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PSYCHO-EMOTIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS OF

BURNOUT IN A SAMPLE OF ROMANIAN TEACHERS

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Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
Copyright © 2011 ASCR Publishing House. All rights reserved.
ISSN: 1224-8398
Volume XV, No. 3 (September), 331-358

PSYCHO-EMOTIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL

ASPECTS OF BURNOUT IN A SAMPLE OF
ROMANIAN TEACHERS
Corina I. VLĂDUŢ, Éva KÁLLAY*
Department of Psychology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

ABSTRACT
Burnout is an extremely debilitating mental health problem that affects not only
the quality of life of those who suffer from it, their interpersonal relationships,
but also the quality of their work. These aspects are extremely relevant in case of
schoolteachers whose aim is to teach and shape the life of children and
adolescents. The major objective of the present paper is to investigate the
phenomenon of burnout in a sample of Romanian school teachers, identify some
of the factors associated with it, thus delineating a portrait of those who suffer
from this problem.

KEYWORDS: burnout, self-efficacy, areas of work-life, stress, anxiety,

depression.

INTRODUCTION

Teaching has always been a respected practice, dedicated to the development of

others: children, youth, and adults - the entire society. Those who were drawn to this
profession strongly believed that they could make a difference in the lives of others.
Thus, in alliance with parents, teachers play an important part in shaping the values
and attitudes of young children (Ramsey, 2000).
However, because of rapidly changing work environments (Amundson,
2006), the boundaries between the roles teachers play have been blurred. A teacher is
not only an educator and a model – he/she is also a social worker, a counselor, a
guide who supervises and teaches appropriate behaviors regarding health, language,
and correct attitudes (Brante, 2009).

*
Corresponding author:
E-mail: [email protected]
332 C. I. Vlăduţ, É. Kállay

In the same time, teachers are expected to continually adapt and keep up
with new information and practices, to fulfill multiple demands in relatively short
periods of time, acquire modern pedagogical resources, and obtain high educational
results with their students. The community, parents, and supervisors have different
expectations, which pressure teachers to perform at their best. Unfortunately, these
increased responsibilities imposed by the educational system are not accompanied by
specific changes in training programs or opportunities to cope with these demands
(Travers & Cooper, 1996). In this context, early signs of occupational stress in the
educational area started to appear in Romania as well.
Stressfulness of teaching is proven by the growing prevalence of burnout in
this population. Generally, 60% to 70% of the teachers present symptoms related to
stress, and approximately 30% present distinct symptoms of burnout (Hakanen,
Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006; Bauer, Stamm, Virnich, Wissing, Kriston, Muller, et al.,
2005). Interestingly, teaching was recently classified as one of the most stressful
occupations, among other occupations which involve interpersonal relationships and
emotional labor (Johnson, Cooper, Cartwright, Donald, Taylor, & Millet, 2005).
Pioneering studies defined burnout in teachers as similar to general stress
reactions (McGuire, 1979). However, advanced research delimited individual and
work-related factors that could cause burnout (e.g., like age, gender differences, age
of children taught, workload, etc., see Chang, 2009). In this early research, workload
appeared to be the most salient aspect that contributed to burnout and therefore a
couple of models examined teacher burnout in relation to workload (for example, the
Demand-Control Model proposed by Karasek in 1979, later expanded to Job
Demands-Resources Model by Demorouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001;
also see Chang, 2009).
Somewhat later, in the 1990’s, theoretical models started to examine the
interaction of teacher burnout with the work environment, where burnout was
defined as a function of “prolonged job strain that results from the inadequacy of
coping resources and the absence of equitable rewards in relation to the demands of
work-related stressors” (Blasé, 1982, p. 109). This idea was carried on to recent
research as well. Maslach's perspective in defining burnout as a multidimensional
construct became the dominant paradigm. This author defined burnout as a
“psychological syndrome which implies a prolonged response to chronic emotional
and interpersonal stressors on the job”, and which includes the following three
dimensions: exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter,
2001, p. 397).
Firstly, the so called “root of burnout”, or the stress dimension, is
represented by exhaustion. This component is defined by feelings of depletion of
emotional and physical resources, in which workers perceive that they are no longer
able to efficiently perform at the psychological level (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter,
1996). For teachers, we might speculate that exhaustion can lead to lower levels of
involvement and responsiveness to the needs of their students’.

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Another dimension of burnout is depersonalization or cynicism, and it refers

to the development of a cynical, negative attitude and feelings towards one's clients
(students in the case of teachers). Its’ development appears to be related to emotional
exhaustion caused by overload, so the two should be correlated (Maslach & Leiter,
1997).
The third component, inefficacy (reduced personal accomplishment) refers
to a negative self-evaluation, which is accompanied by feelings of incompetence and
lack of efficiency at work. It can develop either as the direct effect of one of the
above-mentioned dimensions, or as the result of their interactions. Therefore, a
teacher who is not efficient may have lower results in instructional activities.
Numerous studies have explored the specific conditions that make teaching
stressful. These can be categorized either as exogenous (i.e., excessive workload,
lack of support) or endogenous factors (i.e., individual characteristics, personality
attributes etc). In the same time, burnout may interfere not only with work life, but
may also have individual, familial, and organizational costs.

