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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Clouds)
For other uses, see Cloud (disambiguation).

Cloudscape over Borneo, taken by

the International Space Station
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In meteorology, a cloud is an aerosol consisting of a visible mass of

miniature liquid droplets, frozen crystals, or other particles suspended in
the atmosphere of a planetary body or similar space.[1] Water or various
other chemicals may compose the droplets and crystals. On Earth, clouds
are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew
point, or when it gains sufficient moisture (usually in the form of water
vapor) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the
ambient temperature.

Clouds are seen in the Earth's homosphere, which includes

the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Nephology is the science
of clouds, which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology.
There are two methods of naming clouds in their respective layers of the
homosphere, Latin and common name.

Genus types in the troposphere, the atmospheric layer closest to Earth's

surface, have Latin names because of the universal adoption of Luke
Howard's nomenclature that was formally proposed in 1802. It became the
basis of a modern international system that divides clouds into five
physical forms which can be further divided or classified
into altitude levels to derive ten basic genera. The main representative
cloud types for each of these forms
are stratiform, cumuliform, stratocumuliform, cumulonimbiform,
and cirriform. Low-level clouds do not have any altitude-related prefixes.
However mid-level stratiform and stratocumuliform types are given the
prefix alto- while high-level variants of these same two forms carry the
prefix cirro-. In both cases, strato- is dropped from the latter form to avoid
double-prefixing. Genus types with sufficient vertical extent to occupy more
than one level do not carry any altitude-related prefixes. They are classified
formally as low- or mid-level depending on the altitude at which each
initially forms, and are also more informally characterized as multi-
level or vertical. Most of the ten genera derived by this method
of classification can be subdivided into species and further subdivided
into varieties. Very low stratiform clouds that extend down to the Earth's
surface are given the common names fog and mist, but have no Latin
names.

In the stratosphere and mesosphere, clouds have common names for their
main types. They may have the appearance of stratiform veils or sheets,
cirriform wisps, or stratocumuliform bands or ripples. They are seen
infrequently, mostly in the polar regions of Earth. Clouds have been
observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar
System and beyond. However, due to their different temperature
characteristics, they are often composed of other substances such
as methane, ammonia, and sulfuric acid, as well as water.

Tropospheric clouds can have a direct effect on climate change on Earth.

They may reflect incoming rays from the Sun which can contribute to a
cooling effect where and when these clouds occur, or trap longer wave
radiation that reflects back up from the Earth's surface which can cause a
warming effect. The altitude, form, and thickness of the clouds are the main
factors that affect the local heating or cooling of the Earth and the
atmosphere. Clouds that form above the troposphere are too scarce and
too thin to have any influence on climate change. Clouds are the main
uncertainty in climate sensitivity.[2]

Various clouds seen from above in Japan

Etymology
[edit]

Clouds seen from the atmosphere in Nigeria

during summer
The origin of the term "cloud" can be found in the Old
English words clud or clod, meaning a hill or a mass of stone. Around the
beginning of the 13th century, the word came to be used as a metaphor for
rain clouds, because of the similarity in appearance between a mass of
rock and cumulus heap cloud. Over time, the metaphoric usage of the word
supplanted the Old English weolcan, which had been the literal term for
clouds in general.[3][4]

Homospheric nomenclatures and cross-

classification
[edit]
The table that follows is very broad in scope like the cloud genera template
upon which it is partly based. There are some variations in styles of
nomenclature between the classification scheme used for the troposphere
(strict Latin except for surface-based aerosols) and the higher levels of the
homosphere (common terms, some informally derived from Latin).
However, the schemes presented here share a cross-classification of
physical forms and altitude levels to derive the 10 tropospheric genera,
 the fog and mist that forms at surface level, and several additional major
[5]

types above the troposphere. The cumulus genus includes four species
that indicate vertical size which can affect the altitude levels.

