y=z2 EX Yexxzpyey YXX@2Xx yee Where, + represents addition and repre; 's multiplication, Idempotent Property Ifais any clement such that a € p, thena* a =a Here, a repres to operation * ‘nt idempotent element with respect Example x € p idempotent element for a \ddition operation is 0, then 0+0=0 ford ez Idempotent element for multiplication operation is] 1x1=1fortez Homomorphism If P and Q are two algebraic structures and if a function f: P— Q is defined such that V a,b, < p, F(a*b) = fla) * Rb) (1) Then, fis said to be homomorphic from P — Q. Where ‘** on L.H.S of equation (1) is composition on P, and ‘** on R.H.S of equation (1) is composition on Q. Find whether the following algebraic systems satisfy the properties under binary operations * and +. (a) Odd integers (b) All the positive integers. Answer : ‘Odd Integers Given **’ and ‘+” are the binary operations. Let, + x) be a set of odd integers in an algebraic Properties with Respect to “+” Closure Property For any a,b € J, atbel, Closure property is not satisfied under binary operation ‘+. Commutative Property For any a, b € J, atb=b+a Commutative property satisfied. (ili) (iy) 69 Associative Property For any a,b, c€ Jat (b+c)=(a+b)+e Associative property satisfied. Identity Property For any a€ J,, we finda’ € f,3a+a'=a > @=0 but Oe 4 Identity property is not satisfied. Inverse property does not exist as identity is not defined. Properties with Respect to ‘x? @ «i Gi) (iv) ™ (wi) (vii) Closure Property For any a,b€ 1, ax be I, Closure property is satisfied Commutative Property Va,be laxb=bxa Commutative property is satistied. Associative Property Vabce I, ax (bx c)=(axb)x c Associative property is satisfied. Identity Property vaeh > acl, axad=a>,a' led, “1” is the identity element. Inverse Property vael, axd=1 axl=a Inverse of a is a. Distributive Law For any a, b,c € J, ax (b+0)=(a%b)+ (ac) and (at b)xc=(axc)+(b+e) Distributive law is satisfied. Cancellation Law For any a, 6, c€ J, axb=axe = b=c Cancellation law is satisfied.TO i) ive Integers All the given binary operations are all positive integers. LOL (4, s) be a set of all positive algebraic system, then properties with respect to binary ‘operations + and sate, w ai) ai) ww) © wi) (vil) osure Property Forevery a, b@ 7 arbeh axder Closure property is satisfied Commutative Prope: For every a, be 1 atdebta axdebsa Commutative property is satisfied. Associative Property For every a, b, c@ J at(bbeo)e(atd)+ cand ax (bxc)=(axb) xe Associative property is satisfied, Identity Property For every ae J at+d=0, axd=a lel Identity property is s binary operation * respect t6"+" > a=0¢la fied with respect to ind not satisfied with s 0 € J (positive integers), Loverse Property For every a € J we define, baat b=0 whenbeT = a=-bel For every a 1, we define a «= 1 when, =F a Inverse property with respect to binary operation *+” is not satisfied but with respect . to binary operation **” is satisfied, Distributive Property For every a, 6, c€ 1 ax(b+c)=(ax b)+(a%c) (a+ b)xc=(axe)t (bre) Distributive property is satisfied, Cancellation Law For every a,b,c € 1 axbeaxe 2 bee F Hence cancellation low is satisfied. PROBLEMS Qs ARETE MATHEMATICS (JNTU-HYDERABAD, tr fall 2% 2m, IfM,(a) denotes the set o Me hacer ‘ontrios and +, © denote (aval matrix addition and multiplicat thon prove that (M,(s), +, #) is an algoby system, Solution : Lot ‘y" be an algebraic system consisting of elements x, y and 2 Let, fs efi To prove (M(s),*, ¢) is an algebraic Whether the following properties are satisfied or not, Commutative Property for + For, x, € 5 xrtyeyte 12] [2° v}afasapeiegl pe [ ‘| [5 He IH y Pet (as bab 4] ~. Commutative property for + is satisfied, Associative Property for + For, x,y, (KGW EG [eset = COKE HG Kat Identity Element @ for + = For, xe 5 zes ab se ot ft 3 “C64 entity property for + is satisfied. aNyNIT-3: Algebraic Structures Inverse Element under + For, 4 yes xty=y+ ee Since, y is the negative of x i.e., x, x+CH)=(x)+x=0 ie, f: ‘| f xf=Ix=x b fe tte 1G 4] eld Parte? (a) xy +2) = (xy) + ‘ Z) bt ht ae - : j t it (y + 2).x = (y.x) + (zx) (ehhh SH : pape! ees 9. Cancellation Property For, x,y,z€ 5 (b) xy=xz SS y=Z, ie, 1 2]f2 1) [reap gr [; Al. 4 al: i 2) 31188 - Ebb . Cancellation property is not satisfied. 