WORK AREAS RELATED TO TEACHER BURNOUT

Possible work areas related to teacher burnout have been recognized as a major
problem in organizations since the 1970’s (Sabanci, 2009). Having a
multidimensional structure, burnout can be determined by various working
conditions, and also by the individual’s psychological reactions to this environment.
In most cases, organizational research has focused on job characteristics (e.g., role
conflict, lack of resources, role ambiguity), but also on specific features of the
profession (e.g., human relations, the expression of emotions, organizational
expectations, workload, control, rewards, and so on) (Sabanci, 2009). Maslach and
Leiter (1997) argued that burnout results from a situation characterized by chronic
imbalance between job characteristics (e.g., demands) and employee characteristics
(e.g., needs). So, instead of considering one single cause of burnout, the authors
revealed six types of person-job mismatches as possible determinants of burnout.
These will be further described as related to teachers' work.
In many professions, one of the most debated sources of burnout is
workload, aspect defined by the situation in which the demands of the work exceed
individual human capacities (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). In the educational
domain, teachers are frequently overwhelmed by work-overload, and have of a
limited time to perform efficiently.
Moreover, the excess of work-demands leads to an unexpected restriction of
creativity in the classroom, as well as the impossibility to enhance relationships with
colleagues, which in time may have a negative impact on the teachers' private lives
(Timms, Graham, & Cottrell, 2007). Of special interest is the phenomenon called
“de-skilling” described by Timms et. al., (2007), where workload may lead to the

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degradation of some professional abilities due to their lessened importance and

application in time. In this way, teachers have to divide their time and knowledge in
more efficient activities, and avoid routine. Here, we can also discuss another form
of workload for teachers, namely multitasking, the condition in which teachers have
to manage two or three actions simultaneously (e.g., Brante, 2009). For instance,
they can attend a meeting, during which they think at a student's problems, and plan
an intervention strategy for him. Sometimes this mental work can interfere with their
school breaks. As many other consequences, workload can predict psychosomatic
symptoms (Van Dick & Wagner, 2001; Jin, Yeung, Tang, & Low, 2008), and it is
negatively associated with work-engagement, this being one of the major sources of
dissatisfaction with the work environment (Timms, et al., 2007; Bauer, Unterbrink,
Hack et al., 2007). Teachers perceive negatively all the demands that exceed their
abilities (for example implication in extra-curricular activities and administrative
tasks), which may have negative physical and work-related effects.
Another aspect which is probably associated with the occurrence of burnout
is control (see Demand–control of Job Stress Model, Karasek & Theorell, 1990). In
general, teachers are aware of the tasks they are expected to fulfill, but they often
face role conflicts and role ambiguity. Consequently, in the absence of clear
instructions and efficient communication, their capacity to cope with multiple
demands coming from different sources is severely hindered (Ho, 1996). These
control problems are associated with the exhaustion dimension of burnout (Cordes &
Dougherty, 1993).
On the other hand, when people feel that they can control their work, their
actions are more freely and easily chosen, which may lead to greater job satisfaction,
higher levels of commitment and efficacy (Leiter & Maslach, 2004). However, those
teachers who perceive less control over their environment will report higher levels of
stress (Geving, 2007). Some teachers consider that the control they have over their
work is related to the practical and informational support they receive, namely, the
assistance they get from colleagues and supervisors in completing certain tasks
(Greenglass, Burke & Konarski, 1997). This perceived control can, in turn, diminish
the level of stress, increase self-esteem, enhance performance, and professional
efficacy in terms of positive outlooks towards the job (Greenglass et.al., 1997).
Moreover, from the point of view of gender differences, it appears that men are more
prone to stress in situations over which they perceive little control (Ho, 1996). One
possible explanation is that, in spite of similar professional background, men (in
comparison with women), are less flexible to change. Therefore, they perceive the
loss of control over the pre-established environment more acutely (Ho, 1996).
Reward is another factor that contributes to teachers’ wellbeing and
performance. According to Leiter and Maslach (2004), this area of work refers to the
measure in which rewards - monetary, social, and intrinsic - are consistent with the
teachers’ expectations. Studies show that the lack of recognition from important
others can devalue both work and workers, leading to feelings of inefficacy (Cordes

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& Dougherty, 1993). For instance, a study with over 600 American teachers has
indicated that financial satisfaction of the teachers is positively associated with better
school performance of students (Currall, Towler, Judge, & Kohn, 2005). Because of
this, some teachers are willing to stay longer in their current jobs, while being aware
that financial rewards may diminish in time (Murnane, Singer, & Willet, 1989).
Therefore, the existence of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards (such as pride in doing
something important) can define a workflow that supports both psychological
wellbeing, and physical health (Leiter & Maslach, 2004). Without any kind of
reward, people can become vulnerable to burnout, even more when the effort
invested is higher than the rewards received (Pillay, Goddard, & Wilss, 2005; van
Horn, Schaufeli, & Enzman, 1998; Unterbrink, Hack, Pfeifer, Buhl-Grießhaber,
Muller, Wesche, et al., 2007).
Further approaching the issue of balance between effort and reward brings
into question the problem of fairness. This dimension defines the level of mutual
respect between employees, the fairness of decisions, and confirmations of people's
self-worth (Leiter & Maslach, 2004). Research based on the Equity Theory (Walster,
Berscheid, & Walster, 1973), and Effort-Reward Imbalance Model (Siegrist, 2002)
has found that a lack of reciprocity, or imbalanced social exchange processes are
strong predictors of burnout (Leiter et al., 2004). For instance, Taris, Van Horn,
Schaufeli, and Schreurs (2004) have shown that injustice perceived by teachers in
three types of relationships (with students, colleagues, school management) is
associated with emotional exhaustion. It seems that, the lack of reciprocity or the
exclusion from social interactions are experienced by teachers as a deviation from
fairness and thus can deteriorate self-regulation through weakening self-efficacy,
self-esteem and the feelings of belonging (Bellingrath, Rohleder, & Kudielka, 2010).
Likewise, imbalance between effort and reward is related to various health problems
(such as depression, sleep disorders, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases). Moreover,
psychosocial characteristics of the workplace can affect immune functioning
(Bellingrath, et al., 2010).
Fairness is also considered to be another critical factor in the association
between the leadership style and burnout. Employees will be less susceptible to
burnout and more accepting of organizational change if supervisors are perceived as
being fair and supportive (Leiter & Maslach, 2004). Some authors have indicated
that in those schools where the supervisor inspires a sense of meaning to workers,
where teachers are given sufficient resources and rewards for their performances,
and are encouraged to engage in new opportunities sustaining professional
development, teachers report higher self-efficacy and work-engagement (Tschannen-
Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007; Simbula, Guglielmi, & Schaufeli, 2010).
Mutual respect is also a central aspect of the sense of community. This is
represented by the quality of social interactions at work, including aspects as mutual
support, conflict, closeness, and capacity to work in and as a team (Leiter &
Maslach, 2004). Most research in this area has focused on social support offered by

