). Some studies
on cognition as required in many everyday life situations (e.g., have showed mixed results, with both beneficial and negative ef-
housekeeping, home repairs, as well as some employment such fects or no impact of exercise (Chmura, Nazar, & Kaciuba-Uscilko,
as firefighters and construction workers). The ever advancing quest 1994; Davranche, Hall, & McMorris, 2009; Davranche & McMorris,
for better athletic performances, the valorisation of the sports 2009). Finally, some reports suggest that acute exercise exerts no
industry as well as the evolution of neuroimaging equipment and effects on cognition (Fery, Ferry, Vom Hofe, & Rieu, 1997). Theoret-
techniques (Acevedo & Ekkekakis, 2006) also contribute to stimu- ical explanations have been put forward to account for changes in
late research in this field. cognitive performances during acute bouts of cardiovascular exer-
So far, studies on the effects of acute cardiovascular exercise on cise. Cognitive-energetic models suggest an explanation for both
cognition have lead to inconclusive results. Some studies have positive and negative effects of exercise on cognition (Audiffren,
shown that an acute bout of exercise can momentarily enhance 2009). Moderate duration exercise is thought to improve cognition
cognitive performances (McGlynn, Laughlin, & Bender, 1977; either by increasing the amount of available resources (Kahneman,
McMorris & Graydon, 1997; McMorris et al., 1999, 2003; Pesce & 1973) or by increasing arousal and/or activation (Humphreys &
Audiffren, 2011; Pesce, Tessitore, Casella, Pirritano, & Capranica, Revelle, 1984; Sanders, 1983). Given the limited nature of the
brain’s resources, the negative impact of exercise could be due to
resources sharing between the exercise and the cognitive task
⇑ Corresponding author at: Département de Psychologie, Université du Québec à (Hockey, 1997; Kahneman, 1973; Sanders, 1983).
Montréal C.P. 8888 succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8. Fax: +1 In line with this view, the transient hypofrontality theory sug-
514 987 7953. gests that strenuous exercise causes a change in physiological
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (V. Labelle), laurent.bosque- state, which momentarily disrupts brain homeostasis. In reaction,
[email protected] (L. Bosquet), [email protected] (S. Mekary), bherer.loui-
[email protected] (L. Bherer).
the brain modifies its resources allocation. In fact, maintaining
1
Present address: Faculté des sciences du sport, Université de Poitiers, 8, allée Jean high intensity physical exercise increases neural resources demand
Monnet, 86000 Poitiers, France. in some brain regions, which can reduce essential metabolic

0278-2626/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.001
 V. Labelle et al. / Brain and Cognition 81 (2013) 10–17 11

resources (e.g., oxygen and glucose) availability in other brain re- A second methodological concern is the experimental design
gions. According to this theory, the prefrontal cortex does not play with regard to physical exercise. Some researches (McMorris
a critical role in maintaining high intensity exercise and would et al., 2003; Paas & Adam, 1991) reported improvement in process-
therefore be massively affected by the reduced resources availabil- ing speed at high intensities during a continuous cardiovascular
ity (Dietrich, 2006, 2009; Dietrich & Audiffren, 2011; Dietrich & exercise. In other studies that included rest periods between bouts
Sparling, 2004). of exercise, processing speed was slower during exercise compared
Brain imaging studies partly support the transient hypofrontal- to rest (Audiffren et al., 1998). Therefore, even when the same cog-
ity theory and suggest that additional physiological mechanisms nitive process is being tested (e.g., processing speed), different
are involved. In fact, near infrared spectroscopy’s (NIRS) studies experimental designs (e.g., whether baseline performances are as-
generally show a decrease in oxygenation in the prefrontal lobes sessed at rest or during exercise) can lead to diverging results.
during intense exercise (Bhambhani, Malik, & Mookerjee, 2007; The intensity at which exercise is performed is another source
Ekkekakis, 2009). A possible explanation for this phenomenon is of confound across studies. Many studies assessed the effect of
that at high intensities, hyperventilation causes a decrease in arte- moderate exercise intensity on cognition, but few studies com-
rial carbon dioxide pressure (PaCO2) which in turn causes a con- pared the impact of low and high intensity exercise (McMorris
striction of cerebral blood vessels and ultimately a decrease in et al., 2011). Moreover, the index of exercise intensity greatly var-
cerebral perfusion (Linkis et al., 1995). Consequently, acutely ies among studies: percentage of heart rate reserve, maximal heart
increasing exercise intensity should impair executive control, rate (HRmax), peak power output (PPO), maximal oxygen uptake
which relies on the functional integrity of the frontal cortex. Con- _ 2 max), lactate threshold, adrenaline threshold, ventilatory
(VO
temporary conceptions of executive control functions suggest that threshold, etc. Even among studies that used the same index
elementary mechanisms such as inhibition (i.e., inhibition of a sali- (e.g., HRmax) (Dietrich & Sparling, 2004; Pontifex & Hillman,
ent response), switching (alternating mentally between sets of 2007), exercise intensity levels varies across studies (i.e., 70–80%
rules) and updating (information updating and monitoring in vs. 60%, respectively).