Form Cumulifo
[6] Stratocumulif Cumuloni
Stratiform Cirriform rm
orm mbiform
non- mostly non- free-
limited- strong-
Level[ convective convective convectiv
convective convective
7] e

Extre Noctilucent
Noctilucent vei Noctilucent
me- billows or
ls bands
level whirls

Very Nitric
Cirriform nacr Lenticular nacr
high- acid and water
eous PSC eous PSC
level[8] PSC veils

High-
Cirrostratus Cirrus Cirrocumulus
level

Mid-
Altostratus Altocumulus
level

Towe
ring Cumulus Cumulonim
vertic congestus bus
al[9]

Multi
-level
or
Cumulus
mode Nimbostratus
mediocris
rate
vertic
al

Low- Stratus Stratocumulus Cumulus

level humilis or
 fractus

Surfa
ce- Fog or mist
level

History of cloud science

[edit]
Main article: Timeline of meteorology
Ancient cloud studies were not made in isolation, but were observed in
combination with other weather elements and even other natural sciences.
Around 340 BC, Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote Meteorologica, a work
which represented the sum of knowledge of the time about natural science,
including weather and climate. For the first time, precipitation and the
clouds from which precipitation fell were called meteors, which originate
from the Greek word meteoros, meaning 'high in the sky'. From that word
came the modern term meteorology, the study of clouds and
weather. Meteorologica was based on intuition and simple observation, but
not on what is now considered the scientific method. Nevertheless, it was
the first known work that attempted to treat a broad range of meteorological
topics in a systematic way, especially the hydrological cycle.[10]

Tropospheric cloud classification by

altitude of occurrence. Multi-level and vertical genus-types are not limited to
a single altitude level; these include nimbostratus, cumulonimbus, and
some of the larger cumulus species.
After centuries of speculative theories about the formation and behavior of
clouds, the first truly scientific studies were undertaken by Luke Howard in
England and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in France. Howard was a methodical
observer with a strong grounding in the Latin language, and used his
background to formally classify the various tropospheric cloud types during
1802. He believed that scientific observations of the changing cloud forms
in the sky could unlock the key to weather forecasting.

Lamarck had worked independently on cloud classification the same year

and had come up with a different naming scheme that failed to make an
impression even in his home country of France because it used unusually
descriptive and informal French names and phrases for cloud types. His
system of nomenclature included 12 categories of clouds, with such names
as (translated from French) hazy clouds, dappled clouds, and broom-like
clouds. By contrast, Howard used universally accepted Latin, which caught
on quickly after it was published in 1803.[11] As a sign of the popularity of the
naming scheme, German dramatist and poet Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe composed four poems about clouds, dedicating them to Howard.

An elaboration of Howard's system was eventually formally adopted by the

International Meteorological Conference in 1891.[11] This system covered
only the tropospheric cloud types. However, the discovery of clouds above
the troposphere during the late 19th century eventually led to the creation
of separate classification schemes that reverted to the use of descriptive
common names and phrases that somewhat recalled Lamarck's methods
of classification. These very high clouds, although classified by these
different methods, are nevertheless broadly similar to some cloud forms
identified in the troposphere with Latin names.[8]

Formation
[edit]
Main article: Cloud physics
Terrestrial clouds can be found throughout most of the homosphere, which
includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Within these
layers of the atmosphere, air can become saturated as a result of being
cooled to its dew point or by having moisture added from an adjacent
source.[12] In the latter case, saturation occurs when the dew point is raised
to the ambient air temperature.
Adiabatic cooling
[edit]
Adiabatic cooling occurs when one or more of three possible lifting agents
– convective, cyclonic/frontal, or orographic – cause a parcel of air
containing invisible water vapor to rise and cool to its dew point, the
temperature at which the air becomes saturated. The main mechanism
behind this process is adiabatic cooling.[13] As the air is cooled to its dew
point and becomes saturated, water vapor normally condenses to form
cloud drops. This condensation normally occurs on cloud condensation
nuclei such as salt or dust particles that are small enough to be held aloft
by normal circulation of the air.[14][15]

Duration: 36 seconds.0:36Animation of cloud evolution from cumulus

humilis to cumulonimbus capillatus incus
One agent is the convective upward motion of air caused by daytime solar
heating at surface level.[14] Low level airmass instability allows for the
formation of cumuliform clouds in the troposphere that can produce
showers if the air is sufficiently moist.[16] On moderately rare occasions,
convective lift can be powerful enough to penetrate the tropopause and
push the cloud top into the stratosphere.[17]

Frontal and cyclonic lift occur in the troposphere when stable air is forced
aloft at weather fronts and around centers of low pressure by a process
called convergence.[18] Warm fronts associated with extratropical cyclones
tend to generate mostly cirriform and stratiform clouds over a wide area
unless the approaching warm airmass is unstable, in which case cumulus
congestus or cumulonimbus clouds are usually embedded in the main
precipitating cloud layer.[19] Cold fronts are usually faster moving and
generate a narrower line of clouds, which are mostly stratocumuliform,
cumuliform, or cumulonimbiform depending on the stability of the warm
airmass just ahead of the front.[20]

