National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)

National Cybercrime Training Centre (NCTC)

Course Reference Guide

Track: Responders Track

Level: Basic
Chapter 3: Introduction to
Computer Networks
 Introduction to Computer Networks

Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Computer Networks ........................................................................... 4
2. Classification of Networks ............................................................................................ 7
2.1. Geographical Range Driven Networks .................................................................. 7
2.2. Transmission Driven Networks ............................................................................. 9
2.3. Peer to Peer and Client-Server Networks ............................................................. 11
2.4. Private and Public Driven Networks: .................................................................. 12
2.5. Storage Driven Networks: ................................................................................... 13
3. Network Topology ...................................................................................................... 15
4. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model ...................................................... 18
5. Basic Networking Devices .......................................................................................... 21
5.1. Concept of Physical Addressing in Networks – MAC Addresses ........................ 23
6. Introduction to IP Address ......................................................................................... 25
6.1. Concept of Logical Addresses in a Network – IP Address .................................. 25
6.2. IP Addressing in Computer Networks................................................................. 26
7. Communication Protocols .......................................................................................... 29
8. Introduction to Domain Name System, Uniform Resource Locator and Website ... 31
9. Reference: .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

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1. Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer networks are a collection of computers that are connected with each other
through a set of communication devices and transmission media. The communication
in a computer network happens using a standard set of rules known as ‘protocols’. Each
computer network comprises of group of computers, communication devices and
transmission media. These are described below:

1. Group of computers: A group of computers can be desktops, laptops, servers

or mobile devices such as smartphones or tablets.

2. Communication Devices: Communication devices help in transmitting

information between two devices such as computers or other communication
devices. Some examples of communication devices are modems, network cards
and Wi-Fi devices.

3. Transmission Media: Transmission media include the physical devices that

transmit the information such as network cables and radio towers.

Computer Networks can classify further into two categories: Standalone Systems and
Networked Systems. The main features of the two are as follows:

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Standalone System: The main feature of a standalone system is:

• A standalone system is any computer or device that is operating on its

own and not connected to any network.
• All tasks occur within the computer or device itself.
• Data is similarly stored within the computer or device itself and cannot
be accessed without connecting to it.

Networked Systems: Computer networks, as stated previously, are groups of

connected computers or devices. Some of its main features include:

• Tasks can be handled by one or more computers in the network.

• Data can be shared across all computers connected to the network.

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2. Classification of Networks
Networks can be classified based on the various parameters. Some of these are as
follows:

1. Geographical Range Driven Networks – BAN, PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN

2. Wireless Communication Driven Networks – Bluetooth, Zigbee NFC,
Wifi, Wimax
3. Hierarchical Driven Networks -- Peer to Peer Networks and Client Server
Networks
4. Private, Public Driven Networks – Intranet, Internet, Extranet and VPN
5. Storage Driven Networks – SAN, NAS: These network types can be
connected over wired medium such as leased lines, fibre optics or over wireless
medium such as radio towers or satellites.

2.1. Geographical Range Driven Networks

Size driven networks can be classified into five types based on coverage of the
network and transmission.

1. Personal Area Network (PAN): Personal Area Network is a computer

network used for data transmission amongst devices such as computers,
telephones, tablets, personal digital assistants, fax machines and printers,
that are located close to a single user.

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2. Local-Area Network (LAN): Local-Area Network is a computer network

that spans a relatively small area. Most often, a LAN is confined to a single
room, building or group of buildings, however, one LAN can be connected
to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Metropolitan area network or

MAN is a network that interconnects users with computer resources in a
geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a large local area
network -LAN but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network -
WAN. It covers relatively large region such as cities and towns.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN): Wide Area Network is a much larger

network than LAN and MAN. It often covers multiple countries or

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continents. These network types can be connected over wired medium such
as leased lines, fibre optics or over wireless medium such as radio towers or
satellites.

2.2. Transmission Driven Networks

Transmission or Wireless Communication Driven Networks can be classified into
five types based on coverage of the wireless network. These network types can be
connected over wired medium such as leased lines, fiber optics or over wireless
medium such as radio towers or satellites.

