PROF.G.

RAM REDDY CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

OSMANIA UNIVERSITY-HYDERABAD-500007

INTERNAL ASSIGNMENT QUESTION PAPER-2023-24

COURSE:PGDCA I SEMISTER
Assignment-I
1. Explain e-r diagram in detail with diagram strong entity, weak entity, attributes, relations
An Entity-Relationship (ER) diagram is a visual representation of entities, attributes, and
relationships within a database. It helps to design and understand the structure of a database system.
Here's a detailed explanation of the components of an ER diagram:
Components of an ER Diagram:
1. Entity:
- An entity is an object or concept about which data is stored in a database. It can be a physical object
(e.g., a car, a person) or a conceptual entity (e.g., an order, a transaction).
- In an ER diagram, entities are represented by rectangles.
- Example: Consider an entity 'Student' with attributes like Student_ID, Name, and Date_of_Birth.
2. Attributes:
- Attributes are the properties or characteristics of an entity. They describe the entity's properties that
are of interest to the organization.
- Attributes are depicted as ovals connected to their respective entity.
- Example: For the entity 'Student', attributes can be Student_ID, Name, Date_of_Birth, etc.
3. Key Attribute:
- A key attribute uniquely identifies each instance of an entity.
- It is underlined in the ER diagram to distinguish it from other attributes.
- Example: In the 'Student' entity, Student_ID might be the key attribute.
4. Composite Attribute:
- A composite attribute is an attribute that can be further subdivided into other attributes.
- It is represented by nesting ovals in the ER diagram.
- Example: Address can be a composite attribute consisting of Street, City, State, and Zip Code.
5. Relationships:
- Relationships represent the associations between entities.
- They show how entities interact or relate to each other in the database.
- Relationships are represented by diamond shapes connecting the related entities.
- Example: A 'Student' entity might have a relationship with a 'Course' entity indicating that students
enroll in courses.
6. Cardinality:
- Cardinality defines the number of instances of an entity from a relationship's perspective.
- It specifies the maximum and minimum number of occurrences of one entity that can be associated
with the occurrence of another entity.
- Cardinality is often denoted using symbols like "1" (one), "M" (many), and "0" (optional).
7. Weak Entity:
- A weak entity is an entity that cannot be uniquely identified by its own attributes alone. It depends on
another entity, known as the owner entity, to be identified.
- It is represented with a double rectangle in the ER diagram.
- Example: In a university database, 'Section' might be a weak entity that depends on 'Course' (the
owner entity) and 'Semester' for its identification.
8. Strong Entity:
- A strong entity is an entity that can be uniquely identified by its own attributes without depending on
another entity.
- It is represented by a single rectangle in the ER diagram.
- Example: The 'Student' entity, with attributes like Student_ID, is a strong entity because it can exist
independently of other entities.
 Example ER Diagram:
Consider a simple ER diagram for a university database:
- Entities: Student, Course, Section, Semester
- Relationships: Enrolls In, Offers, Teaches
- Attributes: Student_ID, Name, Course_Code, Section_ID, Instructor_ID, Semester_ID
Here’s how the ER diagram might look:

In this diagram:
- Entities are represented by rectangles (e.g., Student, Course).
- Attributes are depicted inside the rectangles (e.g., Student_ID, Course_Code).
- Relationships are shown as lines connecting entities (e.g., Enrolls In).
- Cardinality can be indicated near the relationships to specify the nature of the association (e.g., 1:N,
M:N).
- Weak entities (if any) would be represented with double rectangles (not shown in this example).
Conclusion:
ER diagrams provide a clear and concise way to visualize the structure of a database, including
entities, attributes, relationships, and cardinality constraints. They are fundamental tools in database
design and serve as a blueprint for implementing a database system based on the organization's
requirements.
2. What is normalization explain the different types of normalization?
Normalization is a database design technique that organizes tables in a way that reduces
redundancy and dependency of data. The goal of normalization is to eliminate data anomalies and ensure
that each table stores related information in a structured manner, thereby improving data integrity and
efficiency.
Types of Normalization:
1. First Normal Form (1NF):
- The basic requirement for a table to be in 1NF is that it must have a primary key, and all attributes
(columns) in the table must be atomic (indivisible).
- This means that each column should contain only one piece of data, and there should be no repeating
groups or arrays of data.
- Example: If we have a table for student information, each attribute such as Student_ID, Name, and
Address should be atomic without containing multiple values.
2. Second Normal Form (2NF):
- A table is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully functionally dependent on the
primary key.
- This means that every non-key attribute must depend on the entire primary key, not just part of it.
 - Example: If we have a composite primary key like (Student_ID, Course_ID) in a table that records
grades, and 'Grade' depends on both Student_ID and Course_ID, then it satisfies 2NF.
3. Third Normal Form (3NF):
- A table is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and all non-key attributes are dependent only on the primary key, and
not on other non-key attributes.
- This eliminates transitive dependencies where an attribute is functionally dependent on another non-
key attribute, rather than on the primary key alone.
- Example: Consider a table where 'City' depends on 'State' and 'State' depends on 'Country'. To achieve
3NF, 'City' should be moved to a separate table where 'State' is the primary key.
4. Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF):
- BCNF is a stricter form of 3NF where every determinant (attribute that determines another attribute)
is a candidate key.
- It addresses anomalies that arise from non-trivial functional dependencies where a non-prime
attribute (not part of any candidate key) determines another non-prime attribute.
- Example: If we have a table with attributes (Student_ID, Course_ID, Instructor_ID) where
'Instructor_ID' determines 'Course_ID', and 'Student_ID' determines 'Course_ID', then 'Instructor_ID'
should be a candidate key for the table to be in BCNF.
5. Fourth Normal Form (4NF):
- 4NF deals with multi-valued dependencies where attributes are independent of each other but still
dependent on the primary key.
- It ensures that no non-trivial multi-valued dependencies exist other than a candidate key.
- Example: If we have a table with attributes (Student_ID, Course_ID, Instructor_ID) and 'Student_ID' is a
candidate key, and 'Course_ID' and 'Instructor_ID' are multi-valued dependent on 'Student_ID', then the
table is in 4NF.
6. Fifth Normal Form (5NF) or Domain-Key Normal Form (DK/NF):
- 5NF deals with cases where a table has a composite primary key and multi-valued dependencies
involving those keys.
- It ensures that every join dependency in the table is implied by the candidate keys.
- Example: If we have a table with a composite primary key (A, B) and attributes C and D, and C is multi-
valued dependent on (A, B), then to achieve 5NF, C should be moved to a separate table with (A, B) as the
primary key.
Summary:
Normalization is a systematic way to structure a database to reduce redundancy and dependency,
thereby improving data integrity and efficiency. Each normal form builds upon the previous one, with
higher normal forms reducing more types of anomalies but often requiring more complex database
design. Choosing the appropriate normal form depends on the specific requirements and complexity of
the data being modeled.
3. Explain about the keys
Super Key, Candidate Key, Primary Key, Foreign Key, Alternative Key and Composite Key?
In the context of database management systems, several types of keys play crucial roles in
organizing and ensuring data integrity within a database schema. Here’s an explanation of each key type:
1. Super Key:
- A super key is a set of one or more attributes (columns) that, taken collectively, can uniquely identify a
record (row) in a table.
- It is a broader concept and may include more attributes than necessary to uniquely identify a record.
- Example: In a table of students, a super key could be (Student_ID, Name), because each combination
of Student_ID and Name can uniquely identify a student.
2. Candidate Key:
- A candidate key is a minimal super key, meaning it is a set of attributes that uniquely identifies a tuple
(row) in a table, and removing any attribute from the key would cause it to lose its uniqueness property.
- There can be multiple candidate keys in a table.
- Example: In the same students table, if Student_ID alone can uniquely identify each student, then
Student_ID is a candidate key.
 3. Primary Key:
- A primary key is a chosen candidate key that uniquely identifies each record in a table. It must be
unique for each record and cannot contain NULL values.
- There can only be one primary key in a table.
- Example: If Student_ID is chosen as the primary key from the candidate keys (Student_ID, Name), then
Student_ID uniquely identifies each student record in the table.
4. Foreign Key:
- A foreign key is an attribute or a set of attributes in one table that refers to the primary key in another
table.
- It establishes a link between the two tables based on the relationships defined between them.
- Foreign keys help maintain referential integrity between tables.
- Example: If a 'Course' table has a foreign key 'Instructor_ID' that refers to the primary key
'Instructor_ID' in the 'Instructor' table, it means each course is associated with a specific instructor.
5. Alternative Key (or Secondary Key):
- An alternative key is a candidate key that was not selected to be the primary key.
- It provides an alternate way to uniquely identify rows in a table.
- Example: In the students table, if (Name, Date_of_Birth) is a candidate key alongside Student_ID, but
Student_ID is chosen as the primary key, then (Name, Date_of_Birth) would be an alternative key.
6. Composite Key:
- A composite key is a key that consists of multiple attributes (columns) that together uniquely identify
each row in a table.
- Unlike a single attribute primary key, a composite key involves two or more attributes.
- Example: If a table of employees uses a composite key consisting of (Employee_ID, Department_ID) to
uniquely identify each employee within their department, this would be a composite key.
Summary:
Understanding these key types is fundamental in database design and management. They help
ensure data integrity, enforce relationships between tables, and facilitate efficient querying and indexing.
The primary key uniquely identifies each record in a table, while foreign keys establish relationships
between tables. Candidate keys and alternative keys provide additional options for uniquely identifying
rows, and super keys provide a broader view of potential identifiers within a table. Each key type serves a
specific purpose in maintaining the structure and integrity of a database schema.
4. Write the syntax for all DDL, DML, TCL, DCL commands with examples?
Certainly! Below are examples and syntax for various types of SQL commands categorized into
Data Definition Language (DDL), Data Manipulation Language (DML), Transaction Control Language (TCL),
and Data Control Language (DCL).
Data Definition Language (DDL):
1. CREATE TABLE:
- Syntax:

- Example:
2. ALTER TABLE:
- Syntax:

-
Example:

3. DROP TABLE:
- Syntax:

-
Example:

Data Manipulation Language (DML):

1. INSERT INTO:
- Syntax:

-
Example:
2. SELECT:
- Syntax:

-
Example:

3. UPDATE:
- Syntax:

-
Example:

4. DELETE:
- Syntax:

-
Example:
Transaction Control Language (TCL):
1. COMMIT:
- Syntax:

-
Example:

2. ROLLBACK:

3. SAVEPOINT:

Data Control Language (DCL):

1. GRANT:
 2. REVOKE:

Summary:
- DDL (Data Definition Language) commands are used to define the structure of your database schema.
- DML (Data Manipulation Language) commands are used to manipulate data within the database.
- TCL (Transaction Control Language) commands manage transactions within the database.
- DCL (Data Control Language) commands manage access control and permissions within the database.
Understanding and using these commands effectively is essential for managing and querying
databases in SQL-based systems.
5. Explain the advantages of DBMS? Write the difference between DBMS and RDBMS? And write the
difference between DBMS and FILE management system?

Advantages of DBMS (Database Management System):

1. Data Integration and Centralization:
- DBMS allows for central storage of data, which facilitates data integration from various sources. This
eliminates data redundancy and ensures data consistency.
2. Data Security:
- DBMS provides built-in security features such as access control, authentication, and authorization
mechanisms to protect data from unauthorized access and misuse.
3. Data Consistency and Integrity:
- DBMS enforces integrity constraints (like primary keys, foreign keys, and constraints) to maintain data
integrity and ensure that data remains accurate and consistent.
4. Data Abstraction:
- DBMS provides data abstraction at multiple levels (physical, logical, and view levels), which hides the
complexity of underlying data structures and enables efficient data access and manipulation.
5. Concurrency Control:
- DBMS manages simultaneous access to data by multiple users and ensures that transactions are
executed in an isolated and consistent manner using concurrency control mechanisms.
6. Data Recovery and Backup:
- DBMS supports mechanisms like transaction logging, recovery utilities, and backup procedures to
recover from failures (such as system crashes or hardware failures) and maintain data durability.
7. Query Optimization and Performance Tuning:
- DBMS includes query optimizer tools that analyze and optimize queries for efficient execution,
improving overall system performance.
8. Scalability and Flexibility:
- DBMS systems can scale to handle large volumes of data and support various types of applications and
users, making them flexible and adaptable to changing business needs.