working memory) play a critical role in controlling and modulating Few studies have considered participants’ aerobic fitness level
other cognitive processes such as memory and reasoning (Levine, as a potential confounding factor in the relationship between
Turner, & Stuss, 2008; Miyake et al., 2000). However, few studies acute cardiovascular exercise and cognition (Pesce, 2009). This
have distinguished these elementary mechanisms when assessing factor has been underlined in recent meta-analyses (Lambourne
the effects of acute exercise on cognition. & Tomporowski, 2010; McMorris et al., 2011). Previous reviews
Finally, some researchers suggest that neuroendocrinological also strongly recommended that aerobic fitness be measured
changes could also be potential underpinnings of the effect of acute and considered into the analyses (Brisswalter et al., 2002; Tompo-
cardiovascular exercise on cognition via the influence of catechol- rowski, 2003; Tomporowski & Ellis, 1986). In support for this, it
amines (i.e., dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline) and cortisol. has been observed that higher fit individuals show larger
At high exercise intensities, an increase in cortisol level can lead to improvement in cognitive performances during high intensity
an important increase in arousal, which might then lead to im- exercise than lower fit individuals (Brisswalter, Legros, & Delig-
paired cognitive performances. The catecholamine increase can nières, 1994). Nevertheless, the moderating role that fitness level
lead to a preferential activation of the limbic system at the expense might have on the effect of acute exercise on cognition is not fully
of the prefrontal lobes and therefore cause a breakdown in perfor- understood. Some evidence suggests that a high fitness level is
mance in executive control tasks (McMorris, 2009). associated with a maintained oxygen saturation level in the pre-
Whether these explanations are complementary or not will frontal cortex during high intensity exercise. In fact, despite a de-
necessitate additional empirical data. So far, even rigorous crease in PaCO2, oxygen (O2) saturation tends to increase in the
meta-analytic and narrative reviews of studies assessing cognitive prefrontal lobes of athletes during intense cycling (Nielsen, Bou-
performances during acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise report shel, Madsen, & Secher, 1999). A recent review (Rooks, Thom,
contradictory findings (Brisswalter, Collardeau, & Arcelin, 2002; McCully, & Dishman, 2010) confirms this observation and sug-
Chang, Labban, Gapin, & Etnier, 2012; Lambourne & Tomporowski, gests that the drop in oxygen values in the prefrontal cortex ob-
2010; McMorris, Sproule, Turner, & Hale, 2011; Tomporowski, served at very hard intensities is seen in untrained individuals,
2003; Tomporowski & Ellis, 1986). For example, most of them but not in those who are aerobically trained. Therefore, this sug-
state that the moment at which the cognitive task is performed gests that cognitive performances might be less impaired during
(during, immediately after or after a delay following exercise) high intensity exercise in higher fit individuals. Second, a differ-
has an impact on cognition. Yet, others (Chang et al., 2012) ence in biochemical changes during moderate to intense exercise
claim the exact opposite and therefore run counter to most theo- has also been hypothesized to explain the modulating effect of fit-
ries & hypotheses (e.g., THT) as well as many individual well struc- ness level (Brisswalter, Arcelin, Audiffren, & Delignieres, 1997). In
tured empirical studies which have clearly predicted or shown fact, urinary catecholamine concentration gets more important
differences in neurocognitive performances according to this after the exercise in lower fit than in higher fit individuals (de
variable. Diego Acosta et al., 2001). As stated earlier, an important cate-
Important methodological differences across studies can at least cholamine secretion could preferentially activate the limbic sys-
partly explain diverging results. A first methodological concern has tem at the expense of the prefrontal lobes and therefore
to do with the various cognitive processes that have been tested negatively affect cognitive performances in lower fit individuals.