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supervisors, colleagues, and family members (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993;

Greenglass, Fiksenbaum, & Burke, 1994). In general, a sense of community for
teachers can act as a buffer against burnout, via self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran &
Woolfolk Hoy, 2007), where perceived social support and support from supervisors
and colleagues are proven to be important predictors of burnout (Avtgis & Rancer,
2008; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2009; Zhongying, 2008). On the other hand, teachers
who lack social support at their workplace are susceptible to mental health problems
and low well-being (Kovess-Masfety, Rios-Seidel, & Sevilla-Dedieu, 2007; Yang,
Ge, Hu, Chi, & Wang, 2009). Moreover, even emotional support can directly
influence burnout through open ways of communication between colleagues, where
teachers can positively reinterpret diverse events and give positive feedback (Kahn,
Schneider, Jenkins-Henkelman, & Moyle, 2006). In addition, the support from
supervisors may be a relevant factor in changing teachers' intentions of leaving their
jobs (Leung & Lee, 2006).
Besides these areas of work described by Maslach and Leiter (2008), values
are considered to be factors at the heart of people's relationship with their work
(Leiter & Maslach, 2004). Most aspects regarding values go beyond financial values
or rewards, and take into consideration the cognitive-emotional drive of goals and
expectations tied to the job (Maslach & Leiter, 2008). Therefore, the synchronization
of the individual and organizational expectations seems to be associated with lower
levels of stress and burnout, and higher levels of work engagement. This is also the
case of teachers, where the superposition of contradictory values may create a
situation in which teachers can rethink their position in the organization, thus
reducing their commitment and engagement (Easthope & Easthope, 2000).
Consequently, teachers who no longer have values similar to those of the
organization, may intend to leave their jobs, especially teachers who report high
levels of emotional exhaustion (Tsouloupas, Carson, Matthews, Grawitch, &
Btarber, 2010).
Unfortunately, there is a high number of teachers, with high levels of
burnout, who remain in their positions, posing difficulties, such as lower
performance, and negative attitudes towards other employees, and their own students
(Hughes, 2001). Interestingly, students' reports have proven to be an efficient
instrument in detecting teacher burnout, even more accurate than teachers’ self-
evaluations (Evers, Tomis, & Brouwers, 2004).

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POSSIBLE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO TEACHER BURNOUT

The literature has not been consistent in the investigation of demographic factors as
correlates of burnout; consequently results in this domain are somewhat
contradictory. The most debated areas within this category of individual
characteristics are: age, experience, gender differences, marital status, personality
characteristics, as well as self-efficacy, and social support.
A common opinion shared by many studies is that younger teachers with
less work experience report higher levels of burnout (Kantas & Vassilaki, 1997;
Antoniou, Polychroni, & Vlachakis, 2006). Although people have a tendency to
confound age with experience, the literature clearly indicates that levels of burnout
diminish with age (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998; Maslach, 2006). Yang, Ge, Hu, Chi,
and Wang (2009) suggest that inexperienced and younger teachers report higher
stress than their more experienced colleagues because they have not yet acquired
diverse pedagogical abilities and display a negative self-evaluation at the beginning
of their profession. However, these findings must be interpreted with some caution
because of selective dropout. It is possible that those teachers who suffer from
burnout have already left their jobs, so that the remaining teachers, older and more
experienced represent the healthy group.
For many novice teachers, the reality of teaching exceeds their initial
training and expectations towards their future profession. For some, engagement in
work and even the perceived support from supervisors and colleagues diminishes
after six months from employment (Goddard, O’Brien, & Goddard, 2006). This may
be attributed to the confrontation with a high number of demands and
responsibilities, most of the times in the absence of practice, and the perception of
the work environment as one that does not sustain innovative teaching (Goddard et.
al., 2006). Therefore, from the point of view of stress reported, work experience is
important. Major differences were found between novice and experienced teachers,
in many domains; experienced teachers having higher levels of pedagogical
knowledge, better class management, more adequate problem solving and decision
making abilities, and more appropriate attitudes towards students (Palmer, Stough,
Burdenski, & Gonzales, 2005).
On the other hand, some studies have suggested somewhat different results.
More experienced teachers reported a higher degree of emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization, but also a higher feeling of professional accomplishment than
novice teachers (Sari, 2004), fact that might be explained by the misuse of adaptive
coping strategies in face of stress (Ozdemir, 2007).
The premise regarding gender differences in the burnout refer to the
observation that females are more vulnerable to this phenomenon than males.
Although gender is not a powerful predictor of burnout (Maslach, Schaufeli, &
Leiter, 2001), a recent meta-analyses clarifies the relationship between the gender
dimension and burnout (Purvanova & Muros, 2010).

