Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100098

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Journal of Advanced Joining Processes

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Investigation of the mechanical performance of hybrid bolted-bonded joints

subjected to different ageing conditions: Effect of geometrical parameters
and bolt size
F. Delzendehrooy a, A. Akhavan-Safar a, *, A.Q. Barbosa a, R.J.C. Carbas a, E.A.S. Marques a, L.F.
M. da Silva b
a
Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering (INEGI), Porto, Portugal
b
Departamento de Engenharia Mecanica, Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade Do Porto, Porto, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The hybrid bolted-bonded joining method is one of the most common joining approaches found in the marine
Hybrid bolted-bonded joints industry, where it mitigates the concerns raised by the poor environmental resistance of adhesive joints. To
Ageing overcome this issue, hybrid bolted-bonded joints are designed so that the bolts bear the load in case of failure of
Leakage
the adhesive layer. Due to the large susceptibility of the adhesively bonded area to environmental effects, proper
Adhesive bonding
sealing between the bolt and substrates in hybrid joints must be provided to avoid moisture diffusion through the
Mechanical fastening
adhesive layer from the drilled holes. In the current study, the degradation of the single lap hybrid bolted-bonded
joints exposed to the ageing condition has been experimentally investigated. To this aim, the hole diameter to
width ratio (D/W) as well as the hole diameter to edge distance ratio (D/E) have both been investigated. Hybrid
bolted-bonded joints, considering two different bolt configurations, were aged and experimentally tested. In
addition, to study the effects of geometrical parameters and ageing, drilled bonded joints were exposed to
distilled water and saltwater for different periods (18 and 36 days). The results were compared with those of the
joints which were dried for two days. Furthermore, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis was
performed to detect changes in the chemical structure of the adhesive after different exposure times to water.
According to the obtained results, whilst increasing the size of the bolt led to higher ultimate load (over 132% by
doubling the bolt size), joints with higher D/W and D/E ratios experienced more noticeable adhesive failure
when they were exposed to ageing conditions.

Introduction compared with other conventional methods. Nevertheless, its disad­

vantages such as the high susceptibility to harsh environmental condi­
Constant development and progress in structural design and tions as well as low strength compared with other joining techniques can
manufacturing limitations have led to the increased adoption of multi- still pose important challenges to a joint designer. However, many
component structures in various industries, including the automotive, different approaches are available to improve the mechanical perfor­
aerospace, and marine sectors. Various joining techniques are available mance of adhesively bonded joints. Examples include the reinforcement
to join the different modulus of an assembly. Hence, different opera­ of the adhesive layer with additives (Delzendehrooy et al., 2020;
tional factors such as reliability, safety, and integrity of the structure Akhavan-Safar et al., 2018), modifying the geometry and configuration
depend on the design of the joints. Over the decades, numerous studies of the bonded joints (Nemati Giv et al., 2018), performing surface
have been carried out on the performance of various joining techniques modifications of the substrates (Sancaktar and Gomatam, 2001; da Silva
such as welding, mechanical fastening, and adhesive bonding. Amongst et al., 2011), the optimization of the adhesive thickness (da Silva et al.,
the available methods, adhesive bonding has recently been the target of 2006; Akhavan-Safar et al., 2021; Delzendehrooy et al., 2021) and,
more intense research due to its inherent advantages, such as a high finally, a combination of adhesive bonding with another joining process,
strength to weight ratio and near uniform stress distribution, when a technique known as hybrid joining. The concept of hybrid joints has

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Akhavan-Safar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jajp.2022.100098
Received 12 November 2021; Received in revised form 5 January 2022; Accepted 12 January 2022
Available online 14 January 2022
2666-3309/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
F. Delzendehrooy et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100098

Table 1 with carbon-reinforced plastic substrates. In his study, various effective