Difference between DBMS and RDBMS:

1. DBMS (Database Management System):
- DBMS is a software system that allows users to define, create, maintain, and manage databases.
- It does not necessarily enforce relationships or constraints between tables or data.
- Example: MySQL, PostgreSQL, MongoDB (in some contexts).
2. RDBMS (Relational Database Management System):
- RDBMS is a type of DBMS that organizes data into tables with rows and columns, where relationships
between tables are defined using keys (primary and foreign keys).
- It enforces ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) properties and ensures data is stored in
a structured manner.
- Example: MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle Database.

Difference between DBMS and File Management System:

1. DBMS (Database Management System):
- DBMS is a software system that provides an organized mechanism for storing, managing, and
retrieving data in a structured format.
- It uses tables with rows and columns to store data, enforces relationships between data elements, and
provides various features like data security, integrity, and concurrency control.
- Example: MySQL, Oracle Database.
2. File Management System:
- File Management System refers to traditional file-based systems where data is stored in flat files (text
or binary).
- Data is typically stored in files without any structure, making it difficult to manage and retrieve data
efficiently.
- There is no inherent support for relationships between data elements, data integrity constraints, or
concurrency control.
- Example: Storing data in text files (.txt), CSV files, or custom binary files.
Summary:
- DBMS provides centralized data management with features like data integration, security, integrity, and
concurrency control.
- RDBMS is a specific type of DBMS that organizes data into tables with relationships, enforcing ACID
properties.
- File Management System refers to traditional file-based storage without structured data management
capabilities, suitable for simple data storage needs but lacking in features provided by modern DBMS or
RDBMS.
 Assignment-II
1. Explain about the ACID properties with examples?
The ACID properties are a set of four key characteristics that ensure the reliability and consistency
of transactions in a database system. These properties are essential for maintaining data integrity
even in the face of failures or concurrent access. Here's an explanation of each ACID property with
examples:
ACID Properties:
1. Atomicity:
- Atomicity ensures that a transaction is treated as a single unit of work. Either all operations within
the transaction are successfully completed and committed to the database, or none of them are.
- If any part of the transaction fails (due to an error or any other reason), the entire transaction is
rolled back to its original state before the transaction began.
- Example: Consider a bank transfer transaction where money is being transferred from one account
to another. Atomicity ensures that either the entire amount is deducted from the sender's account
and credited to the receiver's account, or none of it happens if there's an error midway.
2. Consistency:
- Consistency ensures that a transaction transforms a database from one consistent state to another
consistent state. It ensures that all integrity constraints, triggers, and rules are enforced during the
transaction.
- This means that the database remains in a valid state before and after the execution of each
transaction.
- Example: In an e-commerce application, when a customer places an order, the system checks if the
ordered items are in stock and updates the inventory accordingly. Consistency ensures that the
inventory count is accurate and reflects the actual availability of items after each successful order
transaction.
3. Isolation:
- Isolation ensures that the concurrent execution of transactions results in a system state that would
be obtained if transactions were executed sequentially, one after another.
- Transactions should not interfere with each other. Changes made by one transaction should be
isolated from other transactions until the first transaction is complete (committed or rolled back).
- Example: Suppose two users concurrently update their profiles in a social media platform. Isolation
ensures that each user's changes are processed independently, and one user cannot see the
uncommitted changes made by the other until they are completed.
4. Durability:
- Durability guarantees that once a transaction is committed, the changes made by the transaction
persist even in the event of system failures (such as power outages or crashes).
- Committed data is stored permanently in the database and must not be lost.
- Example: After a customer completes an online purchase (transaction committed), the system
ensures that the order details and payment information are saved to the database. Even if there is a
hardware failure immediately after the transaction completes, the data remains intact and can be
recovered when the system is restored.
Summary:
The ACID properties together ensure that database transactions are reliable, consistent, and
maintain data integrity under various conditions, including system failures and concurrent access.
These properties are fundamental in designing and implementing robust database systems that
handle critical data transactions effectively.
2. Explain the b+ tree in detail along with the diagram?
A B+ tree is a self-balancing tree data structure used in databases and file systems to maintain
sorted data and allow efficient insertion, deletion, and search operations. It is particularly optimized
for systems that read and write large blocks of data, making it suitable for use in storage systems
where disk access times are a significant consideration.
 Structure of a B+ Tree:
1. Nodes:
- A B+ tree consists of internal nodes and leaf nodes.
- Internal nodes store keys and pointers to child nodes.
- Leaf nodes store keys and pointers to actual data records (or in some cases, pointers to data
blocks).
2. Order:
- The order of a B+ tree, denoted as \( m \), determines the maximum number of children (pointers)
each node can have.
- Internal nodes (except the root) have at least \( \lceil m/2 \rceil \) children.
- Leaf nodes store between \( \lceil m/2 \rceil \) to \( m \) key-pointer pairs.
3. Properties:
- All keys in a B+ tree are stored in sorted order within each node.
- The keys in the leaf nodes form a sorted linked list, which simplifies range queries.
- Internal nodes act as indexes, directing the search path towards the appropriate leaf node.
Diagram of a B+ Tree:
Let's visualize a simplified example of a B+ tree:

- Internal Nodes: Represented by rectangles containing keys that guide the search path. Each key
points to a subtree or a child node.
- Leaf Nodes: Represented by rectangles containing keys and pointers to data (or data blocks). Leaf
nodes are linked in a sorted order to facilitate range queries efficiently.
Operations in a B+ Tree:
1. Search: Begins at the root and follows the appropriate branch based on the comparison of the
search key with keys in the node until it reaches the leaf node containing the desired key or the
closest match.
2. Insertion: Starts with a search to find the correct leaf node for insertion. If the leaf node has space,
the key-value pair is inserted and sorted. If the leaf node is full, it splits, and the middle key is
promoted to the parent node. This process may propagate upwards if necessary to maintain the B+
tree properties.
3. Deletion: Begins with a search to find the key to delete. If the key is in a leaf node, it is removed. If
removing the key causes the node to have fewer than \( \lceil m/2 \rceil \) keys (underflow),
redistribution with sibling nodes or merging with a sibling may occur, ensuring the tree remains
balanced.
Advantages of B+ Tree:
- Efficient for range queries due to the linked list structure of leaf nodes.
- Well-balanced height ensures logarithmic time complexity for search, insert, and delete operations.
- Suitable for large datasets and external storage systems due to its ability to minimize disk accesses.
Summary:
A B+ tree is a balanced tree data structure used extensively in databases and file systems for
efficient data storage and retrieval. It provides fast access times and maintains data integrity through
its self-balancing properties and structured organization of keys and pointers. Understanding the
structure and operations of a B+ tree is crucial for designing and optimizing database systems that
require efficient data management capabilities.
3. Explain about transaction state diagram in detail?
A transaction state diagram illustrates the various states that a database transaction can go
through during its lifecycle in a database management system (DBMS). Understanding the transaction
state diagram is crucial for comprehending how transactions are managed, monitored, and controlled
within a database environment. Here’s a detailed explanation of the transaction state diagram:
Transaction State Diagram:
Transactions typically progress through several states as they execute within a DBMS. These
states are typically represented in a state diagram, which depicts the transitions between states
based on events or actions. The common states in a transaction state diagram include:
1. Active:
- This is the initial state of a transaction.
- The transaction is actively executing its operations (reads and writes) on the database.
- It remains in this state until it finishes executing all its operations or until it explicitly requests to be
committed or rolled back.
2. Partially Committed:
- After a transaction has completed its execution phase and all its operations have been successfully
applied to the database, it enters the partially committed state.
- In this state, the DBMS ensures that all changes made by the transaction are recorded in a
temporary space (such as a log file or buffer).
- The transaction remains in this state temporarily while waiting to be committed.
3. Committed:
- When a transaction has been successfully completed and all its changes have been permanently
saved to the database, it enters the committed state.
- In this state, the changes made by the transaction are visible to other transactions and are
considered permanent.
- The DBMS marks the transaction as successfully completed and frees up any resources associated
with it.
4. Failed:
- If a transaction encounters an error during its execution that prevents it from completing
successfully, it enters the failed state.
- Reasons for failure include violation of integrity constraints, deadlock situations, or system failures.
- The DBMS may attempt to recover from the failure depending on the transaction recovery
mechanisms in place.
5. Aborted:
- When a transaction is aborted, it means that it has been terminated prematurely either due to an
explicit rollback request or due to a failure that could not be recovered.
- In this state, any changes made by the transaction are undone (rolled back) to maintain the
consistency and integrity of the database.
- Resources held by the transaction are released, and it transitions out of the active state.
Events and Transitions:
- Begin Transaction: Initiates a new transaction, transitioning it from a non-existent state to the active
state.
- Read/Write Operations: Events that occur while a transaction is active and executing database
operations.
- Commit: Requests the DBMS to finalize and make permanent the changes made by the transaction,
transitioning it from the active or partially committed state to the committed state.
- Rollback: Requests the DBMS to undo all changes made by the transaction, transitioning it from any
active or partially committed state to the aborted state.
- System Failure: An event that can cause a transaction to fail, leading to recovery mechanisms kicking
in to restore the system to a consistent state.
Example Transaction State Diagram:
Here is a simplified representation of a transaction state diagram:
 Summary:
The transaction state diagram provides a structured view of how transactions progress through
different states within a database system. It illustrates the lifecycle of a transaction from initiation
through execution, completion, and possible termination due to success or failure. Understanding
these states and transitions helps in implementing transaction management strategies that ensure
data integrity, reliability, and consistency in database systems.
4. Explain about Serializability, view Serializability, conflict Serializability?
Serializability is a concept in database transaction processing that ensures transactions maintain
consistency and correctness when executed concurrently. It defines a schedule of transactions as
serializable if it produces the same result as if all transactions were executed serially (one after
another), even though they may execute concurrently. There are two main types of serializability:
View Serializability and Conflict Serializability.
1. Conflict Serializability:
Conflict Serializability focuses on ensuring that transactions do not conflict with each other in
terms of accessing and modifying data. A transaction conflict occurs if two transactions access the
same data item and at least one of them performs a write operation. There are two types of conflicts:
- Read-Write Conflict (RW): A read operation of one transaction conflicts with a write operation of