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Firstly, these authors draw attention to two motives for which it is important
to investigate gender differences in burnout. These are: (a) many studies
stereotypically assume that females are more susceptible to stress than males, fact
that can lead to discrimination in work-related responsibilities, and (b) the focus on
detecting burnout mostly in females might misguide research into ignoring burnout
in men.
Secondly, we must take into consideration the fact that burnout is differently
experienced by males and females. Even though it is demonstrated that women tend
to report higher emotional exhaustion than men, and men report higher
depersonalization than women (Maslach et. al., 2001), these differences are
relatively small, as have been proven by Purvanova and Muros (2010). These results
can be explained through the Gender Role Theory (Eagly, 1987), which postulates
that women tend to express their emotional and physical exhaustion more openly
than men, while males tend to mask their emotions and deny experiencing stress.
This tendency may lead to unrecognizing different aspects of work-related stress in
men (Purvanova & Muros, 2010).
In line with the statements mentioned above, teacher burnout related to
gender indicates similar results. Female teachers report higher levels of stress and
mental health difficulties, and higher levels of emotional exhaustion (Yang, Ge, Hu,
Chi, & Wang, 2009; Kovess-Masféty, Sevilla-Dedieu, Rios-Seidel, Nerrière, & Chan
Chee, 2006). Male teachers indeed indicate higher levels of depersonalization and
lower levels of personal accomplishment (Sari, 2004; Lau, Yuen, & Chan, 2005;
Shukla & Trivedi, 2008). It seems that most female teachers, in spite of the high
levels of stress experienced, are more satisfied with their workplace than men (Sari,
2004), fact that may suggest the higher prevalence and interest of women in this
profession. Of course this may not necessarily be the status quo in the case of
teachers, as results are quite contradictory. For instance, a couple of studies suggest
that there are no gender dissimilarities in burnout among teachers (Zhongying, 2008;
Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2009; Yavuz, 2009). This might be due to different gender
roles or organizational culture.
There are many other factors that may influence the level of burnout. We
shall briefly discuss the role of marital status, its importance being defined by social
support, and other personality characteristics. For instance, teachers who are married
or live in a relationship report lower levels of burnout and psychological distress
(Bauer et al., 2006). Other authors show that marital status can predict a small
percentage from exhaustion and depersonalization (Ozdemir, 2007).
Besides this, high levels of burnout can be found in teachers high on
neuroticism, introversion, (Cano-Garcıa, Padilla-Munoz, & Carrasco-Ortiz, 2005),
type A personality, low on optimism (Otero-Lopez, Mariño, & Bolaño, 2008),
passive coping style (Mearns & Cain, 2003), low self-esteem (Dorman, 2003),
internal locus of control (Akca & Yaman, 2010). However, these variables provide a

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limited explanation of the burnout phenomenon, their influence being disputable

(Chang, 2009).
In this context, some studies have examined those factors which may
influence work engagement and provide a buffering effect against burnout. Next, we
will discuss the link between burnout and self-efficacy, as the latest is considered an
important resource that can help teachers to combat burnout.

THE ROLE OF SELF-EFFICACY IN TEACHER BURNOUT

In order to perform efficiently, teachers need both extrinsic and intrinsic resources,
as for instance, self-efficacy. The reason why we have chosen this particular
characteristic is based on the results offered by several studies which have proven to
have the strong protective role of self-efficacy against stress and burnout in teachers
(Brouwers, 2000; Brouwers, Evers, & Tomic, 2001). Teacher efficacy is defined as
the extent to which a teacher believes that she or he can influence student behavior
and academic achievements, especially students with difficulties or those with
especially low learning motivation (Henson 2001). Moreover, Bandura (1977)
considers that teacher self-efficacy can influence the level of effort placed in tasks,
their resistance in facing difficulties, their resilience, and the level of stress and
depression in coping with adversities. The idea is that when teachers have a positive
attitude towards their abilities tend to experience less stress and burnout than the
teachers who negatively assess their teaching abilities (Doménech-Betoret & Artiga,
2010).
Altogether, teacher efficacy is a simple idea, but with a strong impact
(Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007) on emotional health. This is because
high levels of efficacy in teachers are associated with positive educational outcomes,
both for teachers and students. However, on the other hand, low efficacy can
contribute to the appearance of occupational stress. Thus, those teachers who report a
high sense of self-efficacy are more engaged and enthusiastic about their work, are
open to innovations, consider their teaching methods as more efficient, and have a
tendency of creating and developing adequate conditions and relationships for
others, thereby having a higher work satisfaction (Skaalvik, & Skaalvik, 2010).
Moreover, high self-efficacy can influence a positive relationship between teachers
and parents (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010).
In spite of all these effects, teachers' high efficacy seems to depend on
several factors. For instance, school related elements that predict high efficacy are:
the positive perception of the school, the collaboration with parents and other
teachers, positive feedback (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007), school's
performances, student discipline (Caprara, Barbaranelli, Steca, & Malone, 2006), etc.
For instance, one factor that can significantly influence the level of efficacy is the
principal's leadership style, because in those schools where the supervisor can inspire

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a sense of meaning for the teachers, efficacy is higher (Tschannen-Moran &

Woolfolk Hoy, 2007).
On the other hand, there are some aspects that can reduce the level of
efficacy, such as excessive work, lack of recognition, low financial rewards
(Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007). Those teachers who doubt their abilities
to control the classroom environment and their students, and thus invest less effort in
preparing for their lessons, may later decide to work in that specific school
(Tsouloupas, Carson, Matthews, Grawitch, & Barber, 2010).
Despite of all these factors that can affect efficacy, the relationship between
burnout and efficacy is not a direct one. Although a connection between the two
variables is expected to exist, as Bandura (1997) considered, the direction starting
from efficacy to burnout should be more relevant, than the one from burnout to
efficacy (Schwarzer & Hallum, 2008). In general, many studies have identified a
negative association between the two: the higher the efficacy, the lower the burnout
level (Doménech-Betoret, 2006). This relation can be mediated by various elements,
as for instance types of self-efficacy (Henson, 2001), age, level of professional
experience (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk-Hoy, 2007), coping strategies
(Doménech-Betoret & Artiga, 2010), or the stress perceived by the teachers
(Schwarzer & Hallum, 2008). For instance, a recent study has indicated that,
independent of experience, teachers report a low efficacy in the area of engaging
students in daily school activities (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007). This
aspect suggests that, in the absence of resources, teachers have to base their
reasoning on creativity and personality, which has been proven to be a more difficult
and complex task than other areas of instruction (as class management or
instructional strategies) (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007). Turning to the
last two types of self-efficacy (instructional and management), it seems like these
can also increase the frequency of using active coping strategies in order to
overcome diverse pedagogical barriers (Doménech-Betoret & Artiga, 2010).
Others have considered self-efficacy and educational coping resources
(didactic equipment, specialized personnel for counseling students and others) as
factors that can influence the stress level and burnout (Doménech-Betoret, 2006).
Similar to other research (e.g., van Dick & Wagner, 2001), results show that those
teachers who have a high sense of self-efficacy and access to educational coping
resources report a lower level of self-efficacy than teachers with a low efficacy and
few resources. Thus, for some, having a positive perception of own teaching abilities
and also personal and practical resources represent some aspects that may reduce
burnout.
Moreover, studies that have directly investigated the relationship between
burnout and self-efficacy have revealed that self-efficacy is positively associated
with personal accomplishment, and negatively with emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization (Grau, Salanova, & Peirò, 2001). Some authors consider that
teachers who ground their appreciations about their efficacy on the evaluation of

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their performances, experience higher levels of accomplishment, which in turn

increases their self-efficacy (Chan, 2007), thus favoring different forms of problem-
focused coping over emotion-focused coping (Laugaa, Rascle, & Bruchon-
Schweitzer, 2008).

EMOTIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF TEACHER BURNOUT

Although it is usually considered that organizations are enterprises built on reason

and planning, the employees' lives and reactions are also influenced by affective
states (Fineman, 2000). In the classroom, in teacher-student communication, or
during meetings, teachers are constrained to regulate their emotions in order to be
most efficient. But many times, the confrontation with work stressors and the
inability to use adaptive coping strategies can result in a wide range of negative
emotions, stress and not rarely, burnout. In this way, Alvarez (2007) indicates that
teachers frequently report feelings of anger, stress, helplessness, resentfulness, and
offense. When it comes to burnout, we are not only talking about negative emotions,
but also about the absence of positive emotions and the lack of engagement in work
(Maslach & Leiter, 1997).
Thus, many studies which have investigated mental health in education have
revealed that teachers report a high level of mental exhaustion, more specifically
psychological distress and burnout (Kovess-Masféty, Sevilla-Dedieu, Rios-Seidel,
Nerrièr, & Chan Chee, 2006). Also, several studies have suggested that teachers
frequently report emotional exhaustion, and therefore negative emotions were
examined as consequences of this dimension. The most frequently experienced
emotions were anxiety (Coates & Thoresen, 1976), fury, frustration, guilt, shame,
and sadness (Chang, 2009).
Whereas burnout in the general working population is associated with sleep
and depressive disorders, substance abuse and anxiety disorders (Sonnenschein,
Sorbi, van Doornen, Schaufeli, & Maas, 2007; Ahola, 2007), a vast body of studies
have focused solely on the link between burnout and depression (Ahola, 2007) and,
though scarcely, on the connection between burnout and anxiety, aspects which we
will discuss further on.
In the case of teachers, some authors indicate that depressive symptoms are
reliable predictors for emotional exhaustion. Even if these two disorders similar
symptoms, their effects are not the same (Papastylianou, Kaila, & Polychronopoulos,
2009). Therefore, the persons who suffer from depression will experience a decrease
in energy both at work and in their free time, while those with burnout will undergo
a reduction in their energy level mostly at the workplace, remaining relatively
productive in other areas of life (Papastylianou, et al., 2009).
This may be due to the fact that depression can be caused by the
psychosocial stress from the workplace before the installation of burnout. In this

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case, some authors explain that depressive symptoms may be a predictor of burnout
especially when the person has a background of depressive episodes, or depression is
present in the family (Nyklicek & Pop, 2005). On the other hand, one cannot exclude
the fact that burnout can be a risk factor for depression. Nyklicek and Pop (2005)
consider that people with burnout have a better memory of negative affective states,
thus become more prone to it. In this line of research, other authors suggest that the
risk of having depression is higher when burnout itself is more severe (Ahola,
Honkonen, Isometsa, Kalimo, Nykyri, Aromaa & Lonnqvist, 2005). This result is of
particular interest because men were more susceptible to this risk, fact which
emphasizes that not burnout should not be considered as an exclusively feminine
experience.
As in the case of depression, the relationship between anxiety and burnout is
not clear. In general, at the workplace, a high level of anxiety may have a negative
impact on social integrity, productivity, work engagement, or lead to early retirement
(Linden & Muschalla, 2007). A high prevalence of anxiety has been revealed in
studies from the late 1970's, both in novice and experienced teachers (Coates &
Thoresen, 1974). In those years, teachers perceived similar sources of stress that
provoked anxiety, such as the measure in which teachers and their subject were liked
by students (this area was especially worrying for novices), time pressure, difficult
students, lack of financial and educational resources (Coates & Thoresen, 1974).
Some teachers may feel intense emotions at the beginning of their career, feeling
anxious if they think that were misunderstood, unfairly accused by others or treated
in a stereotypical way (Hargreaves, 2000). Moreover, teacher anxiety might be also
connected to self-efficacy, lack of experience, relationships with colleagues, parents,
or reform-induced changes (Chang, 2009).
Regarding the relationship between burnout and anxiety, the literature
indicates that the two concepts superpose due to the fact that high levels of emotional
exhaustion may lead to increases in anxiety amidst stressful situations and thereby
reduce peoples' ability to cope with anxiety (Shirom & Ezrachi, 2003). Interestingly,
looking at gender differences, male teachers present a higher risk of anxiety
disorders along their life course than female teachers (Kovess-Masféty et al., 2006).
Whatever the relationship between depression and burnout, or anxiety and
burnout might be, both associations could have negative effects, in terms of health
and well-being. For instance, a recent study on the working population has shown
that burnout can lead to prolonged fatigue, and vice-versa (Leone, Huibers,
Knottnerus, & Kant, 2009), results that lead us to subscribe to the necessity of early
interventions for this disorder.