Mechanical properties of the MA560–1 adhesive. parameters, including the adhesive material properties, the stacking
Tensile Young’s modulus (GPa) 668 ± 26% sequence of the substrate, and failure modes were experimentally
examined. Hybrid joints manufactured with low adhesive modulus were
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 14.6 ± 10%
Maximum strain (%) >100% found to exhibit improved mechanical performance due to the effective
Poisson’s ratio 0.32±2% load sharing between the adhesive and the bolt. Kim et al. (Kim et al.,
Glass transition temperature ( ◦ C) 75.8 ± 2% 2021) carried out an experimental investigation using the
two-dimensional digital image correlation (2D-DIC) technique to study
the behaviour of bonded and hybrid bolted/bonded composite joints
emerged to overcome the issues associated with each individual joining
fabricated with a flexible epoxy paste adhesive under quasi-static tensile
technique. Various combinations of joining methods are possible, such
loading. Gamdani et al. (Gamdani et al., 2019) studied hybrid
as weld/adhesive, bolt/adhesive, and rivet/adhesive, all of which find
bolted-bonded joints employing carbon and glass-fibre reinforced com­
use in a myriad of different industries (da Silva et al., 2011). One of the
posites as substrates and considered three bolts for the connection. The
most common hybrid joining techniques in the automotive and marine
adhesive was found to have a significant contribution in the increase of
industries is the hybrid bolt/adhesive joining. Besides facilitating the
the strength of the bolted joints by 70% for cross-ply laminates and 30%
curing process of the adhesive, since the various substructures are
for quasi-isotropic laminates. This improvement was mainly attributed
aligned and attached by means of bolts while the adhesive is still un­
to the reduction in stress concentration caused by the adhesive present
cured (Kelly, 2006), it also introduces a fail-safe operation in which one
around the bolts.
of the joining methods will be still available if another one fails (da Silva
As mentioned previously, one of the most crucial issues in the
et al., 2011). In addition, the endurance under multi-axial loads is
employment of adhesive joints is the well-known vulnerability of ad­
increased, as the adhesive layer tolerates the shear loads and the bolts
hesives to severe environmental conditions. Typically, the degradation
bear transverse loads (Yarza et al., 2014; Engineers, 1999). Fu and
of adhesively bonded joints can occur in three main ways. These are:
Mallick (Fu and Mallick, 2001) studied the quasi-static and fatigue
performance of hybrid bolt/bonded joints in a structural reaction
injection-moulded composite. They proved that higher static failure
Table 2
loads, as well as longer fatigue lives, can be obtained by using hybrid
Dimensions of the single lap joint specimen (mm).
joints compared with adhesively bonded joints. Nevertheless, they
D Hole diameter 0, 3, 6
pointed out that the washer design has a major influence on the per­
formance of the hybrid joints. Accordingly, the presence of lateral W Substrate width 25
clamping results in a reduction in the maximum peel stress at the L Substrate length 100
ts Substrate thickness 2
adhesive-substrate interface. Kelly (Kelly, 2006) investigated the
ta Adhesive thickness 0.3
strength and fatigue life of hybrid bolted/bonded joints manufactured l Overlap length 12.5

Fig. 1. Schematic of the tested drilled single lap joints. Side view, Top view.

2
F. Delzendehrooy et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100098

Fig. 2. Categorized tested drilled single lap joints.