10. Idempotent Property Forres (a) x+x=x 127.11 2) [1 2] F aH d-( Al FAL iia bai 6 8\*[3 4 (bo) xx=x 1 2}f1 2] p12 3 4)[3 4]7[3 ‘] Idempotent property is not satisfied. Since all the properties are not satisfied, the given , system (M(s), +, #) is not an algebraic system.m2 Ga. What are the identity and inverse elements under * defined by a * b = abi2va, be R? Solution : Let Q* be a set of positive rational number (R) Given a* b= vase R which implies that a Fv abeg Identity Element Let e be the identity element, where ¢ € Q” As itis known that, e*a=a=ate Given that a * b= & On substituting ¢ in place of b, the above expression becomes, ae e*an=atex & Hence, eta= =a 4 nik ae=2a => ae-2a =0 = ae~2)=0 On dividing the above equation by 2, th following is obtained, ees 2 (e-2)=0 5-2) =2 Identity element of a * -< is2. Inverse Element Let a be the element of Q* and 6 is said to be inverse of a if, (i) There exist an identity for set Q say e and (ii) There exist element es such that, a*b=e=b*a = atb=e ab os ee 2 => ab =4 =. b=4la ‘The inverse of element is b = 4/a. DISCRETE MATHEMATICS [Jy * for all whether * is Gesahe & Daten Solution : Given that, ath=ab’Va,beR Inorder to verify whether * is associ; es ative, ty following condition is to be satisfied, (ato)* *(b*c) Where, abceR Considering L.H.S, (atbyre 2 ae ak =a! > abe Considering R.H.S at(b*e) saue aces) [at =a] > albey > albicty LHS# RAS Therefore, * is not associative. Example ‘ Let us consider a = 3, b= 5,65 (a*by%o=( end rs. *S)e7 Seta [-(e) =a) “3. sh.n =3: pp =~ 3675. 0") ~-a9 (54 --FG.ty 3.6.7 =-3.5.9 =~ 180075 (a*b)*c # a*(b%e) (a6) = 053) ‘The binary composition * in x ig - met WARNING: Xerox/Photocopying of this book is a CRIMINAL act. Anyone found guilty is LIABLE to face LeGay ——algebraic Structures yeseml GROUPS ANaaieea explain he following terms with examples, @ Semigroup (ii) Mono wer: He seni Group " et(G,.0) represents a set of the algebraic system on the binary operation 0, then (G, 0) is said ned ei group if satisfies the Associative property Forevery a, bce G Fore a0(boe) = (a0b)oc sample The set of natural numbers Nand integers Z are esigoups under the binary operations + ands. (+), (Ms ») and (Z, +) and (2, 5) satisfy the associative property, @ Monoid If(G, 0) is a semi group and if property with respect to bi j,0) is called ‘monoid’, it also satisfies nary Operation ‘0°, ¢, for every a, € G, such that a0b= boa ‘then bis called identity element with respect to fumes The set of integers are monoids with respect to Lnt”-Z.+) and (Z, ») are monoids since they have identity elements 0 and 1 € Z with respect to+and x, \nder the operations union (W) and intersection “he power set M(S) for any non-empty set Sis {notoid with @ as identity element with respect SCunion and Sis the identity element with Tespect {0 intersectioy I Expy orphism over: detail about semi group homo- and monoid homomorphism. “Group Homomorphism HS. 0) (5%, ) are two semi groups and a mapping 'sdone in uch a way that for any two elements, “PES Sa0b)=f(a)+ fe) (1) OSs called ‘semigroup homomorphism’. Yeon 8f:8+ Srig Soetene ins iii eninge / )*F (8) a, b € I is c tel 'sm, monomorphism and isomorphism Note because it well d Monoi wherei 73 a Given, (R, *) (R’, +) are semi groups and f:R>R 3 fa) =log,, x Leta,be R a> b)= logy, (ab) log, a+ log,, b= a) +f) “F:R > Risa semi group homomorphism, F:R~ R'isalso called semi group isomorphism lefines the one-one and onto functions. id Homomorphism Let (S. 0, ¢,) and (S', », ¢.) are two monoids ih, and * represents binary operations on S and 5 respectively, Sand homomorphism’ Proper L group. a <, and ¢, represents identity elements of and the mapping f: 5 s* is such that f(a 0 6) = be sand fle.)=fe,,,fis called ‘monoid "ties of emi group and Monoid Homomorphism, 16, 0) (6; ») are algebraic system, and Fis onto then(s;, «)isa semigroup ift satisfies the condition, of equation (1), MN(G0b)0c}=F(a0b) +fc) [+ From equation (1)] =a) +d) * fic) Aa) * (f(b) + fe)) AS * satisfies associative property (3, +) isa semi {ffis semigroup homomorphism from sto 5 that a ¢ S, where a is idempotent element, then Aa) € s'is also an idempotent element. faoa)=fa) [-: ais idempotent ao =a] --Q) fae.) =fa) * fa) {from equation ay Ala) = fla) + fa) [-- from equation (2)} Aa) is idempotent, Semigroup and monoid homo: satisfies commutative Property. 1£(S, 0) is monoid or semigroup such that e, is ‘an identity element, Fis a function from Sto Sis ‘one-one (epimorphism), then the Semigroup (S', *) is also a monoid, If ae S, then f(ao €)=F(€,0 @)= fa) Ka) *f(e,) =f(e) + fa) i Aa) *f(e,) [+ S(aoe)=fa) morphism also 5's one-one] ~S(e,) * fla)= fay *F(e,) from equation ())DISCRETE MATHEMATICS [JNTU-Hy, 4 74 5114S, V) san algebraio structure with an ident ebraio structure entity | Q9. Write short notes on Autom, elomet on(s' ° Joment ey, then (S", #) is amonoid satistying the Endomorphism wth aultable geal properties | and 4 Answer : —— 6. Monoid homomorphism satisties the inverse | Automorphism property Consider an element a & S such that inverse of isa! then a! eS Aa o by fa) + Ad) [Prom monoid homomorphism definition] faoa'y aoa) fe) =e Ra) * Rar) [6 From equation (1)] fa) * fa) * ey Similarly, far! a) Inverse of a) is Aer) \a))' tact tht ih QB. Write short notes on following, (i) Sub semi group (ii) Submonoids (ili), Abelian semi group. Answer > (i) Sub Semi Group S, 9) is any semigroup such that S'cS(ie, Jabset of 8) and S" is closure under binary 6) is called 'subsemigroup'. > Air’) * fa)= ey ‘operation o, then ( Examples 5 1 Set of all positive integers (2, +) form subsemigroup of integers Zunder usual addition. 