1. Bluetooth: Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) refers to a wireless

technology used to transfer data over short distances. The technology is
frequently used in small devices that connect to users’ phones, tablets, and
wireless speakers.

2. Zigbee: Zigbee is another short-range, networking technology similar in

many ways to Bluetooth with similar applications. It uses the same 2.4 GHz
carrier frequency, consumes very little power, operates over a similar range,
and offers mesh networking.

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3. Near-field communication (NFC): Near-field communication (NFC) is

a short-range wireless technology that makes user’s smartphone, tablet,
wearables, payment cards, and other devices even smarter. With NFC, user
can transfer information between devices quickly and easily with a single
touch, whether paying bills, exchanging business cards or downloading
coupons

4. Wireless Fidelity (WIFI): Wireless Fidelity (WiFi) uses radio waves

(RF) to allow two devices to communicate with one another. The technology
is most commonly used to connect Internet routers to devices like
computers, tablets and phones; however, it can be used to connect together
any two hardware components.

5. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WIMAX):

WiMax stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. This
wireless technology allows data to be transferred at a rate of 30–40
megabits per second. At the most basic level, WiMAX supports mobile, fixed
and nomadic wireless applications. A mobile application provides

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communication while the user is in transit. A good example is a business

traveler who communicates while on a train.

2.3. Peer to Peer and Client-Server Networks

Computer networks are classified based on architecture as:

1. Peer to Peer Networks: Computer networks in the simplest form consist

of connecting one computer to another in a circular fashion. These networks
are called peer-to-peer networks.

2. Client-Server Networks: Client-server networks are complex networks

in which all the computers on the network called as clients connect to a
central computer system, which is known as a server. In these networks, the
server stores data, manages and provides resources, and controls user
access.

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2.4. Private and Public Driven Networks:

Private and Public Driven Networks can be classified into three types based on
network access. Understanding private or public driven networks can help the
Investigating Officer to identify and associate evidence. These network types can
be connected over wired medium such as leased lines, fibre optics or over wireless
medium such as radio towers or satellites. These networks are as follows:

1. Intranet: It is an internal private network built within an organization

using Internet and World Wide Web standards and products that allows
employees of an organization to gain access to corporate information.

2. Extranet: An extranet is a private network that uses Internet protocols,

network connectivity. An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's
intranet that is extended to users outside the company, usually via the
Internet.

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3. Internet: An internet is an interconnection of millions of computers

together globally, forming a network in which any computer can
communicate with any other computer as long as they are both connected
to the network. There is no central server that controls the internet. It is a
web of networked devices such as routers, computers, repeaters, satellites,
WiFi, and servers that are constantly communicating across data lines and
wireless signals.

2.5. Storage Driven Networks:

Storage-driven networks are the networks that are classified based on the large-
scale storage device that exist on the network. Understanding a storage-driven
network enables an Investigating Officer to collect digital media while
investigating cyber-attacks and breaches. These network types can be connected
over wired medium such as leased lines, fibre optics or over wireless medium such
as radio towers or satellites. Storage-driven Networks can be classified into three
types:

1. Direct Attached Storage (DAS): Direct Attached Storage -DAS is a

digital attached storage that is directly connected to the system that is a PC
or a server through an internal cable. The DAS system holds single or
multiple hard disk drives in a single enclosure, which is directly connected
to the computer.

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2. Storage Area Network (SAN): Storage Area Network -SAN is used for
transferring data between the servers and the storage devices fiber channel
and switches. In SAN, data is identified by disk block. When you use a SAN,
devices connected to the network do not use any local storage.

3. Network Attached Storage (NAS): Network Attached Storage -NAS is

a file-level computer data storage server connected to a computer network.
It provides storage and access to data from a central location to several
authorized network users and other groups of clients. These systems are
commonly used to support shared applications, including engineering
software builds, data logging, email systems, video recording and editing,
business analytics, financial records, genomics data sets and much more.

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3. Network Topology
Network topology is defined as the arrangement of a network covering all of its nodes
and connections between nodes. There are majorly four types of network topologies
that are described below.

1. Bus Topology: Bus Topology is a network where each node is connected to a

single cable. This network is successful if you have a small network. Bus
topology is the easiest topology for connecting computers or peripherals. These
networks require less cable length.