-through the adherend (by corrosion or delamination), within the ad­ degradation of the joints. According to an investigation performed by
hesive (by plasticization and chemical degradation of the adhesive), and Machado et al. (Machado et al., 2019; Machado et al., 2019), on the
over the interface which ultimately leads to the adhesive failure (Costa effects of hygrothermal circumstances on the mechanical response of
et al., 2017; Da Costa et al., 2021; Borges et al., 2021; Machado et al., adhesively bonded joints, it was possible to conclude that moisture
2019; Barbosa et al., 2015). Hence, a multitude of research works has intake can be a source of delamination in a composite substrate as well
been carried to understand and quantify the damaging effects of mois­ as a driver for the degradation in the adhesive properties. Moazzami
ture on the mechanical performance of the adhesively bonded joints. et al. (Moazzami et al., 2020) analysed the effect of cyclic ageing on the
Liljedahl et al. (Liljedahl et al., 2007) conducted a numerical investi­ mechanical performance and water absorption of an epoxy-based ad­
gation using the cohesive zone model (CZM) approach for adhesive hesive, both experimentally and numerically. Based on their obtained
joints bonded by aluminium, composite and dissimilar substrate joints results, adhesives experienced an increase in diffusion constant (D) as
exposed to humid environments. As their results showed, simultaneous well as maximum moisture constant (Mmax) after exposure to cyclic
exposure to mechanical load and high moisture levels precipitates the ageing. Furthermore, a substantial reduction in the mechanical prop­
erties of adhesive (both the elastic modulus and the tensile strength) was
also observed with an increase in the number of ageing cycles. Although
numerous studies have been carried out to determine the mechanical
performance of hybrid bolted-bonded joints as well as the mechanical
performance of adhesive joints subjected to environmental attacks, to
the authors’ knowledge there are no studies that consider the effect of
moisture diffusion through the adhesive in hybrid bolted-bonded joints.
To fill this gap, the current study is dedicated to assessing the effects of
ageing conditions on the mechanical performance of the hybrid
bolted-bonded joints (HBB). Accordingly, in the first stage, different
joints were manufactured, considering two distinct bolt sizes (M3 and
M6) and respective drilling diameters (3 and 6 mm). All samples were
first dried in silica to lose their initial moisture and a group of samples
was then immersed in distilled water for 18 days at room temperature
whilst others were directly tested under tensile conditions. In the second
part, to study directly the effect of ageing on the drilled bonded joints
with different drilling diameters (0, 3, and 6 mm), various ageing con­
ditions were considered with different purity of water (distilled and
salted water), and different ageing times (18 and 36 days). Similar to the
first step, the results of this level were then compared with those ob­
tained for dried samples. Furthermore, FTIR analysis was conducted on
the samples to identify any chemical changes associated with the ageing
process.

Experimental procedure

Materials and properties

To create the substrates used in this work, a 2 mm thick high-strength

steel plate was cut into individual components and drilled. Drilling
should be performed prior to any bonding operation in order to prevent
heat generation which might damage the adhesive layer. Plexus
MA560–1 (ITW Performance Polymers Denmark Co. Ltd., Denmark,
Europe), a two-part methacrylate adhesive, was used to bond the steel
substrates. The mechanical properties of this adhesive are provided in
Table 1. Standard Phillips head zinc steel bolts with the size of M3 and
M6 and with a resistance class of 8.8, were used as bolts in the current
investigation. In order to obtain the mechanical properties of the ad­
hesive, tensile tests were performed on the adhesive bulk samples ac­
cording to the ASTM D638–14 standard. A digital image correlation
Fig. 3. Experimental setups of the HBB single lap joints.

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F. Delzendehrooy et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100098

Fig. 4. Typical load-displacement curves of the tested single lap joints under a) unaged and b) aged with distilled water for 18 days.

Fig. 5. Maximum load of various joint configurations for different ageing conditions a) unaged and b) aged in distilled water for 18 days.