2 If (V', *) is a subset of (Ny x) where Nis a set ‘of multiples of positive integer R, then (N', ») is ‘a subsemigroup as it is closed with respect (0 * (multiplication). di) 1£(5, 0) isany monoid under the binary 0 vo and if S' GS (S' is subset of S), then (S', 0) is called submonoid if (S', 0) itsel nigroup: with identity (i€., (S', 0) must be mondid) ‘Set of all rational numbers (Q, +) is a monoid raat “under addition, then 9s set of integers (Z, +) is a fe ‘submonoid as (Z, +) itself is a monoid. , 7 Af a semigroup (G, 0) satisfies commutati property then Gis referred to as abelian semigroup ¢,, V a, b € G if aob = boa, then ‘G’ is abelian semigroup. Examples 1 The set of natural numbers elosed under binary operations “and "#", The set of positive intege d multipli ved under binary operations addit WARNING: Xerox/Photocopying of this 1¢(G, *) is a group, then an isomorphic from (G,*)10 itself (Len G > G) isan autormmegtt ar this group, Automorphism group ig ee ie funotion in which fO)* Av) =flx* y). In automorphism group, (a) An identity clement maps to itself, (b) Image of conjugacy class is always a con) class. onteiey (c) Image of an clement has exactly the sam as that of the element, Cae The following are the properties that are tobe satisfied to form an automorphism group, 1, Closure Property For every a, b €G, there exists a relation a} e¢, 2, Associative Property For every a, b, ¢ €G there exists a relation a* (htc)=(a* bre 3. Identity Property Ifa eG and an identity element e €G, then there isa relationa *e=@ ex 4, Inverse Property Ifa ©G and a’ €G, then there exists arelationa* d=e Examples (i) Inset theory, an automorphism ofa set ‘A’ isan arbitrary permutation of the elements of 4’. In graph theory, an automorphism of a graph s (ii) 4 permutation of the nodes that preserves ess and non-edges. (iii) In linear algebra, an automorphism of a vec space V is an invertible linear operator on. Endomorphism “ If (G, *) is a group, then an homomionh mapping from (G, *) to itself is an endomorphism group, Endomorphism group is anonto function that Ax * y) =f) * 0) ‘The composition of any two endomer. of “A” is again an endomorphism of * Gi 1 yp An invertible enddmorphism of 4 is call a automorphism. The set of all automo nothing but a subgroup of End). In each oer troup there exist a null endomorphism that? individual element of the setonto the went” ee Examples (i) Inset theory, eodemorghisms te sine from a set 4 into itself,at ) For any commutative monoid (Mm, +) U" the set of idempotent elements ofM forms a submonoid, jy) The intersection of two submonoids (ofa monoid isa submonoid, poswer f for any Commutative Monoid (M, *) set of Idempotent Elements of M form ‘submonoid the Sa Identity element is idempotent. Given (M, *) is commutative monoid 2 Mbasan identity element, et this element be “e ” )Geeigering wea idempotent M* ie, eeM’ leta,b € M (where aand bare also idempotent) Now ata=a_ (By definition of idempotent, eve jund Y= b Consider, (a*6)*(a*b)= (a * b) * (b * ay re a,b © M'< Mand Mis commutative] =a*(b*b)*a=a*b*q =(a*a)*b=a%b (a*6)*(a*b)=(a*b)['. a bis identity of'tself] > sa*bem (M’, *) is a submonoid. Hence proved, ©) The Interseetion of Two Submonoids of a Monoid is a Submonoid Let(S, *) be a monoid and (S,, *) and (S,, *) be So submonoids, * ScSands,cs SOScs Siang ‘5S, are submonoids, they are closed under « binary operation * and is associative. ‘S:*)isa monoid, there exist an identity element ‘Cisees SisSanas.cs E “SS ande es, on ion of submonoid of a monoid is 4 moet id of a monoic oid, 75 wnt prove the following statements, 0. PR is an, "ates, *> be a semi group such that for X,Y © 8, x"x=y, where S = {x, y}. Then prove that,* (a) xtyay*x Solution : Given < Sixt xay, (b) y*y=y ; *> is a semi group such that for.x,y € @) xtynyey Consider L.H.S => xty => ER de x) = [vysxtx] (© *x) *x_ [+ Associative property] = pte [oyex* x = RHS LHS=RHS yh, Hence proved, @)” ytyny Consider L.H.S > pry a YO +0) = 10: ¥O* OF [> Distributive Property} fryty=0) [ey=y +o] => Oty+0 yy 2 tyeRay 2 0 *Y) [vyty > nas ya) id, RES Hence proved. Q12. Prove that (Z,, X,) is a commutative monoid, where X, is the multiplication modulo 5. Solution : Given that, X, is the multiplication modulo 5 and Z, = {0, 1, 2,3,4} ‘The composition table for multi iplication modulo 5 is given below. Table: Multiplication Modulo 5 rer aah Ta ey @LLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTSTo prov the below steps, )is acomm monoid, follow 1, Prove that (Z,, X) is a monoid. 2. Then prove that the above (Z,,X,) monoid is a commutative monoid. 1, ZX.) is a Monoid X,) can be proved as monoid if the following properties are satisfied () Closure Property: Since, all the elements of the above table belongs to the set Z, (Z,,X,) is closure under the operation * (iy Associative Property: Since, all the elements of the above table satisfies associative property and belongs to the set Z, ie, (a* b)* c= a*(b*e) (Z,, X,) satisfies associative property. Identity Property: all the elements of the above table satisfies the identity property. ie,a*l=1%a (ii) aeZ, (Z,, X,) satisfies the identity property. Hence, it is proved that, (Z,, X,) is a monoid. 