Now, let us look at the disadvantages of bus topology. In bus topology if you face
any issue, it is difficult to identify problems in case of network issues. In
addition, it is difficult troubleshoot individual devices if you are facing a device
issue. Further, adding additional devices can slowdown the network.

2. Ring Topology: Ring Topology is a network where each node is connected to

two other nodes forming a ring. Ring topology can be unidirectional or
bidirectional based on the data flow.

In a ring network, server is not required to connect computers and all computers
have an equal access to the resources. However, in case of a unidirectional ring
topology, data transfer can be slow as it must pass through all the nodes.

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3. Star Topology: Star Topology is a network where all nodes or computers are
connected to a central server or hub. In star topology, if one device or cable fails
then all others continue to work making this a reliable topology. It is a high-
performing topology as data collisions do not occur.

However, it is also an expensive topology to install as network cable is used and

extra hardware, including hubs or switches, is required. If a hub or switch fails,
all the devices connected to it will have no network connection.

4. Mesh Topology: Mesh Topology is a network where each node is

interconnected with one another and there is no central connection point. Each
node in a mesh topology is able to send and receive messages from other nodes.
Therefore, messages are relayed quickly through the network. In mesh topology,
you can increase the number of nodes without disrupting the complete network.

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However, with increased connections this topology requires more maintenance.

Mesh topology is the most commonly used topology.

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4. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

Computer networks follow a standard model called the Open Systems Interconnection
or OSI model. The OSI model consists of seven layers that describe how a network shall
function with a universal set of rules and requirements. The knowledge about these
layers enables you to troubleshoot issues when you are facing problem in accessing a
website or error in a physical component during an investigation. Apart from this, it will
also help you in investigating or analyzing in network forensics. The layers are:

1. Physical Layer: The physical layer is literally the physical hardware that makes
up the network. This layer has several major functions, including defining
physical specifications, protocols, transmission mode and network’s topology.
2. Data Link Layer: The data link layer is where switches operate and provides a
reliable link between two directly connected nodes. The data link layer is also
responsible for detecting and possibly fixing any packet errors that may form on
the physical layer.
3. Network Layer: The network layer is where routers operate. A router is a
hardware device that forwards packets of information between computers on a
network and is responsible for sending and receiving packets from the Internet.
So, the origin and destination of these packets is determined by the IP address of
your router.
4. Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for the logistics of the
session. For example, the transport layer would be responsible for determining
what and how much information is transferred between the operating system and
the web server.
5. Session Layer: The session layer is responsible for creating and maintaining
sessions between the operating system on the presentation layer and other, third
party machines.
6. Presentation Layer: The presentation layer is where the operating system lies.
This operating system could be Windows, OS X, a Unix based operating system
or one of the many others available.
7. Application Layer: The application layer is where the user inputs data and
receives the output. The application layer is usually software that is run off the

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local machine, however this depends on the network architecture. The software
could be cloud based, meaning it runs off a server in a remote location and data
is transferred over the internet, or the software could be run on a local server.

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5. Basic Networking Devices

Networking devices are physical devices that help in communication or interaction
between computers on a network. Some of the common networking devices are
described as follows:

1. Repeater: Repeaters are network devices that amplify or regenerate an

incoming signal before retransmitting it. They are incorporated in networks to
expand its coverage area. They are also known as signal boosters.
2. Hub: A hub is a networking Physical layer device. It serves as a central
connection point for several network devices and is the heart of a network. It is
a multi-port repeater that repeats what it receives on one port and transmits to
all other ports.
3. Switch: Switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a
computer network. It contains more advanced features than Hub. It delivers the
message to the correct destination based on the physical address present in the
incoming message and unlike hub it does not broadcast the message to the
entire network. Therefore, we can say that it provides a direct connection
between the source and destination. So, it increases the speed of the network.
4. Router: A router is a device that connects different networks together. They
are packet forwarding devices or it is a device that forwards data packet along
network. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or
WANs or a LAN and its Internet Service Provider’s network.
5. Bridge: Bridge is a physical device, typically a box of two ports, which connects
two networks at Data Link Layer. A bridge is used to join two existing LANs or
two split one LAN into two segments.
6. Modem: A modem is an internet peripheral device which enables computers
to communicate with each other over conventional telephone lines. The term
modem stands for modulator/demodulator. The purpose of a modem is to
convert digital signal to analog signal or modulate and analog signal to digital
signal or demodulate.