during exercise. For example, Audiffren, Tomporowski, and Zag- A third explanation combines the effect of fitness and emotional
rodnik (2008) and McMorris et al. (2003) have shown positive ef- regulation. In fact, considering their scarce exposition to high
fects of acute exercise on processing speed using simple and intensity exercise and to the negative symptoms associated with
choice reaction time tasks (RT) while others (Davranche & McMor- it (i.e., hyperventilation and perhaps nausea) lower fit individual
ris, 2009; McMorris et al., 2009; Pontifex & Hillman, 2007) have re- might be more anxious than their higher fit counterparts and
ported deleterious effects on inhibition tasks. Cognitive processes therefore perform less well at higher intensities (McMorris,
underlying the completion of the cognitive task thus appears a ma- 2009). Even though these hypotheses still need to be empirically
jor factor that needs to be taken into account when studying the tested, all three lead to the same prediction and suggest that a
impact of acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise on cognitive high fitness level could attenuate deleterious effects of intense
performances. cardiovascular exercise on cognition.
12 V. Labelle et al. / Brain and Cognition 81 (2013) 10–17

In sum, variability among studies limits definitive conclusion on Table 1

the effect of acute cardiovascular exercise on cognitive functions. Means and standard deviations of participant’s demographic and physiological data in
both fitness groups.
Sources of variability include exercise intensity, cognitive pro-
cesses underlying task completion, experimental design as well Higher fit Lower Fit p
as participants’ aerobic fitness level. The primary goal of the pres- (n = 16) (n = 21)

ent study was to assess effects of exercise intensity on cognition by Mean SD Mean SD
comparing cognitive performances at different intensity levels Age (years) 24.56 2.45 23.19 2.56 n.s.
(light, moderate and intense). The second aim was to assess the ef- Gender (men/women) 9 (7) 10 (11) n.s.
fect of exercise on cognition while taking into account key method- Education (years) 16.69 1.29 17.43 2.87 n.s.
Body mass index 23.36 2.17 23.85 3.53 n.s.
ological factors by 1 – using a computerized modified-Stroop task
Maximum power output (W) 247.00 42.78 189.10 44.03 <.01
that allows to dissociate executive control from processing speed VO2 max (mL min kg 1) 50.62 7.86 38.33 5.16 <.01
within the same task and 2 – controlling for aerobic fitness level Shvartz and Reibold (1990) categories 1–3 4–7
(based on a direct measure of VO_ 2 max). Mean for men 2 5
Mean for women 3 5

1.1. Hypotheses

Based on the brief literature review, we expect that higher Table 2

intensities should yield greater impact on cognition than lower Means and standard deviations for the neuropsychological and mood assessment data
in higher and lower fit participants.
workloads. Moreover, tasks relying more heavily on the prefrontal
lobes (executive control condition) will be negatively altered dur- Higher fit (n = 16) Lower fit (n = 21) p
ing acute bouts of cardiovascular exercises. Finally, higher fit indi- Mean SD Mean SD
viduals should exhibit less deleterious effects than their lower fit Perceptual abilities and speed of processing
counterparts. Digit symbol 99.88 13.71 85.52 14.23 <.01
substitution test
(WAIS-III)
2. Method Trail A (s) 19.07 6.16 28.51 14.41 <.05
Trail A (err) 0.19 0.40 0.14 0.36 n.s.
Short term and working memory
2.1. Participants
Digit span forward 7.5 1.16 7.05 1.50 n.s.
(WAIS-III)
Thirty-seven participants (19 men and 18 women), aged 20–29 Digit span backwards 5.94 1.29 5.24 1.30 n.s.
(M = 23. 8; SD = 2.6) completed the study. As assessed by the Phys- (WAIS-III)
ical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) (Thomas, Reading, & Verbal abilities and abstraction capacities
Shephard, 1992), none of the participants reported physical contra- Similarities (WAIS- 26.75 3.22 24.9 3.46 n.s.
indications restraining them to complete the study. No participants III)
Cognitive flexibility
had undergone major surgery 6 months prior to the experiment,
Trail B (s) 47.49 16.54 54.54 15.42 n.s.
had a past or present history of alcohol or drug abuse, presented Trail B (err) 0.56 0.89 0.24 0.44 n.s.
mood or neurological problems at the time of the study and were
Depression symptomatology
taking medication known to affect cognition. All participants gave BDI-II (Total score) 3.13 5.32 3.33 3.86 n.s.
their informed consent prior to engagement in the study, which
Sleep quality
was approved by the ethics committee of the research center. Fol- PSQI (Total score) 7.31 5.91 7.14 5.59 n.s.
lowing a maximal graded exercise test, participants were classified
Cognitive activity index
as either higher or lower fit according to VO_ 2 max norms (Shvartz &
AVQ (Total) 62.75 9.48 68.14 9.05 n.s.