(DIC) technique was used to obtain the Poisson’s ratio of the adhesive for two days, allowing them to lose their moisture and become fully
from the bulk tensile testing data, while a dynamic mechanical analysis dried. Following this process, a group of samples was directly tested
(DMA) was performed to obtain the glass transition temperature of the whilst the rest of the specimens were subjected to two different ageing
adhesive. conditions at room temperature. A set of samples was immersed in
distilled water for 18 and 36 days whilst others were placed in saturated
saltwater for 18 days. Finally, the bolts were installed on the joints and
Manufacturing
fixed with fingertight clamping torque. Washers offer advantages such
as tight adhesion of the bolt head to the substrate surface to prevent the
To increase the substrate roughness, which ultimately leads to
bolt from loosening over, more uniform stress distribution, increasing
stronger mechanical interlocking and adhesion between the adhesive
screw’s bearing surface area, reducing the surface pressure applied on
and the substrate, the high-strength steel adherends were sandblasted
the fastened object, and also protecting the substrate surface from
and thoroughly cleaned and degreased with acetone.
damages caused by applying torque on the bolt. In the current study,
Resin and hardener were poured in a container with a ratio of 1:1 and
round flat zinc-plated steel washers were used between the bolt head
then mixed using a speed mixer, set to 2500 rpm for 2 min. In order to
and substrates. A digital torque wrench with a capacity of 30 Nm with
increase the interfacial strength, a thin layer of adhesive was applied to
±2% precision was used in order to measure the applied torque. In the
the substrates. Once this initial surface wetting stage was concluded, the
current study, finger tight clamping torque was used to consider the
substrates were bonded and placed in a mould. The mould was then
worst-case and minimum strength. Since the applied torque was very
introduced in a hot-press machine to be cured.
low, the applied torque was around 0.6 ± 0.03 Nm. In addition,
The cured samples were then transferred to a silica filled container

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F. Delzendehrooy et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100098

Tensile test

The unaged and aged samples were fixed in suitable grips to be tested
in a universal tensile test machine (see Figure 3). Tensile tests were
carried out under displacement control conditions, utilizing an Instron
8801 servo-hydraulic testing machine with a load cell capacity of 100
kN and considering a displacement rate of 1 mm/min. For each case, at
least four samples were fabricated and tested. The room temperature
and relative humidity during the tests were 23 ◦ C and 56%, respectively.

Results and discussion

Load-displacement curves

Fig. 4 represents typical load-displacement curves of the unaged and

aged single lap joints, considering different joint configurations. These
include the hybrid bolted-bonded (HBB), bolted joints (B), and the ad­
hesive only joints (A). According to Fig. 4(a) and (b), in the case of HBB
joints, the load increases linearly with displacement until the slope of
curves changes and declines. The moment of this transition indicates the
point where there is damage initiation in the adhesive. As Fig. 4(b)
shows, this reduction in the slope is more noticeable for the aged sam­
ples which suggests degradation of the adhesive as a consequence of
chemical ageing and hydrolysis of adhesive through the ageing process.
Furthermore, the slope reduction regarding each drilling area diameter
for the unaged samples is not substantial and in fact, lower bolt sizes
(M3) experienced a more considerable reduction than the larger bolt size
(M6). For the aged samples, joints with higher D/W and D/E ratios
exhibited important declines in failure load with increased displace­
ment. Due to the high ductility of the adhesive, the joints did not show
an instantaneous and sharp load drop after adhesive failure, which re­
sults in lower induced damage in the bolt. At this stage, the HBB joint
experienced a nonlinear increase in failure load with additional
displacement, which demonstrates progressive damage as a result of
bearing failure. Adhesive failure translates to the bearing load by the
bolt via compression of the hole interface surface in contact. In such
conditions, more energy is absorbed by the plastic deformation in the
bolt which ultimately leads to the bolt failure. Based on the results, for
both unaged and aged conditions, it can be stated that the addition of a
bolt increases the strength of the joint substantially. As Fig. 5(a) shows,
the combination of bolt and adhesive in the HBB joints improves the
strength of the bonded and bolted joints by 30% and 63%, respectively.
On the other hand, the enhancement brought by HBB joints in the case of
the M6 bolt was over 193% and 8%, compared with simple adhesive and
bolted joints, respectively. This indicates that in the case of lower bolt
sizes, the adhesive plays a crucial role in load-bearing. Nevertheless,
when larger bolts are used (higher D/W and D/E), a major fraction of
load is endured by the bolt compared with the bonded area, and a
suitable design of the bolted part of the connection is fundamental to
ensure the maximum load bearing and to avoid failure in the structure.
As it can be seen in Fig. 5(b), for the aged condition, the maximum load
was reduced by 7% and 23% for the HBBs manufactured with M6 and
M3, respectively. This demonstrates that, in the case of insufficient
Fig. 6. Impact of geometrical parameters (D/W and D/E ratios) on the strength sealing, exposure to ageing conditions will accelerate adhesive failure
of the various joints including HBB, B, and A considering a) unaged and b) and hinder the contribution of the bonded area to the load bearing
aged conditions. capability of the joint as a result of this degradation. This phenomenon
precipitates the load transfer from the adhesive to the bolt. Accordingly,
regarding moisture penetration, minimum applied clamping force was as the results of Fig. 4(b) show, using higher D/W and E/W ratios causes
used to ensure maximum moisture absorption around the drilling area. a more noticeable load drop after the linear part. HBB joints with higher
Fig. 1 illustrates the schematic configuration of the tested single lap D/W and E/D ratios experienced failure at higher loads. Nevertheless, in
joints. Table 2 represents the geometrical parameters of the tested single comparison with HBB joints, bolted joints provided slightly lower failure
lap joints. All testing conditions employed in the current study are load and maximum displacement. This is due to the effect of the adhe­
summarized in Fig. 2. sively bonded area on the reduction of stress concentrations adjacent to
the drilled area. Furthermore, as a result of the contribution of adhesive
in the first section, a fraction of energy is absorbed by adhesive damage
and failure.