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7. Network Interface Card: A Network Interface Card or NIC is a hardware

device that is installed on the computer so that it can be connected to the
internet. It is also called Ethernet Card or Network Adapter.
8. Wireless Access Point: A wireless access point is a device that allows a
wireless compliant device such as smartphone or laptop to connect to a wired
network using Wi-Fi.
9. Firewall: A firewall is a network security device that forms a barrier between a
trusted network and an untrusted network. The firewall monitors all data
moving in from the untrusted network and out of the trusted network.
10. Intrusion Prevention System (IPS): An intrusion prevention system is a
network security device that continuously monitors a computer network for
possible malicious incidents and preventing them from accessing the network.
11. Network Tap: A network tap is a hardware device that provides a way to access
the data flowing in a computer network. It is similar to how phone tap is done,
network tap works for computer networks.
12. Transmission Medium: Transmission Medium is a physical transmission
device that can transfer data across two network or computer devices.
Transmission media can be classified into two broad categories, Guided
Transmission Media and Unguided Transmission Media.
13. Guided: Guided Transmission Media refers to transmission media on which
data is sent along a physical path. This transmission is secure, provides high
speed and is ideal for sending information in shorter distances. Some of the
examples are phone lines, coaxial cables, fibre optic cables and twisted pair
cables.
14. Unguided: Unguided transmission media do not use any physical path. In this
case, transmission occurs through electromagnetic signals that are broadcasted
through air making them less secure. This is used to send information across
larger distances. Some examples include radio waves, microwaves and infrared
waves.

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5.1. Concept of Physical Addressing in Networks – MAC Addresses

In network terminology, a physical address of the computer or network device is
called as a Media Access Control or MAC address. Some of the features of MAC are
as follows:

• Each MAC address is a six-byte hexadecimal address. The first three

bytes identify the company that made the device. The second three
bytes are the serial number of the NIC itself.
• The MAC address is a unique number assigned to each computer (on
the NIC) or network device. The MAC address is provided by the
manufacturer of the particular device.

Steps to Follow for Finding MAC Address of a Device

There are steps that you need to follow for finding the MAC address of a device.
These steps are different for different environment: Windows, Linux, Apple,
Android, and iPhone or iPad.

Windows Environment

Following are the steps for a Windows environment:

1. Click on Start and type “cmd” to find the Command Prompt. Press “Enter”
to open the Command Prompt.
2. Type the command “getmac” or “ipconfig/all”. getmac provides a list of
MAC addresses of communication devices. ipconfig/all provides a list of
compatible network configurations and their MAC addresses.

Linux Environment

Following are the steps for a Linux environment:

1. Open “Terminal”.
2. Type the command “ifconfig-a”.

Apple Mac Environment

Following are the steps for an Apple Mac environment:

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1. Click the Apple icon.

2. Choose “System Preferences”.
3. Select “Network”.
4. Click on “Advanced”.
5. The MAC address is listed in the “Hardware” section.

Android Devices

Following are the steps for Android Devices:

1. Tap on “Settings.”
2. Tap on “About Phone”.
3. Tap on “Status”.
4. MAC addresses are listed in for Wi-Fi and Bluetooth adaptors.

iPhone/iPad Devices

Following are the steps for iPhone/iPad Devices:

1. Tap on “Settings”.
2. Tap on “General”.
3. Tap on “About”.
4. MAC addresses are listed in for Wi-Fi and Bluetooth adaptors.

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6. Introduction to IP Address
The Internet is a worldwide network of unrelated computers that can only
communicate using Internet Protocol. And, every machine participating in a computer
network, that uses the Internet Protocol for communication, has a unique identifying
number, called an Internet Protocol address (IP address). We can also say that an IP
address is the logical address that identifies a machine on a network.