Windy evening twilight enhanced by the Sun's

angle. Clouds can visually mimic a tornado resulting from orographic lift.
A third source of lift is wind circulation forcing air over a physical barrier
such as a mountain (orographic lift).[14] If the air is generally stable, nothing
more than lenticular cap clouds form. However, if the air becomes
sufficiently moist and unstable, orographic showers or thunderstorms may
appear.[21]
Clouds formed by any of these lifting agents are initially seen in the
troposphere where these agents are most active. However, water vapor
that has been lifted to the top of troposphere can be carried even higher by
gravity waves where further condensation can result in the formation of
clouds in the stratosphere and mesosphere. [22]
Non-adiabatic cooling
[edit]
Along with adiabatic cooling that requires a lifting agent, three major
nonadiabatic mechanisms exist for lowering the temperature of the air to its
dew point. Conductive, radiational, and evaporative cooling require no
lifting mechanism and can cause condensation at surface level resulting in
the formation of fog.[23][24][25]
Adding moisture to the air
[edit]
Several main sources of water vapor can be added to the air as a way of
achieving saturation without any cooling process: evaporation from surface
water or moist ground,[26][12][27] precipitation or virga,[28] and transpiration from
plants.[29]

Tropospheric classification
[edit]
Further information: List of cloud types
Classification in the troposphere is based on a hierarchy of categories with
physical forms and altitude levels at the top.[6][7] These are cross-classified
into a total of ten genus types, most of which can be divided into species
and further subdivided into varieties which are at the bottom of the
hierarchy.[30]

Cirrus fibratus clouds in March

Clouds in the troposphere assume five physical forms based on structure
and process of formation. These forms are commonly used for the purpose
of satellite analysis.[31] They are given below in approximate ascending
order of instability or convective activity.[32]

 Nonconvective stratiform clouds appear in stable airmass conditions

and, in general, have flat, sheet-like structures that can form at any
altitude in the troposphere.[33] The stratiform group is divided by altitude
range into the genera cirrostratus (high-level), altostratus (mid-
level), stratus (low-level), and nimbostratus (multi-level).[7] Fog is
commonly considered a surface-based cloud layer.[21] The fog may form
at surface level in clear air or it may be the result of a very low stratus
cloud subsiding to ground or sea level. Conversely, low stratiform clouds
result when advection fog is lifted above surface level during breezy
conditions.
 Cirriform clouds in the troposphere are of the genus cirrus and have the
appearance of detached or semi-merged filaments. They form at high
tropospheric altitudes in air that is mostly stable with little or no
convective activity, although denser patches may occasionally show
buildups caused by limited high-level convection where the air is partly
unstable.[34] Clouds resembling cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus can
be found above the troposphere but are classified separately using
common names.
 Stratocumuliform clouds both cumuliform and stratiform characteristics
in the form of rolls, ripples, or elements.[5] They generally form as a result
of limited convection in an otherwise mostly stable airmass topped by an
inversion layer.[35] If the inversion layer is absent or higher in the
troposphere, increased airmass instability may cause the cloud layers to
develop tops in the form of turrets consisting of embedded cumuliform
buildups.[36] The stratocumuliform group is divided
into cirrocumulus (high-level, strato- prefix dropped), altocumulus (mid-
level, strato- prefix dropped), and stratocumulus (low-level).[5]
 Cumuliform clouds generally appear in isolated heaps or tufts.[37][38] They
are the product of localized but generally free-convective lift where no
inversion layers are in the troposphere to limit vertical growth. In
general, small cumuliform clouds tend to indicate comparatively weak
instability. Larger cumuliform types are a sign of greater atmospheric
instability and convective activity.[39] Depending on their vertical size,
clouds of the cumulus genus type may be low-level or multi-level with
moderate to towering vertical extent.[7]
 Cumulonimbus clouds are largest free-convective clouds, which has a
towering vertical extent. They occur in highly unstable air[14] and often
 have fuzzy outlines at the upper parts of the clouds that sometimes
include anvil tops.[5] These clouds are the product of very strong
convection that can penetrate the lower stratosphere.
Levels and genera
[edit]
See also: Weather map and Station model
Tropospheric clouds form in any of three levels (formerly called étages)
based on altitude range above the Earth's surface. The grouping of clouds
into levels is commonly done for the purposes of cloud atlases, surface
weather observations,[7] and weather maps.[40] The base-height range for
each level varies depending on the latitudinal geographical zone.[7] Each
altitude level comprises two or three genus-types differentiated mainly by
physical form.[41][5]