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F. Delzendehrooy et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100098

Fig. 7. HBB joint reinforced by M6 bolt a) before and b) during the tensile loading.

Fig. 8. Failed surfaces of HBB manufactured by the M6 bolt.

In the design of HBB and B joints, changing the geometrical pa­ considered, changing the joint configuration from bolted to hybrid
rameters, including the D/W and D/E, results in an alteration in the type provides higher ultimate strength due to the greater contribution of the
of failure from net tension and shear to bearing failure (Keikhosravy bonded area in the load-bearing process. Hence, using the hybrid joining
et al., 2012). According to the literature (Kelly, 2006; Li et al., 2014; method will be advantageous and recommended. Otherwise, in the case
Kelly and Hallström, 2004; Vangrimde and Boukhili, 2003) and the of higher D/W and D/E ratios, the addition of adhesive to the joint does
ASTM D5961 standard for bearing response test, using ratios of D/W ≤ not significantly influence the ultimate strength of the joint since a
1/3 and D/E ≤ 1/3 are recommended for the bolted joints. Figs. 6(a) and major fraction of the load is supported by the bolt. However, higher D/W
(b) illustrate the bolt (red zone) and adhesive (blue zone) contribution to and D/E ratios are not recommended by these publications.
the strength of HBB joints. As it can be seen in Fig. 6(a), for the unaged Fig. 7 illustrates the HBB joint fabricated with an M6 bolt before and
state, in the case of lower drilling area diameter, the higher contribution after the failure of the adhesive layer. Plastic deformation appears to
in the strength of HBBs was obtained from the adhesive strength. On the have occurred in the bolt after the adhesive failed, which highlights the
contrary, for higher drilling area diameters, a larger contribution in role of bolted part in bearing the load.
joints strength and load-bearing is provided by the bolt instead of the As Fig. 8 depicts, plastic deformation occurred in the adhesive layer
adhesive. Nonetheless, in an aged state, for both drilling area diameters, in the zones close to the drilled area. Under the combined effects of shear
the role of the bolt in load endurance is more significant than that of the stresses and the plastic deformation of the bolt shank, the bolt failed and
adhesive part (as shown in Fig. 6(b)). Based on Figs. 6(a) and (b), and to fractured in the midplane, being indicative of the process of stress
follow the recommendations, when lower ratios of the D/W and D/E are concentrations in the zones of the bolt shank which were in contact with

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F. Delzendehrooy et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100098

Fig. 9. Load-displacement curves of the tested single lap joints exposed to various ageing conditions considering different drilling hole sizes a) D0, b) D3, and c) D6.