IP addresses are unique, which means each address defines one, and only one,
connection to internet. No two devices on the internet can have same IP address at
same time. IP addressing was designed to allow a host on one network to Communicate
with a host on a different network.

6.1. Concept of Logical Addresses in a Network – IP Address

In network terminology, a logical address is used to uniquely locate a computer or
network device on a computer network. There are two types of IP addresses used
in computer network. Each IP address is either of 4 bytes or 16 bytes and is
provided by the ISP who provides the network. Their features are described below.

Some of the features of IPv4 Addresses are:

• Used for most of the network traffic.

• Written in a dotted quad or dotted decimal format.

Some of the features of IPv6 Addresses are:

• Slowly replacing IPv4 addresses.

• Written as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by
colons.

In computer networking, IP addresses are classified as Static IP address and

Dynamic IP address. These are explained further below:

1. Static IP Addresses: A static IP address is an address that does not

change over time unless changed manually. Static IP addresses are used by
servers or other important equipment.

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2. Dynamic IP Addresses: A Dynamic IP address is an address that keeps

on changing. It is mostly used when having a consistent IP address is not
necessary. Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by most ISPs or Service
Providers to their customers when they access content on the Internet.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol -DHCP automatically assigns these
dynamic IP addresses to the users.

6.2. IP Addressing in Computer Networks

IP addresses are classified into two more types namely Private IP address and
Public IP address.

1. Private IP Address: A private IP address is the IP address that your

network router assigns to your device. Each device on a network is assigned
a unique private IP address. Private IP addresses enable the devices
connected to the same network communicate with each other without
connecting to the entire internet. These IP addresses also help increase
security within a specific network. For example, in case of a wireless printer
only the devices on your home network are able to print files and the devices
outside the network are unable to print files.
2. Public IP Address: A public IP address is sometimes called an Internet
IP. Public IP addresses are required for any publicly accessible network
hardware such as a home router and the servers that host websites. For
example, your email address and your home address are unique to you,
which is why sending mail to those addresses ensures that messages get to
you and not someone else. The same exclusivity is applied to your IP address
so your digital requests are sent to your network and not another network.

Steps to Follow for Finding Private IP Address of a Device Connected

to a Network

Windows Environment

Following are the steps for a Windows environment:

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1. Click on Start and type “cmd” to find the Command Prompt. Press
“Enter” to open the Command Prompt.
2. Type the command “ipconfig” to get the private IP address.

Linux Environment

Following are the steps for a Linux environment:

1. Open “Terminal”.
2. Type the command “ifconfig” to find the private IP address.

Apple Mac Environment

Following are the steps for an Apple Mac environment:

1. Click the Apple icon.

2. Choose “System Preferences”
3. Select “Network”.
4. Click on “Ethernet” to find the private IP address.

Android Devices

Following are the steps for Android Devices:

1. Tap on “Settings”.
2. Tap on “About Phone”.
3. Tap on “Status”.
4. IP addresses are listed.

iPhone/iPad Devices

Following are the steps for iPhone/iPad Devices:

1. Tap on “Settings”.
2. Tap on “General”.
3. Tap on “About”.
4. IP addresses are listed.

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Steps to Follow for Finding Public IP Address of a Device Connected to

a Network

Here are the steps to follow for finding Public IP Address of a Device Connected to
a Network:

1. Open any web browser such as “Chrome” or “Safari” or “Firefox”.

2. Type www.google.com.
3. In the search bar type “What is my IP”.
4. The first result shows the public IP address of the device.

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7. Communication Protocols
A communication protocol is a set of rules that allow two devices in a network to
transmit information over a physical medium.

The protocol defines the rules, syntax, semantics of communication and possible error
recovery approaches. Communication protocols can be implemented in hardware,
software or a combination of both. Here are two common types of communication
protocols:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a communications

protocol used for data transmission between devices over a network. Data is
transmitted in packets in a particular sequence. TCP is a connection-
oriented protocol, which means the devices should establish a connection
before transmitting data and close connection after transmission. TCP
provides error-checking support and guarantees delivery of data to the
destination. TCP is slower and less efficient in performance. TCP is used by
HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP and Telnet.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is simple connection-less
communication protocol used for data transmission between devices in a
network. It is a datagram-oriented protocol. This means that there is no
overhead for opening, maintaining and terminating the connection. UDP is
efficient for broadcast and multicast type of transmission. Data is sent
continuously without any sequence or error-checking. UDP has basic error
checking support and therefore delivery of data at the destination is not
guaranteed. UDP is lightweight and has better performance. UDP is used by
DNS, DHCP, TFTP, SNMP, RIP, and VoIP.