The standard levels and genus-types are summarised below in

approximate descending order of the altitude at which each is normally
based.[42] Multi-level clouds with significant vertical extent are separately
listed and summarized in approximate ascending order of instability or
convective activity.[32]
High-level
[edit]

High cirrus upper-left merging

into cirrostratus right and some cirrocumulus far right
High clouds form at altitudes of 3,000 to 7,600 m (10,000 to 25,000 ft) in
the polar regions, 5,000 to 12,200 m (16,500 to 40,000 ft) in the temperate
regions, and 6,100 to 18,300 m (20,000 to 60,000 ft) in the tropics.[7] All
cirriform clouds are classified as high, thus constitute a single
genus cirrus (Ci). Stratocumuliform and stratiform clouds in the high altitude
range carry the prefix cirro-, yielding the respective genus
names cirrocumulus (Cc) and cirrostratus (Cs). If limited-resolution satellite
images of high clouds are analyzed without supporting data from direct
human observations, distinguishing between individual forms or genus
types becomes impossible, and they are collectively identified as high-
type (or informally as cirrus-type, though not all high clouds are of the cirrus
form or genus).[43]

 Genus cirrus (Ci) – these are mostly fibrous wisps of delicate, white,
cirriform, ice crystal clouds that show up clearly against the blue sky.
[34]
Cirrus are generally non-convective except castellanus and floccus
subtypes which show limited convection. They often form along a high
altitude jetstream[44] and at the very leading edge of a frontal or low-
pressure disturbance where they may merge into cirrostratus. This high-
level cloud genus does not produce precipitation.[42]

 Genus cirrocumulus (Cc) – this is a pure white high stratocumuliform

layer of limited convection. It is composed of ice crystals or supercooled
water droplets appearing as small unshaded round masses or flakes in
groups or lines with ripples like sand on a beach.[45][46] Cirrocumulus
occasionally forms alongside cirrus and may be accompanied or
replaced by cirrostratus clouds near the leading edge of an active
weather system. This genus-type occasionally produces virga,
precipitation that evaporates below the base of the cloud.[19]

 Genus cirrostratus (Cs) – cirrostratus is a thin nonconvective stratiform

ice crystal veil that typically gives rise to halos caused by refraction of
the Sun's rays. The Sun and Moon are visible in clear outline.
[47]
Cirrostratus does not produce precipitation, but often thickens into
altostratus ahead of a warm front or low-pressure area, which
sometimes does.[48]
Mid-level
[edit]
 Sunrise scene giving a shine to an altocumulus

stratiformis perlucidus cloud Altostratus

translucidus near top of photo thickening into altostratus opacus near
bottom (see also 'species and varieties')
Nonvertical clouds in the middle level are prefixed by alto-, yielding the
genus names altocumulus (Ac) for stratocumuliform types
and altostratus (As) for stratiform types. These clouds can form as low as
2,000 m (6,500 ft) above surface at any latitude, but may be based as high
as 4,000 m (13,000 ft) near the poles, 7,000 m (23,000 ft) at midlatitudes,
and 7,600 m (25,000 ft) in the tropics.[7] As with high clouds, the main genus
types are easily identified by the human eye, but distinguishing between
them using satellite photography alone is not possible. When the
supporting data of human observations are not available, these clouds are
usually collectively identified as middle-type on satellite images.[43]

 Genus altocumulus (Ac) – This is a midlevel cloud layer of limited

convection that is usually appears in the form of irregular patches or
more extensive sheets arranged in groups, lines, or waves.
[49]
Altocumulus may occasionally resemble cirrocumulus, but is usually
thicker and composed of a mix of water droplets and ice crystals, so the
bases show at least some light-gray shading.[50] Altocumulus can
produce virga, very light precipitation that evaporates before reaching
the ground.[51]