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TEACHER WELL-BEING AND BURNOUT

As discussed earlier, occupational stress has a negative effect on individuals' health,

and may hinder positive functioning. We refer here not to work-related well-being,
but to general well-being that might be reached by the negative circle of exhaustion,
depersonalization, and inefficacy. Following an extensive line of research, the focus
on positive psychological functioning is also the interest of Ryff and her co-workers
(Ryff & Keyes, 1995), who developed a six-dimensional model of well-being. These
dimensions, each with distinctive characteristics, are: self-acceptance, environmental
mastery, autonomy, positive relations with others, personal growth, and purpose in
life.
In the educational area, a high state of well-being can positively influence
teachers' behavior and performance, student competences (Waddell, & Burton 2006),
the quality of teaching, and satisfaction with work (Milfont, Denny, Ameratunga,
Robinson, & Merry, 2008). On the other hand, although relatively few studies have
examined the association between well-being and burnout, some authors have found
that a reduced state of well-being might reflect the presence of burnout (Milfont et.
al., 2008). Moreover, Pillay, Goddard, and Wilss, (2005) indicated that well-being is
negatively correlated with depersonalization and self-rated competence, fact
explained by detachment from work.
Thus, without acknowledging, teachers, due to multiple demands, distance
themselves from colleagues and students to work more efficiently or at least at a
level they consider satisfactory. In this way, some teachers affected by burnout may
remain in their jobs, through passive coping and a distant attitude. This may be
contrary to those who report high levels of exhaustion and depersonalization and
indicate a diminished ability to work (Hakanen et al., 2006) or even incline to leave
their jobs (Leung & Lee, 2006). Apparently, these teachers communicate less with
their students, give fewer positive feedbacks, and often do not approve their students'
creative or less conventional ideas (Beer & Beer, 1992).
Generally speaking, a high state of well-being is required for maintaining
teachers' sense of efficacy and for developing positive relationships with colleagues
and students (Day, Sammons, Stobart, Kington, & Gu, 2007). However, teachers'
well-being is influenced by various factors, such as: the age of children they teach
(primary level teachers can report higher well-being than secondary level teachers)
(Konu, Viitanen, & Lintonen, 2010), experience (experienced teachers relate higher
levels of well-being than novice teachers) (Van Petegem, Creemers, Rosseel, &
Aelterman, 2006), the measure in which social support is provided by supervisors
and other significant ones, or engagement in the decision process (Papastyliaunou et
al., 2009).
In sum, we may say that because of sociopolitical and cultural changes, the
profession of teaching has changed in time, from a desirable and highly prestigious
profession into a stressful career, which occasionally may exceed teachers' potential.

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The investigation of teacher stress and burnout, and development of

appropriate interventions for improving work conditions and quality of life, should
be a primary concern in education. In this way one may improve not only the quality
pf life of the teachers, but also positively influence the quality of education, school
attendance, student’s knowledge, and health.

STUDY

Objectives
The major objective of the present study is to investigate demographic,
organizational, and psycho-emotional implications of burnout among a sample of
Romanian teachers.

Participants
The present research includes a sample of 177 teachers from primary, secondary, and
high-schools from Cluj-Napoca, Romania. All the participants have given their
written consent to participate in the present study. 154 are female and 23 male
participants, with ages ranging between 22 to 64 years (mean age=39.8; SD=9.5).
60.55% came from urban environment and 39.45% from rural areas. 72.9% are
married, 19.2% are single, 6.8% divorced, and 0.92% widowers. Regarding
contentment with salary and familial financial situation, 38% reported that they are
not satisfied, 34% not satisfied at all, and 45% reported that they are content with
their financial status.

Procedure
Following a cross-sectional design, data was gathered through a set of questionnaires
sent to different schools from Cluj-Napoca, administrated with the help of the Cluj
County School Inspectorate. There, the questionnaires were assigned to the schools'
counselors, from where, were distributed to each school. Participation was voluntary
and confidential. From a total number of 300 sets, we received 182 valid forms, from
which five cases were removed due to missing values. The questionnaires were
recovered over a period of one month.

INSTRUMENTS

Personal data
This was made in order to evaluate some characteristics of the targeted population,
such as age, gender, level of education, residence (rural or urban environment),
marital status, work experience (in years), and satisfaction with financial situation
(with personal salary and family income).

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Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)

The questionnaire was designed by Maslach, Jackson, and Leiter (1996) as a
measure of the three components of burnout, including a total number of 22 items,
with answers ranging on a Likert scale from 0 (never) to 6 (every day). Thus, high
mean scores for emotional exhaustion and depersonalization correspond to an
increased level of burnout, while low scores for inefficacy reflect a high level of
burnout. Cronbach’s alpha for the entire scale is 0.65.

Areas of Work-life Survey

The possible mismatches between a person and his or hers job were assessed by a
29-items scale, developed by Maslach and Leiter, in 1997. This includes six
sub-scales, namely: workload, control, reward, community, fairness, and values. A
match between the employers expectations and their work will lead to work
engagement (high scores), while a mismatch will conduce to burnout (low scores).
The answers range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Cronbach’s alpha
for the entire scale is 0.89.

Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES, long form)

The TSES measure contains 24 items (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001)
and evaluates three dimensions of teacher efficacy. The items, formulated as
questions (e.g., “How much can you do to help your students think critically?”),
include possible answers on a Likert scale from 1(not at all) to 5 (very much). The
first sub-scale, efficacy in student engagement reflects a teacher's belief that he or
she can help students become and remain implicated and motivated for study; the
second sub-scale, efficacy in instructional strategies reflects the measure in which a
teacher trusts his abilities of developing and implementing activities, tasks, and
evaluation methods aimed at easing the study process for students; while the last
component, efficacy in classroom management describes the teacher's beliefs in
maintaining an organized environment in the classroom. A reliability analysis
revealed that for the entire instrument, Cronbach’s alpha was very high (α=0.93).

Psychological Well-being
Developed by Ryff and colleagues (Ryff & Keyes, 1995), this instrument evaluates
six components of well-being: autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth,
positive relations with others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance. This form
includes 84 items (long form, with 14 items per sub-scale). Cronbach’s alpha for the
whole scale is very high (0.94). Participants complete a 6-point response scale,
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree).

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The Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS)

The 42-items instrument (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) includes three sub-scales
which define its title, namely, depression, anxiety and stress (14 items each). The
Cronbach alpha for the entire scale is 0.94, with each component demonstrating a
high internal consistency. Thus the depression sub-scale comprises items like “I
couldn't seem to experience any positive feeling at all “, anxiety refers to items such
as “I had a feeling of shakiness (e.g., legs going to give way)”, and the stress
dimension refers to items such as “I found it difficult to relax.” Participants are asked
to respond on a Likert scale, from 0 (did not apply to me at all) to 3 (applied to me
very much, or most of the time), to rate the extent to which they have experienced
each state over the past week.