Reibold, 1990). Higher fit participants had greater PPO, F (1, Self-reported physical activity
35) = 16.1, p < .001, and VO _ 2 max; F (1, 35) = 32.9, p < .001, than MAQ (min) 12790.94 8882.69 9011.95 6206.89 n.s.
MAQ (METS) 77706.88 56963.51 49624.52 40192.92 n.s.
their lower fit counterparts. Fitness groups did not differ in age, F
(1, 35) = 2.7, p = .11, years of education, F (1, 35) < 1, p = .55, body
mass index, F (1, 35) < 1, p = .62, and gender, U = 153.5, p = .61. Ta-
ble 1 shows participant’s demographic and physiological data
according to their fitness group. Participants completed a neuro- psychomotor speed difference, they were no appreciable differ-
psychological battery that assessed perceptual abilities and pro- ences between higher and lower fit individuals on cognition, psy-
cessing speed (i.e., Trail making test part A and WAIS-III chological and health indicators.
Substitution subtest), short term and working memory (i.e.,
WAIS-III Digit span forward and backwards), abstraction capacities 2.2. Procedure and material
(i.e., WAIS-III Similarities subtest) (Wechsler, 1997) and cognitive
flexibility (i.e., Trail making test part B) (AITB., 1944). They also All participants completed three sessions and were asked to re-
completed a few questionnaires concerning depression symptom- frain from training and to avoid caffeine and alcohol consumption
atology (i.e., Beck Depression Inventory 2nd edition -BDI-II) (Beck, 12 h prior to testing. They were also asked not to eat 3 h before ses-
Steer, & Brown, 1996), quality of sleep (i.e., Pittsburgh Sleep Qual- sions 2 and 3. A minimum of 72 h separated sessions 2 and 3. On
ity Index – PSQI) (Buysse, Reynolds, Monk, Berman, & Kupfer, the first session, participants completed the neuropsychological
1989), participation in cognitively stimulating activities (Wilson, assessment as well as the familiarization blocks and one practice
Barnes, & Bennett, 2003) and self-reported physical activities (i.e., block of the computerized modified-Stroop task. The second ses-
Modifiable Activity Questionnaire-MAQ) (Vuillemin et al., 2000). sion consisted of a maximal graded exercise test performed on a
Table 2 shows neuropsychological data and mood assessment data cycle ergometer (Lode Corival recumbent ergometer, Groningen,
in both fitness groups. Only the Digit symbol substitution test, F (1, The Netherlands) in order to assess cardiorespiratory fitness as in-
35) = 9.5, p < .001, and the Trail making test Part A, F (1, 35) = 6.0, dexed by VO _ 2 max (mL min 1 kg 1). Upon their third visit, partici-
p = .02, showed group differences, which suggests that apart from pants completed the familiarization blocks, one practice block as
 V. Labelle et al. / Brain and Cognition 81 (2013) 10–17 13

well as the three experimental blocks during acute bouts of con- 2.2.3. Computerized modified-Stroop task
stant intensity cardiovascular exercise. The cognitive task was programmed on E-Prime 2.0 (Pittsburgh,
USA). The computerized modified-Stroop task required the partic-
2.2.1. Maximal graded exercise test ipant to indicate the color (blue or red) of items (rectangles or
Oxygen uptake (VO _ 2 ; in mL min 1 kg 1) was determined con- words) that occurred on the screen. Participants provided their an-
tinuously on a 30-s basis using an automated cardiopulmonary swers by pressing USB controlled response buttons fixed inside
exercise system (Moxus, AEI Technologies, Naperville, IL). Gas ana- each handlebar of the cycle ergometer. Participants were in-
lyzers were calibrated before each test using a gas mixture of structed to answer as fast as possible. The familiarization block al-
known concentrations (16% and 21% O2 and .03% and 4% CO2). lowed participants to learn the assignation of the response buttons
The turbine was calibrated before each test using a 3-L syringe at located inside each handlebar. They completed 40 trials of color
several flow rates. Once the mask was installed on the participant’s denomination (i.e., colored rectangles in either blue or red ink).
face, they sat on the cycle ergometer for at least 5 min before the During these trials, circles (blue in the bottom right portion and
test in order to familiarize with the apparatus. Initial workload red in the bottom left portion of the screen) were presented as cues
was set at 0.75 or 1 W per kilogram (kg) of body weight according indicating the position of the response buttons. Then, participants
to the participant’s physical activity level and increased by 15 W completed 40 additional color denomination trials without cues.