 Genus altostratus (As) – Altostratus is a midlevel opaque or translucent

nonconvective veil of gray/blue-gray cloud that often forms along warm
 fronts and around low-pressure areas. Altostratus is usually composed
of water droplets, but may be mixed with ice crystals at higher altitudes.
Widespread opaque altostratus can produce light continuous or
intermittent precipitation.[52]
Low-level
[edit]

Cumulus humilis with stratocumulus stratiformis

in the foreground (see also 'species and varieties')

Cumulus humilis clouds in May

Low clouds are found from near the surface up to 2,000 m (6,500 ft).
[7]
Genus types in this level either have no prefix or carry one that refers to a
characteristic other than altitude. Clouds that form in the low level of the
troposphere are generally of larger structure than those that form in the
middle and high levels, so they can usually be identified by their forms and
genus types using satellite photography alone.[43]

 Genus stratocumulus (Sc) – This genus type is a stratocumuliform cloud

layer of limited convection, usually in the form of irregular patches or
more extensive sheets similar to altocumulus but having larger elements
with deeper-gray shading.[53] Stratocumulus is often present during wet
weather originating from other rain clouds, but can only produce very
light precipitation on its own.[54]

 Species cumulus humilis – These are small detached fair-weather

cumuliform clouds that have nearly horizontal bases and flattened tops,
and do not produce rain showers.[55]

 Genus stratus (St) – This is a flat or sometimes ragged nonconvective

stratiform type that sometimes resembles elevated fog.[56] Only very
 weak precipitation can fall from this cloud, usually drizzle or snow
grains.[57][58] When a very low stratus cloud subsides to surface level, it
loses its Latin terminology and is given the common name fog if the
prevailing surface visibility is less than 1 km (0.62 mi).[59] If the visibility is
1 km or higher, the visible condensation is termed mist.[60]
Multi-level or moderate vertical
[edit]

Nimbostratus with virga

These clouds have low- to mid-level bases that form anywhere from near
the surface to about 2,400 m (8,000 ft) and tops that can extend into the
mid-altitude range and sometimes higher in the case of nimbostratus.

 Genus nimbostratus (Ns) – This is a diffuse, dark gray, multi-level

stratiform layer with great horizontal extent and usually moderate to
deep vertical development that looks feebly illuminated from the inside.
[61]
Nimbostratus normally forms from mid-level altostratus, and develops
at least moderate vertical extent[62][63] when the base subsides into the
low level during precipitation that can reach moderate to heavy intensity.
It achieves even greater vertical development when it simultaneously
grows upward into the high level due to large-scale frontal or cyclonic
lift.[64] The nimbo- prefix refers to its ability to produce continuous rain or
snow over a wide area, especially ahead of a warm front.[65] This thick
cloud layer lacks any towering structure of its own, but may be
accompanied by embedded towering cumuliform or cumulonimbiform
types.[63][66] Meteorologists affiliated with the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) officially classify nimbostratus as mid-level for
synoptic purposes while informally characterizing it as multi-level.
[7]
Independent meteorologists and educators appear split between those
who largely follow the WMO model[62][63] and those who classify
nimbostratus as low-level, despite its considerable vertical extent and its
usual initial formation in the middle altitude range.[67][68]
 Species cumulus mediocris – These cumuliform clouds of free
convection have clear-cut, medium-gray, flat bases and white, domed
tops in the form of small sproutings and generally do not produce
precipitation.[55] They usually form in the low level of the troposphere
except during conditions of very low relative humidity, when the clouds
bases can rise into the middle-altitude range. Cumulus mediocris is
officially classified as low-level and more informally characterized as
having moderate vertical extent that can involve more than one altitude
level.[7]
Towering vertical
[edit]

Isolated cumulonimbus calvus cloud over

the Mojave Desert, releasing a heavy shower

Single-cell Cumulonimbus capillatus incus
These very large cumuliform and cumulonimbiform types have cloud bases
in the same low- to mid-level range as the multi-level and moderate vertical
types, but the tops nearly always extend into the high levels. Unlike less
vertically developed clouds, they are required to be identified by their
standard names or abbreviations in all aviation observations (METARS)
and forecasts (TAFS) to warn pilots of possible severe weather and
turbulence.[9]
 Species cumulus congestus – Increasing airmass instability can cause
free-convective cumulus to grow very tall to the extent that the vertical
height from base to top is greater than the base-width of the cloud. The
cloud base takes on a darker gray coloration and the top commonly
resembles a cauliflower. This cloud type can produce moderate to
heavy showers[55] and is designated Towering cumulus (Tcu) by
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