another transaction on the same data item.
- Write-Write Conflict (WW): Two transactions both attempt to write to the same data item.
To determine if a schedule of transactions is conflict serializable, we can use techniques such as the
precedence graph:
- Precedence Graph: Constructed based on the transaction operations (reads and writes) in a
schedule.
- Nodes: Represent transactions.
- Edges: Represent conflicts (RW and WW).
A schedule is conflict serializable if its precedence graph is acyclic (i.e., no cycles), indicating that the
transactions can be serialized without conflicting on data items.
2. View Serializability:
View Serializability considers the results of transactions (the database state visible to the users)
rather than the actual data conflicts. Two schedules are considered view equivalent if they produce
the same final result for every possible database state. This means that the effect of concurrent
execution of transactions on the final state of the database must be the same as if the transactions
were executed serially.
To determine if two schedules are view serializable, we compare the conflict equivalent
schedules:
- Conflict Equivalent Schedules: Schedules that result in the same set of read-write conflicts on data
items.
If two schedules are conflict equivalent, they are also view serializable. However, not all view
equivalent schedules are necessarily conflict equivalent.
 Key Differences:
- Conflict Serializability focuses on avoiding conflicts (RW and WW) between transactions based on
data access and modification operations.
- View Serializability ensures that the final state of the database produced by concurrent execution of
transactions is the same as if they were executed serially, regardless of the actual data conflicts.
Example:
Consider two transactions:
- T1: Reads A, Writes B
- T2: Reads B, Writes A
Conflict Serializability:
- Schedule 1: T1 reads A, T2 reads B, T1 writes B, T2 writes A
- Schedule 2: T2 reads B, T1 reads A, T2 writes A, T1 writes B
These schedules are conflict equivalent because they result in the same set of RW and WW conflicts
(T1-B vs T2-B, T1-A vs T2-A). Hence, they are conflict serializable.
View Serializability:
- Schedule 1: T1 reads A, T2 reads B, T1 writes B, T2 writes A
- Schedule 2: T2 reads B, T1 reads A, T2 writes A, T1 writes B
These schedules are view equivalent because they produce the same final state (A=1, B=1) regardless
of the execution order. Therefore, they are view serializable.
In summary, conflict serializability ensures transactions do not conflict in their access and
modification of data, while view serializability ensures that concurrent execution of transactions
produces the same final state as if executed serially, regardless of data conflicts. Both concepts are
crucial in ensuring the correctness and consistency of database transactions in concurrent
environments.
5. Explain about concurrency protocol, time based protocol, lock based protocol, validation based
protocol?
Concurrency control protocols are mechanisms used in database management systems (DBMS) to
manage and coordinate simultaneous access to data by multiple transactions. These protocols ensure
that transactions execute concurrently while maintaining data consistency and integrity. Here’s an
explanation of three main types of concurrency control protocols: Time-based protocols, Lock-based
protocols, and Validation-based protocols.
1. Time-based Concurrency Control Protocol:
Time-based protocols schedule transactions based on timestamps assigned to each transaction. These
protocols aim to minimize the number of conflicts and ensure serializability of transactions. There are
two common types:
- Timestamp Ordering Protocol (TO):
- Each transaction is assigned a unique timestamp when it starts.
- Transactions are ordered based on their timestamps.
- Conflicts are resolved by aborting the younger (more recently started) transaction and allowing the
older transaction to continue.
- Ensures conflict serializability but may lead to a high rate of transaction aborts.
- Thomas's Write Rule (TWR):
- Similar to TO protocol but uses a strict rule for conflicts involving write operations.
- A transaction T can overwrite a data item only if the timestamp of T is greater than the timestamp
of the last transaction that wrote that data item.
- Prevents write-write conflicts and ensures strict serializability.
2. Lock-based Concurrency Control Protocol:
Lock-based protocols use locks to manage concurrent access to data items. Locks are used to ensure
that only one transaction can access a data item at a time, thereby preventing conflicts and
maintaining consistency. Types of locks include:
- Shared (Read) Lock: Allows multiple transactions to read but not write a data item simultaneously.
- Exclusive (Write) Lock: Allows only one transaction to write and excludes all other transactions from
reading or writing the data item.
Types of lock-based protocols include:
- Two-Phase Locking (2PL):
- Transactions acquire locks on data items before accessing them (the growing phase).
- Once a transaction releases a lock, it cannot acquire any new locks (the shrinking phase).
- Guarantees conflict serializability and ensures that transactions do not interfere with each other.
- Strict Two-Phase Locking (Strict 2PL):
- A stricter version of 2PL where a transaction holds all its locks until it commits or aborts.
- Prevents cascading aborts and ensures that all conflicts are resolved before any lock is released.
3. Validation-based Concurrency Control Protocol:
Validation-based protocols, such as the Optimistic Concurrency Control (OCC), assume that conflicts
between transactions are rare. These protocols allow transactions to execute without acquiring locks.
Validation occurs at commit time to ensure that transactions have not interfered with each other.
Steps include:
- Read Phase: Transactions read data without acquiring locks.
- Validation Phase: Transactions validate that their read operations have not been invalidated by
other transactions.
- Write Phase: If validated, transactions write changes to the database.
Validation-based protocols are suitable when conflicts are infrequent but may lead to higher
overhead during validation checks.
Summary:
- Time-based protocols schedule transactions based on timestamps to ensure serializability.
- Lock-based protocols use locks to control access to data items and prevent conflicts.
- Validation-based protocols validate transactions at commit time to ensure consistency.
Each type of concurrency control protocol has its advantages and trade-offs, and the choice of
protocol depends on factors such as the application requirements, workload characteristics, and
system design goals in a database environment.