every minute until voluntary exhaustion. Strong verbal encourage- Participants also completed a practice block composed of three
ment was given throughout the test. To ensure attainment of consecutive conditions: Denomination (20 trials), Inhibition (20
_ 2 max; participants then immediately completed a verification
VO trials) and Switching (40 trials). In the denomination condition
protocol inspired from earlier work (Rossiter, Kowalchuk, & Whipp, participants had to indicate the ink color (i.e., blue or red) of neu-
2006). After a recovery period of 5 min at 20 W, participants had to tral words (i.e., When and Then). In the inhibition condition, color-
perform a verification phase consisting in a time to exhaustion at a words (i.e., blue or red) were presented in a non-matching ink col-
workload of 15 W above the last stage completed. The highest VO _ 2 or (i.e., blue or red). Participants had to indicate the color of the ink
and corresponding power output over a 30-s period during the first and ignore the meaning of the color-word (i.e., for RED written in a
part of the test or during the verification phase were considered as blue ink color, the correct answer is blue). In the switching condi-
the maximal oxygen uptake (VO _ 2 max; in mL min 1 kg 1) and PPO tion, participants had to either indicate the ink color of the color-
(W). Participants were assigned to either a higher or lower fit word or to read the word when it was presented in a box. The
group based on age- and gender-referenced VO _ 2 max norms (Shv- switching condition involved 32 non-switch trials (16 inhibition
artz & Reibold, 1990). trials and 16 reading trials). These trials were repeated for 3–
5 times before a change in rule (i.e., switch trial) occurred. In the
2.2.2. Submaximal bouts of constant intensity cardiovascular exercise remaining eight trials (switch-trials) participants had to switch
Each participant performed three bouts of constant intensity instruction between reading (i.e., a word presented in a box) and
exercise at 40%, 60% and 80% of its individual’s PPO with a 17 in. color naming (i.e., a word presented alone) or the reverse. Stimuli
Ciara laptop located approximately 60 cm in front of them. Inten- were presented following three different pseudo-randomised lists.
sity levels were counterbalanced across participants according to The experimental blocks were identical to the practice block
a 3  3 Latin square design in order to avoid a systematic associa- (i.e., 20 trials in the color-word denomination condition, 20 trials
tion of exercise intensity effects with potential order effect (Winer, in the inhibition condition and 40 trials in the switching condition)
1971). The first participant to enter the study had the first se- and were completed at each of the three exercise intensity levels
quence (i.e., 40%, 60% and 80%), the second had the second se- (i.e., 40%, 60% and 80% of PPO).
quence (i.e., 60%, 80% and 40%) and the third participant
completed the third sequence (i.e., 80%, 40% and 60%). Preliminary 2.3. Statistical analyses
analyses revealed that sequence had no substantial effect on the
results reported in the present study with regard to the effect of Dependent variables of interest were reaction time (RT: time ta-
exercise on executive control. At each level, power output had to ken from the appearance of the stimulus to the completion of the
be maintained for 6.5 min. Pilot data have suggested that this is answer by the participant), error rate (% errors) and intra-individ-
an optimal duration and that longer interval would have been dif- ual coefficient of variability in RTs (ICV = Intra-individual Standard
ficult to sustain at 80% PPO for some participants. The electroni- Deviation/individual mean  100). The first trial of each condition
cally braked cycle ergometer automatically adjusted the (i.e., denomination, inhibition and switching) was removed from
resistance as a function of pedalling rate to insure a constant power the data set as primary analysis revealed an elevated error rate
output. The computerized modified-Stroop task was performed for those trials. Each trial exceeding three standard deviations from
from the third minute until the end of each test. It was considered the participant’s mean RT for each condition was also removed
that the first 3 min were necessary to reach a VO _ 2 steady-state. from the data set. In the switching condition, RTs of the reading
Each test was separated from the other by a 20-min recovery per- non-switch trial were longer than the inhibition non-switch trials
iod consisting in a 2-min active recovery phase at 20% of PPO and F (1, 36) = 9.0, p = .01. Therefore, they were analyzed separately.