 Genus cumulonimbus (Cb) – This genus type is a heavy, towering,

cumulonimbiform mass of free-convective cloud with a dark-gray to
nearly black base and a very high top in the form of a mountain or huge
tower.[69] Cumulonimbus can produce thunderstorms, local very heavy
downpours of rain that may cause flash floods, and a variety of types
of lightning including cloud-to-ground that can cause wildfires.[70] Other
convective severe weather may or may not be associated with
thunderstorms and include heavy snow showers, hail,[71] strong wind
shear, downbursts,[72] and tornadoes.[73] Of all these possible
cumulonimbus-related events, lightning is the only one of these that
requires a thunderstorm to be taking place since it is the lightning that
creates the thunder. Cumulonimbus clouds can form in unstable
airmass conditions, but tend to be more concentrated and intense when
they are associated with unstable cold fronts.[20]
Species
[edit]
Genus types are commonly divided into subtypes called species that
indicate specific structural details which can vary according to the stability
and windshear characteristics of the atmosphere at any given time and
location. Despite this hierarchy, a particular species may be a subtype of
more than one genus, especially if the genera are of the same physical
form and are differentiated from each other mainly by altitude or level.
There are a few species, each of which can be associated with genera of
more than one physical form.[74] The species types are grouped below
according to the physical forms and genera with which each is normally
associated. The forms, genera, and species are listed from left to right in
approximate ascending order of instability or convective activity.[32]

Forms Stratifor Cirriform Stratocumulif Cumulifo Cumulonimbif

and m mostly orm rm orm
levels non- nonconvect limited- free- strong
 convectiv convectiv
ive convective convective
e e

Cirrus
non-
convective
Cirrostratu * uncinus Cirrocumulus
s * fibratus * stratiformis
High-
* * spissatus * lenticularis
level
nebulosus limited * castellanus
* fibratus convective * floccus
*
castellanus
* floccus

Altostratus Altocumulus
* no * stratiformis
Mid- differentia * lenticularis
level ted species * castellanus
(always * floccus
nebulous) * volutus

Stratocumulus
Stratus * stratiformis
Cumulus
Low- * * lenticularis
* humilis
level nebulosus * castellanus
* fractus
* fractus * floccus
* volutus

Nimbostra
Multi- tus
level or * no Cumulus
modera differentia * mediocri
te ted species s
vertical (always
nebulous)

Toweri Cumulus Cumulonimbus

ng * congestu * calvus
 vertical s * capillatus

Stable or mostly stable

[edit]
Of the non-convective stratiform group, high-level cirrostratus comprises
two species. Cirrostratus nebulosus has a rather diffuse appearance
lacking in structural detail.[75] Cirrostratus fibratus is a species made of semi-
merged filaments that are transitional to or from cirrus.[76] Mid-level
altostratus and multi-level nimbostratus always have a flat or diffuse
appearance and are therefore not subdivided into species. Low stratus is of
the species nebulosus[75] except when broken up into ragged sheets of
stratus fractus (see below).[62][74][77]

Cirriform clouds have three non-convective species that can form

in stable airmass conditions. Cirrus fibratus comprise filaments that may be
straight, wavy, or occasionally twisted by wind shear.[76] The
species uncinus is similar but has upturned hooks at the ends.
Cirrus spissatus appear as opaque patches that can show light gray
shading.[74]

Altocumulus lenticularis forming over mountains

in Wyoming with lower layer of cumulus mediocris and higher layer of cirrus
spissatus
Stratocumuliform genus-types (cirrocumulus, altocumulus, and
stratocumulus) that appear in mostly stable air with limited convection have
two species each. The stratiformis species normally occur in extensive
sheets or in smaller patches where there is only minimal convective
activity.[78] Clouds of the lenticularis species tend to have lens-like shapes
tapered at the ends. They are most commonly seen as orographic
mountain-wave clouds, but can occur anywhere in the troposphere where
there is strong wind shear combined with sufficient airmass stability to
maintain a generally flat cloud structure. These two species can be found in
the high, middle, or low levels of the troposphere depending on the
stratocumuliform genus or genera present at any given time.[62][74][77]
Ragged
[edit]
The species fractus shows variable instability because it can be a
subdivision of genus-types of different physical forms that have different
stability characteristics. This subtype can be in the form of ragged but
mostly stable stratiform sheets (stratus fractus) or small ragged cumuliform
heaps with somewhat greater instability (cumulus fractus).[74][77][79] When
clouds of this species are associated with precipitating cloud systems of
considerable vertical and sometimes horizontal extent, they are also
classified as accessory clouds under the name pannus (see section on
supplementary features).[80]
Partly unstable
[edit]