2. (Z,,X,) Monoid is a Commutative Monoid Since (Z,, X,) is a monoid and all the elements of the above table belongs to Z, which satisfies the ‘commutative property. ie,a*b=b* (Z,,X,) satisfies the commutative property. Hence, it is proved that (Z,, X,) is a commutative monoid where X, is the multiplication modulo 5. eee a oy 2 (4 6V (24 i (5 7) (3065 2 (28-30)_(10-12) 6 " ze 35 ) is Jeg 2 (-2)_(-2\ (6 3 a } 15} (7 16 -104 —. 105° 105 (Q, ~)is not a semigroup. (ili) (Ry +) R= (-3,-2, 1, 0,1, 2, 3} Associativity is, A+ (B + C)=(A +B) 4¢ = -3+B-4)=(3+3)-4 => 44 (R, +) is a semigroup. (iv) (Q,0), aob = a—b + ab = ee OF 35 haan Associativity is, (a0b) oc = a0 (boc) (aob)oc = (a~b + ab) oc =(a—b + ab)~c+(a-b +.ab)e =a—b + ab—é + ac~be + abe =a-b~6 + ab + ac—be + abe 2.4 6/24) (2.6 -2-24{=x2 ef Sx2]_ TAS sl \37 4 Biel 315. 70, 35-8 440 (boc) = a0 (b ~ «+ be) =(b-c + be) + a(b—e + bo) ~b+e-be + ab—ac + abe at ify which of the following are semigroups. ) (N+) (i) Q- (ill) (R, +) (iv) (Q, 0), aob= a—b+ ab. Solution : O +) N= (12,3, Associativity is, A+(B+O)= (A+B) +0 > 2+(4+3)=(24+4)43 9-9 u (N, +) is a semigroup, @ Q> [2 4 6 8 Y Sookheth oe | Q WARNING: Xerox/Photocopying of this book is a CRIMINAL act, ie proceeding =a-b+e+ab~be~ ac + abe Hee (20d) 0c # a0 (boc) (Q, 0) is not a semigroup: apraic Structures “he set ‘Q' of all rational numbers, the Ge on tion *is defined by ab = a+b—ab, oper that under this operation, ‘Q' forms smmmutative monoid. a jstion = oe iven tha (0,*)is defined as a* b= a+b —ab where, @, 5 € Q. sure Property porevery ab € O a*be(Q,*) 27 e@Q Closure property is satisfied. (i) Associative Property For every a, b, ce Q (a*b)*c=a*(b*e) Consider, (a*b)* c= (a+b=ab)*e =a+b-ab+e-(at+b-ab)c =a+b+c~ab-—ac—be+ abe Consider, a*(b*c)=a* (b+e-be) =a+(b+c—be)-a(b + ¢—be) =at+b+c—be-ab-ac+t abe (*b)*c=a*(b*c) Associative property is satisfied. Mdentity Property For every a € Q, there exists ¢€ @, such that a sy at+e-ae=a 5 atel=a)=a =e(1-a)=a-a =e(1-a)=0 Es e-0e9 Identity property is satisfied. Commutative Property For everya* be Q atb=bea (iv) = atb-ab=b+a—ab Commutative property is satisfied Hence (Q, *) forms a commutative monoid. Q15. If* is a binary operation on the set R of all real numbers defined by a* b= a+b + 2ab. (i) _ Find (R, *) is a semigroup. (ii) Find the identity element if it exist. (iii) Which elements has inverse and what are they? Solution : @ Given that, a*b=a+b+2ab Edy (R, *) is said to be a semigroup if it satisfy associativity. To prove this, consider equation (1) and multiply it by ‘c’ on both L.H.S and R.H.S. Thus, the above equation becomes, a*b*c=at+b+2ab*c According to associative rule, (a*b)*c=(a+ b+ 2ab) *c<>.a* (bc) =a* (b+c+2bo) 2 Consider the L.H.S of equation (2), (a* b)* c= (a+ b+ 20d) * c With respect to equation (1), the above equation can be written as, (a* b)* c= (a+b +2ab) + ¢+2a+b+2ab)*c GB) Inthe above equation (a+ b + 2ab) is considered as a and cis considered as b. Thus, (a*b)*c=(atb+2ab) +c +2a+b+2ab)*c Fatb+e#2ab+ 2(ae+ be-+ 2abe) =atb+c+2ab+2ac + 2be + dabe (a*b)* c=atb+e+2ab + be + ac) + 4abe wn (4) Now, consider the R.H.S of equation (2). at (b*c)=a*(b+e+2be) With respect to equation (1) the above equation can be written as, a*(b* 0) =a+(b+0+2be) +2(b +04 Ibe) *a In the above equation (b+ ¢+2bc) is considered as B. Thus, *ci) Dhe) + 2(h bet 2be) *a Dhe + (ab + ae + Jade) at(dte)sariret satdror mar bter dhe + tab 2ac+ Aabe atid ayear be et 2labs be + ac) + abe () Singe equation (A) is equal to equation, (5), than pe saidthat (a® A) ter at (dhe) \ * is assoolative: Hence, (A, *) is a semigroup, (W) Let’ e' represent the identity element ofthe set Thuis, for any a © R’based on identity rule, there exints arena With respect to equation (1), atenaterdae [o(atd)=atbt2ab] 5 atertaena [satena) > ate(l+2a)ea al + 2a)=0 O (ECL + 24) #0) The identity element is ¢ = 0 for any a € R Lot at represents the inverse of the element a fie any @-€ A, Thus, based on inverse rule there exists (wi) atatme With respect to equation (1), 2avatse [eatb=atb + 2ab] [vex] (ta!) sata'+ sara (1+2a)=0 a'(1+2a)=-a (1422) ‘The inverse ofa (i.e., a”') exists and it is, 1 "em (eee) Qi6. Show that a semigroup with more than ‘one idempotent cannot be a group. Give ‘an example of semigroup which is not a ‘group. Solution ‘Let (S, *) be a semi group with binary operation * and $= {¢, 0, 1} be three idempotent elements, Then ‘00 binary operation +, the following table is obtained, a DISCRETE MATHEMATICS [JNTU-H' Based on the binary operation (+) is obtained, "vy eveme Or0=1 Ielel Thus, (S, #) is semigroup but not a group Consider if (S, *) i8 @ group then, eel=l tell This implies that, erl=iel Based on cancellation law, &= 1 is consider to be false. (5, +) with more than one idempotent elemeny cannot be @ grOup Q17. Let <81, ‘1> and S2, *2> be semi groups on the Cartesian product $1 * $2. Letthe operation *3 be defined by (a, b) *3(c, d)= (at c, b*2 d) for all (a, b), (c, d) St x $2 Prove that < $1 x S2, "3> is a semi group. Solution : ApriliMay-23(R16), Q5(a) To prove that is a semi group, it must be proved that operation *3 is associative on cartesian product $1 * $2. Now, consider three arbitrary elements (x, y), (u, ¥) and (t,s) from SI * $2, On applying associative property, (Gy) *3(@, ¥)) *3(t, 8) = (X* Tu, y * 2v) *3(t 5) [+ (@,b) *3(6,d) = (ate, b * 24) Now again, => (xt lu tity #2v *2s) () Let, (x, y) * 3((u, v) * 3(6,8)) Applying associative property. => — &y)*3(U* It, ve28), = Q2) [+ (a,b) #3. (@, d)=(a* le, b*28)) = (x*lutit, y*2v # 2s) _ To prove that is a semi group the equation (1) and equation (2) should be equal | As *1 and *2 operators belong to $1 and S? ‘espectively, then they are associative on their respect ‘sets, which means equation (1) and equation (2) are sa" Hence it can be concluded that *3 is also associative 0° the cartesian product $1 x 82. <$1 x 82, ‘semi group. FRR WARNING: Xecox/Photocopying of this book is a CRIMINAL ‘act, Anyone found guilty is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedi@*igebraic Structures yw Si LATTICES AS Part] 3° ORDERED SETS Sea! ays. Define lattice and write its properties answer NoviDec.-17(R16), a1(q) iatce A parally ordered Set of “n" elements (n > 2) has both greatest lower bound (g..b) and lex * bound (1.0.b) is called a lattice 4 Forany subset (ct, B}( o)and (a®c) ) (ae) ‘The above inequality can be divided as 42 (a* b)andaz(a* ¢) Py using the principle of duality conditions, a>b, >b ® ¢ w a2¢=>a>b* cada bnaseag = a>(a*b)@(a*e) DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (INTU-HYDERA, Similar, b@c>b2a*b, b@c2c2ra*c The above inequalities can be written as, b@®c>(a*b)@(a*c) From equation (1) and equation (2), equation is obtained. a*(b ® c)2(a* b) B (a*c) Hence proved. a@(b*c)<(a@b)*(a@e) The above inequality can be divided as, Q) ‘he flloning (il) aaxbee a<(a® 5)*(a@®c) Similarly, =. (3) b*c) a maximal element, so (4, <)has a minimal element, m 2 A poset has atmost one Sreatest clement and st one least element, Suppose a and b are greatest el | Since b is a greatest element, the ce ais a greatest element, then b ) has atmost one greatest element, so (4, <) also has nost one least element. lements of a poset na <>. Similarly, Write short notes on i: ittice as algebraic system and sublattice rs s ce as an Algebraic Structure/System Iftwo binary operations * and ® are defined on lattice, such that both of them satisfy commutative, ociative and absorption properties, then such a is referred to as algebraic structure or system. Tt is represented as . perties of Lattice as Algebraic Structure/System Commutative property a*a=aa@a=a Associative property (a*b)*c=a*(b * c)(a@b) @c=a@(b@c) ‘Operations *, © if the properties commutative, ive and absorption are satisfied for both binary Show that every ordered lattice {L, =} Satisfies the following properties of alge- braic lattice. (i) Idempotent (ii) Commutative (ii) Associative (iv) Absorption. Lea, <) be an ordered lattice. Let a and b be 81 The ordered lattice (L, <) is said to be an algebraic lattice if it satisfies the commutative, associative, absorption and idompotent properties. To prove that an ordered lattice satisfies the properties of algebraic system. Let us assume that (L, A, v) as an algebraic lattice with two binary operations v and A. ‘To prove that an algebraic lattice (L, 0, v) satisfies the commutative, associative, idempotent and absorption law, the following two cases must be checked. Case (1) A partially ordering set (poset) must be defined on L. Case (2) It must be proved that a v b= GLB {a, b) and aA b= LUB {a, by Case 1 Let (L, <) be a partially ordered set on a lattice L. Since a, b are the element of a lattice such that a, b € L then, a a=b [+ avb=aandbva=b] & is said to be antisymmetic on L. ‘Now consider that a < band b < cthenavb=b and bve=c » Consider av ¢ >) axe => avibvo) Labve=e Based on associative law, => avibve) > (avb)ve => bve : => > lement of lattice such that a, beL.Cased . ‘ a © bthen av be band a4 bea, That is, « peavbabeanbma Initially assume, av b* b then, = and > antavd) {ybeavd) =, and (ay bed) ® a Henwe proved that ay bra cyan bos Similarly consider a 0 b = a then, =) avb + (anbjvb — [anand] + avb {v avb=b) (-avb=b) avowboranb@a Now consider the absorption law, avianbyea (6) by (brayeb (1) Since,anb S aandanb=baa Sb It-can be said that, a » bis lower bound of (a, b} He if ¢ is considered as the lower bound ofaandb,thene S aandc Sb, cva=aandevb=b By absorption rule, em(eva)ra anc [eevanal Similarly by absorption rule, c@(evbyrc bre { ene (anc)r(bac) = entandy = ¢Sanb. % “The-lower bound of a and b satisfies, e< ab Thus the greatest lower bound of a, bis anb. Similarly it can also be said that the least upper bound of a, bis avb, Hience it can be said that the algebraic latticg(L, idempotent, 1, ¥) satisfies the ‘absorption, associative ‘and commutat cvb=b) [ane*a,brc=b] G24. Write short notes on followingienne | . Write short notes on following terms, (8) Sublattices (b) Direct product of lattices (6) Lattice Homomorphism, Answer : (a) Sublattices A lattice (L, +, ® )is said to be a sublattice (s, +, ©) if the subset (s) of lattice (L) is closed under binary operation i., @/vand + In itself a lattice but the subset of sublattice Example Let (L, <) be a lattice such that L = gp P.). The Hasse diagram for L is as follows. fl ’ es, ’ igure (a); Hasse Diagram of Lattice L {P,,P,,.., P} §,,5, and S, be the sublattices of L then, 8,= (P,P, P,P 8;=4P, Pp PsP S, = {P,, P.,P,.P)} ‘The Lower Upper Bound (LUB) and Greatest Lower Bound. (GI.B) of above lattice elements are as follows, rTP, [Pf ely [Pele] Pl Peele ele PPP |e 2 P, PLP LP LP IP LPP LP lPlPiP P(e. LPL P| P| PiLP, PoLPeL Ps [Ps PLP. LPL P, Itcan be seen that S, and S, are the sublattices of “L’. Since, the elements of S, and S, belongs to Lie.,S, S, €L where as ‘S,” is not a sublattice, as the elements P,P, € S, butP, AP, =P, ¢S,. It can be said that ‘S,” isa lattice (b) Direct Product of Lattices Let(L, * ®) and (s, n, v) be any two lattices and (L*S, «, +) be the algebraic system which contains the binary operators “+” and *e’. The operations ‘4° and ‘*” performed on L * S such that the elements (a,,,) and (@ b,)in L* S is defined as, ba (2p B,) (yb) = (a, ¥ a,b,» by) Gb) +, b)=(a,,* a, b, vb,) is said.to be direct product of lattices (L,* ® )and (S./¥) a son att "and? ae bth commute sociative. The direct product lattices helps it Constructing a big lattice from a small lattice. Example Suppose, L= {0, 1} and {Ly

shown in the figure (a). The lattice (/L", << n) eancontai any element written 8 (Ay Ay, of A ean ciherbe Dor 1 Ha peta re 4 mike cpg over L" is defined as a, b € 1". Where a= (4,8 and b = (by, by»»-.b,) which can be expressed as,Here <= represents . + and ® operations on L” can be defined easily. < n)is said to be a lattice of Oand 1 n-tuples. 1hd> <0,0,0> Figure (b): Diagram of {L, <} Lattice Homomorphism Let (L, *, ®) and (S, a, v) be any two lattices and ping f : L -> s is said to be a lattice homomorphism (L, + ©) maps to (S, A, v) foralla, b € Li.e., flanb) = fla) » f(b) and f(avb) = fla) v f(b) Where ‘and v are “meet and join”. The mapping h preserves only a single operation (i.e., either A {y) is called a non lattice homomorphisms. Let, the two lattices (L, * ®) and (S, 4, v) and the partial ering relations over ‘L’ and ‘S’ be < and <'.Iff: {9 sis said to be a homomorphism, then “f” preserves corresponding ordering relations i.c., for all a,beL ch that a < b, there exists fla) <' f(b) ie., asbearb=a fla + b) = fla) 4 f(b) = fla) <= f(b) ' fib) The above mapping represents that, fib) if ‘fis a homomorphism. Let {L, +, ©} and {s, 4, v} be any two lat- tices with partial ordering = and =' re- spectively. If gis a lattice homomorphism, “then g preserves the partial ordering. a Boa g(a) <' ab) (fg is 26. Explain the various special types of lat tices with examples. Answer = ‘The various special types of lattices are as follows, 1 Bounded lattice 2. Distributive lattice 3. Complemented lattice 4. Modular lattice. 1. Bounded Lattice A lattice with the lowest and the highest element is called a Bounded lattice. The lowest clement is represented by 0 and the highest element is represented by | respectively. IfL’is said to be a bounded lattice, then for each element PEL, there exists the following identities, @ o (2) <' &(®) attice homomorphism). * complement of 0 and 1 is I and 0 respectively.pISCRETE MATHEMATICS {JNTU-HY| | cording 10 distributive law, a cl antd (anb)v (ar ° Consider the following hasse diagram which av(bac)=(av bya (bac) < epresents a ‘complemented lattice. a all the elements have atleast one complement. wyr Ee ow, consider the above tW0 cases Now, cons Case (i) a Figure (c}: Complemented Lattice ‘The above lattice is a complemented lattice, as rf P Figure (a Nota Complemented Lattice The above lattice is not a complemented lattice, 4s there is no complement foreach element inthe lattice. 4. Modular Lattice A lattice “L's called a modular latice if p < =>pv(qan=(pyagar Example m r P 4 P ° a Figure (el: Modular Lattice Figure (f: Non- Lattice distributive Q27. Prove that every chain i Lattice. Answer : Let L be a lattice and (L, <) represents a chain ‘Thus, ifa, b,c pair of elements of L such that a,b,c © L. then the following two cases are considered. Case (i): ae aAb=arceg) ‘Xerox/Photocopying7-3: Algebraic Structures ‘Consider the complement b. It can be expressed as, b=bvo0 [vavo=al = bV(aAc) [--aAc=0 from equation (2)} =(bVa)A(bVc) [By applying distributive law] =1A(bVe) [av =1 from equation (1)] =bve G) the complement c. It can be expressed as, evo [av0=a] VlaAb] [a b= 0 from equation 2)] =(cVa)A(cvb) = =1ACvby =cevb [eave=1) (4) 5 eon ee Sor ix it can be observed that all the are same ie., {(a, a), (b, b), (6,0) € R}- ce, the diagonal elements is equal to 1, hence, Ris reflexive. From the above two matrices, abe afl 0 0 =o 1 1 lO 1 1 ice., (b,c) € Rand (c,b) € R Hence, R is symmetric. ‘To Show R is Anti-symmetric M, = (M,)" ‘The given matrix shows that R is not anti-sym- metric, s (b,b) © Rand (b,c) © Rbutb # ©. Thus, it is observed that R is reflective, symmetric but not anti-symmetri Q30. Li in which * and denotes the operations of meet and join respectively. For any a,beL,a is shown below. 