bolt hole faces. drilling area diameter. Nevertheless, in the case of the samples exposed
To study the effect of ageing around the drilling area, tensile tests to distilled water, increasing the drilling area diameter causes a sub­
were carried out on unaged and aged drilled samples, considering stantial decline in the maximum supported load in comparison with the
diverse ageing conditions. As it can be seen in Fig. 9, exposure to ageing specimens immersed in saltwater. For the joints aged in distilled water,
conditions causes a reduction in both the failure load and the stiffness of increasing the exposure time caused a more significant reduction in the
the specimens. Nevertheless, this reduction was more dramatic for the maximum load as the drilling area diameter increased from 3 to 6 mm.
samples aged for 36 days whereas it was very slight in the case of As shown in Fig. 11, which indicates a reduction in failure load for
samples aged in saltwater for 18 days. Whilst the decline in failure load each ageing condition and drilling area diameter, increasing the D/W
and stiffness was more substantial for the joints with a 6 mm drilling and D/E ratios causes a decrease in the failure load of aged samples.
diameter, it was less considerable in the case of the 3 mm drilling According to Fig. 11, the maximum decrease in strength occurred for the
diameter. As it can be observed, although the effect of saltwater on the 6 mm drilled area exposed to distilled water for 36 days. In contrast,
strength of the joints was significantly low, the same was not true when minimum reduction was achieved for samples exposed to saltwater with
joints were immersed and aged in distilled water. the 3 mm drilling hole. This variation with exposure condition is due to
Fig. 10 represents the failure load of the aged and unaged samples the difference in the process of water ingress through the adhesive
versus ageing conditions for each drilling area diameter. The unaged exposed to distilled water and saltwater. According to the literature
samples showed a slight decrease in strength with an increase of the (Costa et al., 2017; Da Costa et al., 2021; Fernandes et al., 2017), the

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F. Delzendehrooy et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100098

Fig. 10. Maximum load versus drilling area diameter.

Fig. 11. Reduction in failure load per each ageing condition.

large size of the salt molecules present in saltwater hinders water strength. Hence, for the HBB joints which are exposed to ageing con­
diffusion through the adhesive layer. In the case of distilled water, the ditions for a longer time, the failure of the adhesive will be accelerated
smaller size of water molecules (in comparison with the free volume of and this will precipitate the load transfer from the adhesive to the bolted
microcracks and voids) will result in an easier water diffusion through part.
the polymeric network and consequently fill the free spaces before
saturation is attained.
According to Fig. 12, which shows the failed surfaces of the unaged FTIR analysis
and aged single lap joints, failure occurred through the adhesive layer
cohesively. Nonetheless, in the case of aged samples, the zones adjacent FTIR analysis was employed to identify chemical bonds present in
to the drilling area experienced different failure patterns, particularly the adhesive of samples aged in distilled water after 36 days. As it can be
for the samples which were subjected to 36 days of ageing. This implies seen in Fig. 13(a) and (b), a slight difference in the range of 3000 and
that since water penetrates the adhesive in two ways (from the joint 3500 cm− 1 is related to the presence of a hydroxyl group (OH), indic­
edges and from the hole), the effect of moisture diffusion is expanded ative of water absorption in the adhesive layer close to the edge. This
which intensifies the chemical changes and hydrolysis processes around peak in FTIR could be due to the chemical bonding with water or the
the drilled area. This leads to a more significant reduction in the joint hydrolysis of the material. Nevertheless, this variation was less consid­
erable for the zones adjacent to the drilled area. Another variation was

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F. Delzendehrooy et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100098

Fig. 12. Failed surfaces of drilled adhesive single-lap joints exposed to various ageing conditions including a) unaged, b) aged in saltwater for 18 days, c) aged in
distilled water for 18 days, and d) aged in distilled water for 36 days.

Fig. 13. FTIR results of aged joints with various drilling diameters for the zones adjutant to a) edge of joints and b) drilled area.

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F. Delzendehrooy et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100098

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Declaration of Competing Interests Fernandes, P., et al., 2017. The influence of water on the fracture envelope of an adhesive
joint. Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech. 89, 1–15.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

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