Some of the key terms that are required to understand communication protocols are
described as follows:

1. Ports: The ports are communication endpoints which are associated to various
services provided by communication protocols. For example, if someone sends
an email it uses SMTP port number 25. Similarly, if someone tries to access any
secured website it uses HTTPS, which runs on port number 443. Each port

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identifies with a specific process or type of network service and is denoted with
a 16-bit unsigned integer.
• Port numbers range from 0 to 65535.
• Port numbers ranging from 0 to 1023 are commonly used ports and have
pre-defined services attached.
• Port number ranging from 1024 to 65535 are open ports and are available
for general use by applications.
2. Subnets and Subnetting: A subnetwork is a logical division of an IP network
or a network within a network. The act of dividing a network into two or more
networks is called subnetting. The purpose of subnetting is to improve the
efficiency of networks without passing through unnecessary networking devices
to reach their destination.
3. Subnet Mask: A subnet mask is like an IP address but only for internal usage
within a network.
4. Network Address Translation (NAT): Network address translation (NAT)
is a method of mapping multiple computers or network devices with multiple IP
addresses in a computer network to a single IP address on the internet. This
allows:
• Multiple IP addresses within the computer network to be mapped to a
single IP address that acts like the receptionist.
• Any communication to happen from the internet with the devices in the
network to reach the common single IP address.
• Routers to carry out NAT with other networking devices such as firewalls
and switches also supporting NAT.

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8.Introduction to Domain Name System, Uniform Resource

Locator and Website
It is challenging to remember all IP addresses that exist for various computers or
websites. To simplify this, Domain Name System or DNS is used. DNS is essentially
like a phone directory for any network including the internet. A list of common set of
domains are provided here.

A Domain Name System (DNS) has the following features:

• Records the name of a particular resource or service and its

corresponding IP address.
• Is a unique name-tag that is easy to remember and is associated with a
particular organization or entity that uses a specific IP address.
• Is stored in the DNS along with its IP address.
• Is also associated with a particular domain which is a common group of
services.

Uniform Resource Locator or URL: Uniform Resource Locator or URL is the

internet address link of any resource that is located on computer or network. It is a
resource link that helps to access a particular location on a computer network including
the internet and retrieve any content stored in the location and associated with the
URL.

• URLs use a protocol for transferring content.

• HTTP provides the set of rules that govern how information will be
transferred over the network using the URL.
• A secured form of HTTP is used to transfer sensitive information. This
protocol is called Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol Secured or HTTPS.
• HTTPS protocol provides a set of rules that govern how information will
be transferred securely.
• Other protocols include file transfer protocol or FTP, mail to for emails
and secured FTP or SFTP.

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A URL contains of multiple parts that help access specific resources from a computer
network. These are: Protocol, Top Level Domain, Domain name and Sub-domain.

1. Protocol: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP or similar that defines the set of rules for
information exchange.
2. Top Level Domain: This is the common domain to which the URL falls
such as .com or .edu.
3. Domain name: This is the name of the resource that is being accessed for
example google or amazon.
4. Sub-domain: This the sub-domain under the common domain through
which resource will be accessed such as www.

Website

A website can be accessed using URLs, which are mapped to IP addresses and help in
locating the websites on the computer network. Websites contain pages called as “Web
pages” that are essentially a collection of text, multimedia and links to other pages and
arranged in a uniform format to make it easy for users to access the resources they
need. There are two types of websites:

1. Accessible All websites that are accessible to general public are part of
the internet and use the World Wide Web or www for short.

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2. Restricted Websites that are restricted to a limited number of users

within an organization are typically not accessible over the
internet but are accessible over the organization’s intranet.

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