an 18-min passive recovery phase during which participants re- This unexpected outcome can be due to practice effect of the inhi-
mained seated on the cycle ergometer without pedalling. Partici- bition task and the relative novelty of the reading task. In fact, par-
pants completed the questionnaire on lifetime participation in ticipants never completed a full block of reading trials alone in this
cognitively stimulating activities (Wilson et al., 2003) during the computerized modified-Stroop task. For the switch trials, RT was
passive recovery phase and were encouraged to drink water be- equivalent in reading or inhibition trials, F (1, 72) < 1, n.s., so they
tween exercise bouts in order to avoid dehydration. The choice of were pooled together. ANOVAs were performed with Fitness group
this recovery period was essentially based on previous studies that (lower vs. higher fit) as between subject factor and exercise Inten-
have clearly shown that acute effects of cardiovascular exercise on sity (40, 60, 80) as within subject factor on each Stroop trial type
cognition attenuate very rapidly few minutes after cessation (i.e., denomination trials, inhibition trials, reading non-switch tri-
(Audiffren et al., 2008, 2009) despite possible ongoing physical als, inhibition non-switch trials and switch trials) and each depen-
recovery. Therefore, it is generally accepted that despite potential dent variable (i.e., mean RTs, % error and ICV). Analyses were
residual physiological effects of exercise bout, they are not salient performed with SPSS 15.0. Alpha level was set at .05. If violation
enough to modify cognition. of sphericity occurred, Greenhouse–Geiser correction was applied.
14 V. Labelle et al. / Brain and Cognition 81 (2013) 10–17

3. Results 3.2. Fitness level  Intensity interaction

3.1. Intensity effect A Fitness  Intensity interaction was observed in the inhibition
non-switch trials of the switching condition for the ICV, F (2,
There was no effect of intensity in the denomination and inhibi- 70) = 3.2, p < .05, g2 = .08. Repeated-contrasts indicated that the
tion condition on RTs (respectively, F (2, 70) < 1, n.s.; F (2, 70) = 1.6, interaction was significant between 60% and 80% PPO, F (1,
n.s., error rate (respectively, F (2, 70) = 1.0, n.s., F (2, 70) < 1, n.s.) 35) = 4.8, p < .05, g2 = .07, due to an increase in ICV in the lower
and ICV (respectively, F (2, 70) < 1, n.s.; F (2, 70) < 1, n.s.). In the fit group only, F (1, 35) = 5.12, p < .05, g2 = .07 as revealed by simple
switching condition, there was a main effect of intensity on error effect analyses (ANOVA for each fitness group with intensity as
rate in the reading non-switch trials, F (2, 70) = 5.8, p < .01, within subject factor). Fig. 2 shows change in coefficient of vari-
g2 = .14, due to an increase between the 60% and 80% PPO, F (1, ability (ICV) in the inhibition non-switch trials of the switching
35) = 6.7, p < .01, g2 = .11 (repeated-contrast), and on error rate in condition as a function of exercise intensity and fitness level. There
the switch trials, F (2, 70) = 5.0, p < .01, g2 = .12, also due to an in- was no Intensity  Fitness interaction effect in RT and error rates.
crease between the 60% and 80% PPO, F (1, 35) = 6.4, p < .05,
g2 = .07 (repeated-contrast). There was no intensity effect on error
rate in the inhibition non-switch trials, F (2, 70) < 1, n.s. Fig. 1 4. Discussion
shows change in error rates as a function of exercise intensity in
the switching condition. There was no intensity effect on RTs and The primary goal of this study was to examine the relationship
ICV in the switching condition. between intensity of acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise and
executive control in young adults, while controlling for key meth-
odological confounds identified in the literature, namely the cogni-
tive processes being assessed and participants’ aerobic fitness
level. It was hypothesized that during intense cardiovascular exer-
cise, cognitive processes relying on the prefrontal lobes would be
disrupted (Dietrich, 2006, 2009; Dietrich & Audiffren, 2011; Dietrich
& Sparling, 2004). This phenomenon should be more pronounced at
higher intensity levels (Dietrich, 2006, 2009; Dietrich & Sparling,
2004; McMorris, 2009) and for lower fit individuals (Brisswalter
et al., 1997; de Diego Acosta et al., 2001; McMorris, 2009; Nielsen
et al., 1999). These hypotheses were supported by the results.
Acute bouts of constant intensity cardiovascular exercise im-
pacted on cognitive performances but this effect was moderated
by exercise intensity. In fact, exercise had no appreciable effect
on cognition between light (40% PPO) and moderate (60% PPO)
exercise. Yet, this study showed deterioration of cognitive perfor-
mance from moderate (60% PPO) to intense (80% PPO) exercise.