Example of a castellanus cloud formation

These species are subdivisions of genus types that can occur in partly
unstable air with limited convection. The species castellanus appears when
a mostly stable stratocumuliform or cirriform layer becomes disturbed by
localized areas of airmass instability, usually in the morning or afternoon.
This results in the formation of embedded cumuliform buildups arising from
a common stratiform base.[81] Castellanus resembles the turrets of a castle
when viewed from the side, and can be found with stratocumuliform genera
at any tropospheric altitude level and with limited-convective patches of
high-level cirrus.[82] Tufted clouds of the more detached floccus species are
subdivisions of genus-types which may be cirriform or stratocumuliform in
overall structure. They are sometimes seen with cirrus, cirrocumulus,
altocumulus, and stratocumulus.[83]

A newly recognized species of stratocumulus or altocumulus has been

given the name volutus, a roll cloud that can occur ahead of a
cumulonimbus formation.[84] There are some volutus clouds that form as a
consequence of interactions with specific geographical features rather than
with a parent cloud. Perhaps the strangest geographically specific cloud of
this type is the Morning Glory, a rolling cylindrical cloud that appears
unpredictably over the Gulf of Carpentaria in Northern Australia. Associated
with a powerful "ripple" in the atmosphere, the cloud may be "surfed"
in glider aircraft.[85]
Unstable or mostly unstable
[edit]
More general airmass instability in the troposphere tends to produce clouds
of the more freely convective cumulus genus type, whose species are
mainly indicators of degrees of atmospheric instability and resultant vertical
development of the clouds. A cumulus cloud initially forms in the low level
of the troposphere as a cloudlet of the species humilis that shows only
slight vertical development. If the air becomes more unstable, the cloud
tends to grow vertically into the species mediocris, then strongly
convective congestus, the tallest cumulus species[74] which is the same type
that the International Civil Aviation Organization refers to as 'towering
cumulus'.[9]

Cumulus mediocris cloud, about to turn into a

cumulus congestus
With highly unstable atmospheric conditions, large cumulus may continue
to grow into even more strongly convective
cumulonimbus calvus (essentially a very tall congestus cloud that produces
thunder), then ultimately into the species capillatus when supercooled
water droplets at the top of the cloud turn into ice crystals giving it a
cirriform appearance.[74][77]
Varieties
[edit]
Genus and species types are further subdivided into varieties whose
names can appear after the species name to provide a fuller description of
a cloud. Some cloud varieties are not restricted to a specific altitude level or
form, and can therefore be common to more than one genus or species.[86]
Opacity-based
[edit]

A layer of stratocumulus stratiformis perlucidus

hiding the setting sun with a background layer of stratocumulus
cumulogenitus resembling distant mountains
All cloud varieties fall into one of two main groups. One group identifies the
opacities of particular low and mid-level cloud structures and comprises the
varieties translucidus (thin translucent), perlucidus (thick opaque with
translucent or very small clear breaks), and opacus (thick opaque). These
varieties are always identifiable for cloud genera and species with variable
opacity. All three are associated with the stratiformis species of
altocumulus and stratocumulus. However, only two varieties are seen with
altostratus and stratus nebulosus whose uniform structures prevent the
formation of a perlucidus variety. Opacity-based varieties are not applied to
high clouds because they are always translucent, or in the case of cirrus
spissatus, always opaque.[86][87]
Pattern-based
[edit]

Cirrus fibratus radiatus over ESO's La Silla

Observatory [88]