RESULTS

First and foremost, our results show that burnout in the assessed sample is relatively
high on all three dimensions (Table 1).

Table 1.
Tridimensional burnout scores on a sample of Romanian teachers

Scores Low % Moderate % High %

Burnout scores scores scores
Emotional ≤ 14 50.2% 15-28 39.5% 29+ 10.1%
exhaustion
Depersonalization ≤5 71.1% 6-10.5 26.5% 11+ 2.2%
Inefficacy ≤ 29 10.1% 30.38.5 44% 39+ 45.7%

As seen, 49.6% of the teachers assessed present above moderate or severe

scores on emotional exhaustion, 28.7% on depersonalization, and 54.1% on
inefficacy. These results underscore the importance of investigating the phenomenon
of burnout among teachers.
Next, we investigated burnout, areas of work-life, depression, anxiety,
stress, and self-efficacy depending on different demographic variables, as gender,
age, residence (rural-urban), satisfaction with personal income, and the financial
status of the family. Contrary to our expectations, none of the above-mentioned
variables presented significant differences in any of the dimensions of burnout,
teacher self efficacy. The only significant differences found depending on
demographic variables are: mismatches between work-conditions depending on
gender, most specifically perception of reward and community (Table 2).

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Table 2.
Significant differences in areas of work-life depending on gender

Areas of work-life Means St.dv. t p d

Reward M = 15.43 2.80 2.19 .02 0.33
F = 14.13 2.61
Community M = 20.47 2.10 2.16 .03 0.32
F = 19.09 2.94

The single significant difference in the variables measured, depending on

residence, was in Self-acceptance (one of the six sub-dimensions of well-being),
rural teachers reporting significantly higher levels of self-acceptance than teachers
living in urban areas (see Table 3).

Table 3.
Significant differences in areas of self-acceptance depending on residence

Areas of work-life Means St.dv. t p d

Self-acceptance U = 49.77 3.83 -2.41 .01 0.36
R = 51.58 5.36

Next, we intended to investigate the specificities between those teachers

who scored high and low on the three subdimensions of burnout. Consequently, we
divided the sample into two groups, based on the means or medians (depending on
distribution). Results for the three burnout subscales are presented in Tables 4-6.

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Table 4.
Psychosocial and organizational differences in teachers with
high (N = 88) and low (N = 89) emotional exhaustion

Psychosocial and Gr 1 ≥ Mean St.dv. t p d

organizational variables Gr 2 < Mean
Efficacy in student 29.27 3.98 - 3.56 .00 0.53
engagement 31.35 3.79
Efficacy in instructional 32.71 4.01 - 3.16 .00 0.47
strategies 34.47 3.45
Efficacy in classroom 31.39 4.35 - 3.50 .01 0.53
management 33.52 3.70
WB – environmental 55.17 5.79 - 3.48 .00 0.52
mastery 57.95 4.78
WB - personal growth 55.31 4.03 - 2.74 .00 0.41
56.86 3.43
DASS Stress 11.70 5.32 6.51 .00 0.98
5.98 2.18
DASS Anxiety 5.65 4.23 4.23 .00 0.63
2.94 1.71
DASS Depression 6.68 5.88 5.49 .00 0.83
2.67 1.98
Workload 16.54 3.93 - 8.75 .00 1.32
21.38 3.16
Control 10.69 1.73 - 2.80 .00 0.42
11.42 1.72
Reward 13.31 2.52 - 5.24 .00 0.79
15.28 2.45
Community 18.43 2.87 - 4.03 .00 0.60
20.11 2.66
Fairness 19.62 3.83 - 3.73 .00 0.56
21.74 3.70

As the results show, those teachers who report higher levels of emotional
exhaustion have significantly lower levels of confidence in their abilities to engage
students in class activities, trust significantly less their own capacity in developing
and implementing activities, and manage classroom activities. Regarding
psychological well-being, they also report significantly lower levels of
environmental mastery and personal growth. Indicators of emotional functioning
show that those who report higher levels of emotional exhaustion also report
significantly higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. Organizational variables
show similar patterns. Those teachers who report higher levels of emotional

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exhaustion relate weaker match between their expectations and work-conditions on

all dimensions except values.
Next, we will analyze the differences specific to those who present high
levels of depersonalization, and low levels of depersonalization (see Table 5).

Table 5.
Psychosocial and organizational differences in teachers with
high (N = 68) and low (N = 108) depersonalization

Psychosocial and Gr 1 ≥ Mean St.dv. t p d

organizational variables Gr 2 < Mean
Efficacy in student engagement 28.17 3.24 - 6.27 .00 0.94
31.69 3.87
Efficacy in instructional 31.94 3.50 - 4.91 .00 0.74
strategies 34.67 3.67
Efficacy in classroom 30.52 4.14 - 5.33 .00 0.80
management 33.71 3.70
WB – environmental mastery 55.28 5.64 - 2.52 .01 0.38
57.38 5.23
WB - personal growth 55.14 4.05 - 2.69 .00 0.40
56.70 3.53
WB – positive relationships 44.21 3.04 2.75 .00 0.41
42.89 3.15
DASS Stress 12.47 6.62 6.71 .00 1.01
6.50 3.15
DASS Anxiety 5.75 2.12 3.58 .00 0.54
3.36 1.99
DASS Depression 6.81 3.14 4.59 .00 0.69
3.29 2.01
Workload 17.72 4.06 - 3.10 .00 0.46
19.77 4.42
Reward 13.27 2.47 - 4.29 .00 0.64
14.96 2.59
Community 18.47 2.795 - 3.01 .00 0.45
19.78 2.83
Fairness 19.44 3.96 - 3.47 .00 0.52
21.48 3.67
Congruence between personal 18.21 3.21 - 2.52 .01 0.38
and organizational values 19.39 2.90

As seen in Table 5, those teachers who report higher levels of

depersonalization present significantly lower levels of their confidence regarding
their ability to engage students in class activities, to develop and implement
activities, and manage classroom activities in general. They also present significantly

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lower levels of environmental mastery, personal growth; interestingly though, report

enhanced positive relationships with others. Regarding indicators of emotional
health, those teachers who report higher levels of depersonalization also report
significantly higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression. By the same token,
higher levels of depersonalization induce a significantly lower match between
teacher expectations and workload, reward, community, fairness, and values.
Last, we will analyze the differences specific to those who present high
levels of professional accomplishment (low burnout), and low levels of professional
accomplishment (high burnout) (see Table 6).