6 i Figure: Hasse Diagram Itis having greatest lower bound (glb) and least upper bound (lub). Therefore, it meets semi-lattice. Algebra ‘The Boolean algebra is a non-empty set denoted by is a lattice whose ordered sets are denoted by , _ Since, this lattice is distributive and can be complemented, every element in the lattice has a unique complement. of Boolean Algebra ‘The identities satisfied by the Boolean algebra are as follows, ty+z=xt(y +7) K+(x.y)=x O+2)=G%.y)t 2)” t+ (y.z)= (xt+Z) ey. sd Diveaeccon ora Gr) FY=X. zandx ry =KtZ>y =? TishaDISCRETE MATHEMATICS [JNTU-HY! 17, 18, 19. 20. 4 oT ee y ad 23 & y} ‘se *+y=LUB {x, y} ees sx yax eo xty= ie vex yay. WX S yoox.y'=0ey' 9 @ a'= 1 by Identity law) * Let, x#0=(x*0)@0 (ya ® 0=a by Identity law] ; iy =(x*0) O(xex) (Ly a+ a!=0by complement law] =x*@@x) l (06) G* ea an(0 by Distivavelot =x«(x'@0) (y 8 ® b=b © aby Commutative law) Seg. ee wxex (8 0 aby Identity law) a x*0=0 * i a *a’=a by Component law], ee from equation (1) and (2) it is proved that x ® 1 = | and x *0=0 Wx € B. “oraxlPhotocopying of this- _g: Algebraic Structures 132 389 v= psorption Laws EEE ‘ rhe application laws of boolean algebra are, xe(s@ y)=xandx @xey=x Vay ep ne @y)=(%® at, x*X Oy)=(K OOD +(x a L y) [a ® 0=a by Identity law] 3 a ® b=b@ a by Commutative law] =x owen [+ (@® b) *(@@ c)=a ® (b « c) by Distributive law] w(x ® y)=X * [+ a ® 0=a by Identity and dominance laws) wl) Lax O xe y= (xe Dea) [> x #1 =xby Identity law) =x*@ » [+ (a #b) © (a#y) =a (b ® c) by Distributive law] =x#(y¥@L) [ i “a ® 1 =1 by Dominance law] ‘av 1 =aby Identity law] a) Hence, from equation (1) and (2) it is proved that, x + (x ® y) and x @ x *y=x Wx, y €B. 4 Demorgan’s Law ; xOx#y=x [ ‘The Demorgan’s laws of boolean algebra are (x @ y)'=x' ty’ and (x *y)'=x' @y! V uy eB Proof ‘The Demorgan’s laws can be proved using the definitions of complement laws i.e., a ® x'= 1 anda + x'=0. From the given statement (x ® y)'=x'+ y' Let (x ® y) @ x'#y" j =[KO y)+x]* [Oy Sy] [sa (b+o)=(a Gb) + (a @ 0) by Distributive law] =[(y ©x) Ox] *[@@y) Oy] [2 aOb=b aby Commutative law] =[y Ox Ox) * KOO OY) @ (b @ c)=(a ®@ b) @ c by Associative law] =ye@l*aen [a @ a’= I by Complement law] © 1=1 by Dominance law] + 1 =a by Identity law) A) aoyyextynd Let, = (x ® y) * @y) =(x'y')# (x @y) =(x'y +x) © @'Y"Y) & =xe(xy)@x ty *Y =qexyeyOxeyey =@oxyey ox ery? = b * a by Commutative law] + (0 @ c) = (a+b) @ (a * c) by Distributive law] fa + b) * c by Associative law) (b+ b) * c by Associative law] b= b *a by Commutative law] [- a¢a'=0 by Complement law] =0ry'@ x40 [te 0+ a =0 by Commutative law] =ys0@xr0 se at #0 =0 by Dominance law] ae =0@0 o=1 és Similarly it can be proved that 1' = 9 A and B are two boolean lattices. If B = isdefined as {B,n,y,» subalgebra of B, as A itself is a boolean algebra with 7 %>'0,1) and 4B, then {4,4,v, 4,0, 1} scaled Example Operations «. v and and elements (and 1. Consider a boolean algebra D,, defined as all the oe Possible as D,,= 1,2, 5,7, 10, 14,35, 70) Seisibilities of 70, The hasse diagram for D,, is as shown below. IPE] Eres7-3: Algebraic Structures Explain boolean homomorphism and boolean isomorphism. er: n Homomorphism A function f mapping fro, mB, to B., only if/is homomorphism arg » Where B, and B,are boolean lattices is said to be boolean homomorphism om. ang f°) =(O)", Veep For a boolean homomorphism, FO)=0, f(1)=1 KSY>S(W , S} is a boolean Alpe Hence proved. il atoms of B. Then prove Q39. Let B be a finite Boolean algebra and let A be the set of all that Boolean algebra B is isomorphic to the Boolean algebra P(A), where P(A) is Power < of A. Solution : Consider that ‘Bisa finite Boolean Algebra and ‘A’ be the set of all atoms of B. “To prove that B is isomorphic to P(A), consider a mapping f : B— P(A), where P(A) is the power set or, The mapping f: B -> P(A) is defined as, {(%) = fa, a,, «ns a,} such that f(b) = A(b) V bE B To prove that the mapping is Boolean isomorphism, it is necessary to prove the following, 1. fis one-to-one 2. fis onto 3. £(pq)=F(p) 0 fiq) and f (pv g) = f(p) V F(@) 4. £(@)=A-f@) VqeB 1. fis one-to-one To prove that ‘f” is one - to - one. Let £(4,) =£(4,) for g,,4, © Q PG)=P (G,) = {Pps Pry =» PP =P, YP, Y ns VPL=G f(a) =f@)=4,=4, “f' is one-to-one. Hence proved. 2. fis onto To prove that ‘fis onto Let Q¢ P(A) Where ‘Q’, is a subset ofA IfQ= §, then £(0)=A(0)= § =Q TEQ# $, then Q= {Q,,Q, QQ} Sea SC Stearns A(b) for vi 12, If a © A(b), then a £(q) and f(p vq) =f) VE@) To prove that f(p » q) = £(p) 0 £(q) and f(pv q) = F(p) VE@) ¥ PE B Ifp, q = 0, then there exists f (p a q) = 6 = f(p) Of(@) Suppose, ifp 4 0 and q +0, and if an atom fulfils a condition i.c.,a < pq, thena < panda f(q), then a € A(p) and a © A(q) “For a