This result is in line with the transient hypofrontality theory (Del
Giorno, Hall, O’Leary, Bixby, & Miller, 2010; Dietrich, 2006, 2009;
Dietrich & Audiffren, 2011; Dietrich & Sparling, 2004). Indeed,
the completion of higher intensity exercises elicits greater re-
Fig. 1. Mean error rate as a function of exercise intensity in the switching, reading sources demands on some motor areas. Therefore, considering
non-switch trials and inhibition non-switch trials of the switching condition. the limited nature of the brain’s resources, cognitive processes
relying on other brain areas that are not critical to maintenance
of high intensity exercise (i.e., prefrontal lobes) are expected to
be disrupted. Studies that compared cognitive performance at var-
ious intensity levels during exercise also showed similar results
(McMorris & Keen, 1994; McMorris et al., 2009).
Results of the present study showed no significant impact of
acute cardiovascular exercise on the non-executive (denomina-
tion) condition. This result might seem surprising as some models
have previously suggested that moderate exercise can facilitate
cognition through an increase in either the amount of available re-
sources (Kahneman, 1973) or arousal/activation (Dietrich & Audif-
fren, 2011; Humphreys & Revelle, 1984; Sanders, 1983). In our
study, the denomination condition was always performed first.
Therefore, it is not impossible that the shorter period of exercise
before the completion of this condition might have contributed
to this phenomenon. However, it must be remembered that empir-
ical data remain equivocal. Some narrative reviews (McMorris &
Graydon, 2000) have suggested that speed of information process-
ing was facilitated from rest to the adrenaline threshold, but was
unchanged if the intensity was further increased up to maximal
capacities. However, the authors underlined the fact that this con-
Fig. 2. Mean coefficient of variability (ICV) in the inhibition non-switch trials of the
clusion needed to be interpreted cautiously (i.e., phenomenon ob-
switching condition as a function of exercise intensity in lower and higher fit served in only two out of the 23 studies). Furthermore, it must be
participants. remembered that this work concerned the cognitive effects
 V. Labelle et al. / Brain and Cognition 81 (2013) 10–17 15

observed during incremental exercise (i.e., continuous protocol (McMorris, 2009), according to which functions relying on the pre-
without pauses between exercise intensity changes). As stated pre- frontal lobes are negatively affected by acute cardiovascular exer-
viously, different experimental designs lead to diverging effects on cise and particularly more intense exercise. These results are also
cognition. In the same line of thought, meta-analyses (Etnier et al., in line with the cardiovascular fitness hypothesis as the intensity
1997) and reviews (Tomporowski, 2003) have suggested that acute effect was only shown in lower fit individuals (increase in intra-
bouts of exercise could facilitate certain aspects of information individual variability). One possible explanation why fitness differ-
processing. However, these conclusions must also be interpreted ences were observed in this dependant variable only might be
warily since most of the studies included in these meta-analyses linked to cognitive reserve. In fact, even when confronted with a
and reviews significantly differed on a methodological point of demanding task, younger adults usually show an efficient utiliza-
view (e.g., experimental designs differed among studies with some tion of their cognitive reserve network (Stern, 2009). Therefore, if
evaluating pre-post exercise effects combined with others assess- one wants to detect even slight differences in their performances,
ing effects during exercise, etc.). Therefore, considering the impor- it is possible that more subtle analyses such as ICV might be nec-
tant influence of many confounding factors mentioned previously, essary. The inclusion of this analysis might therefore be interesting
we believe that pooling these different studies together may have in further studies assessing cognition of younger adults during
lead inaccurate conclusions. Whether acute bouts of exercise do exercise. If we refer to the possible aetiologies mentioned previ-
have an impact (positive or negative) on non-executive processes ously, the poorer performance of lower fit individuals could be ex-
still seems a matter of debate. Further empirical studies taking into plained in three ways. Either by a steeper decrease in blood O2
account confounding factors would help explain the complex ef- saturation and/or metabolites in the frontal lobe regions (Nielsen
fects of acute exercise on neurocognitive functions. et al., 1999; Rooks et al., 2010), by an important increase in cortisol
However, the present study supports the notion that acute and/or catecholamine concentrations (de Diego Acosta et al., 2001)
bouts of cardiovascular exercise would have a greater impact on or by a strong emotional reaction (i.e., stress) to intense exercise
cognitive processes relying on the prefrontal lobes. Results showed (McMorris, 2009). As stated earlier, the greater task complexity
detrimental effects of acute cardiovascular exercise in the switch- of this condition in the present study compared to the inhibition
ing condition of the computerized modified-Stroop task (in the condition alone might explain why effects were seen in this condi-
reading non-switch and the switch trials) in all participants when tion and not the latter one.