Table 6.
Psychosocial and organizational differences in teachers with
high (N = 94) and low (N = 83) inefficacy

Psychosocial and Gr 1 ≥ Mean St.dv. t p d

organizational variables Gr 2 < Mean
Efficacy in student engagement 32.07 3.86 6.95 .00 1.05
28.33 3.19
Efficacy in instructional 35.24 3.29 6.75 .00 1.02
strategies 31.75 3.57
Efficacy in classroom 34.43 3.23 7.70 .00 1.16
management 30.24 3.99
WB – environmental mastery 57.97 4.69 3.77 .00 0.56
54.97 5.88
WB - personal growth 57.04 3.57 3.63 .00 0.54
55.02 3.82
DASS Stress 6.22 3.09 - 6.31 .00 0.95
11.78 6.59
DASS Anxiety 3.06 2.55 - 4.06 .00 0.61
5.68 2.50
DASS Depression 2.82 2.01 - 5.33 .00 0.80
6.74 4.33
Workload 19.89 4.54 3.01 .00 0.45
17.93 4.00
Reward 15.10 2.70 4.47 .00 0.67
13.39 2.32
Community 19.76 2.97 2.43 .01 0.36
18.72 2.68
Control 21.19 4.20 2.44 .02 0.36
20.12 3.47
Congruence between personal 19.73 2.95 3.80 .00 0.57
and organizational values 18.03 2.98

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As our last table suggests, the differences found in the case of inefficacy are
similar to the results found in the other two dimensions of burnout. Those who report
high levels of professional accomplishment (inefficacy) (low burnout) also report
significantly stronger confidence in their ability to engage students in class activities,
in designing and implementing classroom activities, and general classroom
management. The same pattern is valid for well-being as well. Teachers with lower
levels of inefficacy also relate significantly lower levels of environmental mastery
and personal growth. Indicators of emotional health are consistent with previous
findings: significantly higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression are
characteristics to low professional accomplishments. Regarding organizational
variables, the match between work-conditions and personal expectancies is better in
those teachers who report higher levels of professional accomplishments.

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS

The present paper is another confirmation of previous findings: teaching is another

profession that by its nature, and because of recent changes in different socio-
economic aspects of life, becomes seriously threatened by burnout.
The major aim of this study was to delineate the profile of those teachers
included in this study who relate high levels of burnout. We have seen that a
relatively high percentage of teachers relate moderate and high levels of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and low levels of professional accomplishments.
These preliminary results would justify the necessity of in-depth research in this
domain, since not only the quality of the teacher’s lives is threatened by these
complex mental problems, but also the quality of teaching itself.
Our first premise, namely that demographic variables would influence
burnout, has been infirmed. It seems that neither dimension of burnout (emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and professional accomplishment) is dependent on
gender, marital status, residence (rural-urban), satisfaction with salary and family
income, etc. These findings contradict previous studies in burnout, which repeatedly
have reported that burnout and its’ components are dependent on gender, age,
marital status, length of employment, etc. One possible reason for this specific
finding may reflect cultural specificities (we are not aware of other published
research on burnout among Romanian teachers). This being only a possibility, future
research may focus on elucidating the reason of these findings. Interestingly, we
have found few demographic variables-dependent differences in factors of which
burnout might depend on (e.g., self-acceptance). These findings suggest that the
effect of different factors (e.g., demographic) on burnout may depend on their
interplay with other factors. These combined effects should also be more profoundly
investigated in future studies.

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More interesting details have been found when comparing teachers who
reported higher and lower levels of burnout. Significant differences have been found
on almost the same dimensions: those who present high levels of burnout on any of
the three dimensions (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and professional
accomplishment) also present significantly higher levels of stress, depression, and
anxiety. These results strongly resonate with those reported in the literature: mental
health problems have been found to be strongly associated with burnout.
Unfortunately, because of the nature of our study (cross-sectional assessment), we
cannot establish the temporary precedence in the onset of these disorders: did
depression, anxiety, stress precede or follow the installation of burnout.
We have also found that those teachers who report higher levels of burnout
also report significantly lower levels of self-efficacy regarding the process of
teaching. These results indicate a strong relationship between teacher self-efficacy
and all the sub-dimensions of burnout, nevertheless we cannot establish the direction
of effect: did burnout installed by other reasons (e.g., proneness to emotional
disorders) negatively impact self-efficacy, or reduced confidence in teaching abilities
contributed to the installation of burnout.
We have seen that in our sample, the most sensitive aspects of well-being
depending on levels of burnout are: environmental mastery, personal growth, and
positive relationships with others. These results should be interpreted with the same
caution as discussed above.
This far we have talked about factors related to the individual. Next we will
discuss organizational factors related to burnout. Those who report high levels of
burnout have a significantly more negative perception of the organizational
environment they work in. Depending on the different dimensions of burnout,
different domains of work-environment seem to be affected. Again, it would be
important to investigate the degree to which work-environment induced burnout, or
burnout-related problems induced a biased perception of work conditions.
In sum, we may say that importance of the present paper relies in evincing
burnout as a relatively frequent and harmful phenomenon among Romanian teachers.
It is also important because it revealed that (at last in the case of this sample),
burnout is less dependent on demographic variables, but may mostly been dependent
on person-dependent (self-efficacy, emotion-regulation strategies, personality, etc.)
and organizational factors. These results would further on prompt future research to
investigate the intricate relationships between personal and oriental factors, thus
assist the development of prevention and intervention strategies targeting the
amelioration of burnout symptoms and enhance teacher’s quality of life.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This paper was supported by the Grant CNCSIS-Ideas No. 2440 from the National
University Research Council of Romania, awarded to Mircea Miclea.

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