£(q) and f(p v g) = fF) F@) f@')=A-f(q) v peB To prove that f(q')~ A-f(q) V qe B A (ava) = F(@) U Mla) and, $=f)=Fqna)=f@rfa) f£(q)=A-f@) it is proved that ‘f” is a Boolean Isomo phism. plify the Boolean expression a’ b'c +a. b'.c+a'.b'..c’ using Boolean algebra identities. ~ Given Boolean Expression is a.Dctabicta bic! i =a.bi.cta’.b(c+e) [-- By taking common terms} =a,b'.cta’.b'.1 [+ a+a'=1 by Complement law] bi.cta’.b [-- a. 1 =a by Identity law] ( mbialetel [-> By taking common terms] - =bie'+a-c] y [- atb=b-+a by Commutative law) a “2b [@+a)-(a+o) [ a+ (b.c)=(a +b). (a+ c) by Distributive law] - =b[l.@+o) [-- a+ a'= 1 by Complement law] =b@+o [-s a. 1 =a by Identity law} ct+abi.c [ys a.(b+0)=a.b +a. ¢ by Distributive law]on DISCRETE MATHEMATICS [JNTU-HYDEga. Gait pe = iti teger 110, is a B Q41. Prove that D,,,, the set of all positive divisors of a positive integ ‘Oolean a} and find all its sub algebras. Solution ; The set of all positive divisors of 110 is, Diio= {15 2, 5,10, 11, 22, 55, 110} The Hasse Diagram for (D,,,, 1) is as follows, 110 ; Figure: Hasse Diagram D,,, In the above diagram, each pair con: ofa Least Upper Bound (LUB) and Greatest Lower Bound (GLB) ‘The least clement is 1 and greatest element is 110. ; And the binary operations *v’ and ‘A’ both satisfy the distributive property so, ihe lattice (D. ow Disa distributive lattice. Here the LCM of (1, 110) i.e., which can be taken as 0 1v110 is 110 which can be taken as 1. The GCD of (1,110) ie., 1.4 H0is1 The complement of 1 is 110 Similarly, The complement of 2 is 55 ‘The complement of 5 is 22 and, ‘The complement of 10 is 11 Since, the complement of each and every element exists, the given set (D,,,, 1) is a Boolean algebra. The sub algebras of (D,,,, 1) are, (1, 110), {1,2 ‘a +55, 110}, {1, 5,°22, 110}, (1,10, 11, 110}:UNIT-3: Algebraic Structures 95 Bere: SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS (VSQs) ) Define algebraic system, Rae yswer : Ifp is set on which single o, BiReciraic system’ ele oF multiple n-ary operations are defined, then any system consisting of set p is What do you mean by semigroup? jr: If(G, 0) represents a set of the algeby Pesino sss the associative rey hati nome BY orton ten, (G0) si a be For every a,b, c€ G, there exists ao(boc) = (aob)oc What is monoid? fspect to operation ‘o”. Define lattice. rer: A partially ordered set of ‘n’ elements (n > 2) which has both Greatest Lower Bound (GLB or gl.b) and Upper Bound (LUB or |.u.b) is called a lattice. Define bounded lattice. Alattice with the lowest and the highest element is called a Bounded lattice. The lowest element is represented by 0 and the highest element is represented by I respectivel What is modular lattice. ri . is called a modular lattice if p < r=> pv (qa1)=(pvq)ar. If Bis defined'as {B, 0, v,',0,1) and A&B, then {4, 0, v,',0, 1} is called n algebra with operations A, v and and elements 0 and 1. A and B are two boolean lattices of B, as A itself is a boolean: a ‘ |EMATICS [JNTU-HYDEf piscrete MAU x PORTANT QUESTIO aic systems, 96 ——————— ) FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS & im rties of algePr Important Que Q1. Whats an algebraic system? Give gener! prope’ Answer For answer refer Unit-IIl, Page No. 68, Q.No.b Q2. Explain the following terms with examples (i) Semi group (ii) Monoid. Important Que Answer ; For answer refer Unit-IIl, Pa Q3. Write short notes on following, (i) Subsemigroup (ii) Submonoids (iii) Abelian semi group. Important Answer : +7 p>! Q4. Let be a semi group such that for x, ¥ © S (a) x*y=y"x (oY OFRY Answer : _ rrr x x=y, where S = {x, y}. Then prove that, For answer refer Unit-III, Page No. 75, Q.No. I QS. Let and S2, "2> be semi groups on the Cartesian product S1 * S2. Let the oper *3 be defined by (a, b) *3 (c, d) = (a*1 c, b *2d) for all (a, b), (c, d) $1 = S2. Prove that is a semi group. pe Answer : (important Question | April/May-23(R16) For answer refer Unit-Il!, Page No. 78, Q.No. 17 Q6. Define lattice and write its properties. es Answer : (Important Question | Nov, For answer refer Unit-III, Page No. 78, Q.No. 18. Q7. Show that every ordered lattice {L, <} satisfies the following properties of alg (i) idempotent (ii) Commutative (iii) Associative (iv) Ab: Answer : For answer refer Unit-II, Page No. 81, Q.No. 23. Q8. Prove that every chain is a distributive Lattice. Answer : For answer refer Unit-IIl, Page No. 84, Q.No. 27. Q9. Discuss in brief about Boolean Algebra and its identities. Answer = For answer refer Unit-lIII, Page No. 87, Q.No. 34, 10. If P(s) is the power set of a non-empty S, prove that {P(S), Answer : For answer refer Unit-IIl, Page No. 91, Q.No. 38. Q11. Simplify the Boolean expression a’ b'c+a. br Answer : : For answer refer Unit-Ill, Page No. 93, Q.No, 40, U,0,A,6,8}is aB -€+a'.b’.c'using Boolean