intensity rose from moderate (60% PPO) to intense (80% PPO). This One limitation of this study concerns the difficulty to distin-
is in line with most theories and hypotheses (i.e., transient hypo- guish if the results seen in the inhibition conditions were rather
frontality theory and the neuroendocrinological hypotheses). In linked to task complexity or to the precise cognitive process per
fact, switching abilities, which are thought to rely on the integrity se. In fact, we observed detrimental effects of acute cardiovascular
of the frontal lobes (Levine et al., 2008; Miyake et al., 2000), were exercise in the non-switch inhibition trials but found no impact in
disrupted when exercise became particularly intense. To our the inhibition condition alone. Also, as stated earlier, a more com-
knowledge, this is the first study to assess switching abilities dur- plex inhibition task (i.e., modified flanker task) showed a poorer
ing bouts of cardiovascular exercise of varied intensity levels in performance at 80% than at 50% maximum aerobic power (MAP)
young adults. Results suggest that tasks requiring the involvement (McMorris et al., 2009). One study showed the interplay between
of the prefrontal lobes are more likely to be disrupted by acute task difficulty and expertise (i.e. expert soccer players and fit con-
exercise. trols) and suggests that expertise can moderate the impact of acute
We did not find an impact of intensity or participants’ fitness le- exercise on visual attention (Pesce et al., 2007). Future studies
vel in the inhibition condition alone. This differs from results ob- using tasks that measure the same cognitive process (e.g., inhibi-
tained by McMorris et al. (2009) that showed poorer tion) at variable degree of difficulty within a same experimental
performances at 80% than at 50% maximum aerobic power in a frame would help disentangle the moderating effect of task diffi-
modified flanker task. Diverging results could be due to task de- culty on the relationship between acute exercise and cognition.
mands. In fact, in their experiment, participants not only had to jug-
gle with four response alternatives (i.e., blue, yellow, red and green)
but also had to remember the location of each response choice (i.e., 5. Conclusion
press the right button if the response is blue or yellow; press the left
button if the response is red or green). According to Stuss (2006) and Results of this study indicate that both lower and higher fit
Stuss and Alexander (2000), increased task complexity elicits more young adults exhibit a difficulty to switch attention between two
frontal lobes regions involvement. According to the transient hypo- sets of rules while performing a cardiovascular exercise that goes
frontality theory, fewer resources are allocated to the prefrontal from moderate to high intensity. Moreover, when compared to
lobes during an intense exercise. Therefore, it is possible that the their higher fit counterparts, lower fit individuals show instability
task used by McMorris et al. (2009) had put extra demands on the in performance during an inhibition task during high intensity
prefrontal lobes compared to the task used in the present study. exercise.
Finally, assessment of aerobic fitness levels also revealed prom- In sum, methodological factors such as the cognitive processes
ising findings. In fact fitness group differences were observed in the being assessed, participants’ aerobic fitness level and exercise
non-switch inhibition trials of the switching condition. Lower fit intensity should be considered in future studies looking at the ef-
individuals showed more variable RTs than their higher fit counter- fect of acute exercise on cognition. Various models and theories
parts when intensity rose from 60% to 80% PPO. Such an increase in were put forward to explain the relationship between acute cardio-
intra-individual variability can be due to diminished attentional/ vascular bouts of exercise and cognition. Yet, the exact aetiology of
executive efficiency (Hultsch, Strauss, Hunter, & MacDonald, the underpinnings of this relationship still remains unclear. Future
2008) or, in other words, a shortfall in top-down control (Stuss & studies should consider hemodynamics, neuroendocrinological and
Binns, 2008). In fact, the frontal lobes together with the cerebellum emotional changes that occur during acute bouts of cardiovascular
are key areas related to the maintenance of performance consis- exercise together with behavioral performances in order to deepen
tency (Stuss & Binns, 2008). Once again, these results are in line our knowledge about this relationship. Finally, the relationship
with the transient hypofrontality theory (Del Giorno et al., 2010; between acute cardiovascular exercise and cognition should be
Dietrich, 2006, 2009; Dietrich & Audiffren, 2011; Dietrich & Spar- explored with various populations since actual research has essen-
ling, 2004) as well as the neuroendocrinological hypothesis tially considered younger adult populations (Pesce, 2009).
16 V. Labelle et al. / Brain and Cognition 81 (2013) 10–17

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