A second group describes the occasional arrangements of cloud structures

into particular patterns that are discernible by a surface-based observer
(cloud fields usually being visible only from a significant altitude above the
formations). These varieties are not always present with the genera and
species with which they are otherwise associated, but only appear when
atmospheric conditions favor their
formation. Intortus and vertebratus varieties occur on occasion with cirrus
fibratus. They are respectively filaments twisted into irregular shapes, and
those that are arranged in fishbone patterns, usually by uneven wind
currents that favor the formation of these varieties. The variety radiatus is
associated with cloud rows of a particular type that appear to converge at
the horizon. It is sometimes seen with the fibratus and uncinus species of
cirrus, the stratiformis species of altocumulus and stratocumulus, the
mediocris and sometimes humilis species of cumulus,[89][unreliable source?][90] and
with the genus altostratus.[91]

Altocumulus stratiformis duplicatus at sunrise in the

California Mojave Desert, US (higher layer orange to white; lower layer
gray)
Another variety, duplicatus (closely spaced layers of the same type, one
above the other), is sometimes found with cirrus of both the fibratus and
uncinus species, and with altocumulus and stratocumulus of the species
stratiformis and lenticularis. The variety undulatus (having a wavy
undulating base) can occur with any clouds of the species stratiformis or
lenticularis, and with altostratus. It is only rarely observed with stratus
nebulosus. The variety lacunosus is caused by localized downdrafts that
create circular holes in the form of a honeycomb or net. It is occasionally
seen with cirrocumulus and altocumulus of the species stratiformis,
castellanus, and floccus, and with stratocumulus of the species stratiformis
and castellanus.[86][87]
Combinations
[edit]
It is possible for some species to show combined varieties at one time,
especially if one variety is opacity-based and the other is pattern-based. An
example of this would be a layer of altocumulus stratiformis arranged in
seemingly converging rows separated by small breaks. The full technical
name of a cloud in this configuration would be altocumulus stratiformis
radiatus perlucidus, which would identify respectively its genus, species,
and two combined varieties.[77][86][87]
Other types
[edit]
See also: List of cloud types

Clouds on mountains
Supplementary features and accessory clouds are not further subdivisions
of cloud types below the species and variety level. Rather, they are
either hydrometeors or special cloud types with their own Latin names that
form in association with certain cloud genera, species, and varieties.[77]
[87]
Supplementary features, whether in the form of clouds or precipitation,
are directly attached to the main genus-cloud. Accessory clouds, by
contrast, are generally detached from the main cloud.[92]
Precipitation-based supplementary features
[edit]
One group of supplementary features are not actual cloud formations, but
precipitation that falls when water droplets or ice crystals that make up
visible clouds have grown too heavy to remain aloft. Virga is a feature seen
with clouds producing precipitation that evaporates before reaching the
ground, these being of the genera cirrocumulus, altocumulus, altostratus,
nimbostratus, stratocumulus, cumulus, and cumulonimbus.[92]

When the precipitation reaches the ground without completely evaporating,

it is designated as the feature praecipitatio.[93] This normally occurs with
altostratus opacus, which can produce widespread but usually light
precipitation, and with thicker clouds that show significant vertical
development. Of the latter, upward-growing cumulus mediocris produces
only isolated light showers, while downward growing nimbostratus is
capable of heavier, more extensive precipitation. Towering vertical clouds
have the greatest ability to produce intense precipitation events, but these
tend to be localized unless organized along fast-moving cold fronts.
Showers of moderate to heavy intensity can fall from cumulus congestus
clouds. Cumulonimbus, the largest of all cloud genera, has the capacity to
produce very heavy showers. Low stratus clouds usually produce only light
precipitation, but this always occurs as the feature praecipitatio due to the
fact this cloud genus lies too close to the ground to allow for the formation
of virga.[77][87][92]
Cloud-based supplementary features
[edit]
Incus is the most type-specific supplementary feature, seen only with
cumulonimbus of the species capillatus. A cumulonimbus incus cloud top is
one that has spread out into a clear anvil shape as a result of rising air
currents hitting the stability layer at the tropopause where the air no longer
continues to get colder with increasing altitude.[94]

The mamma feature forms on the bases of clouds as downward-facing

bubble-like protuberances caused by localized downdrafts within the cloud.
It is also sometimes called mammatus, an earlier version of the term used
before a standardization of Latin nomenclature brought about by the World
Meteorological Organization during the 20th century. The best-known
is cumulonimbus with mammatus, but the mamma feature is also seen
occasionally with cirrus, cirrocumulus, altocumulus, altostratus, and
stratocumulus.[92]

A tuba feature is a cloud column that may hang from the bottom of a
cumulus or cumulonimbus. A newly formed or poorly organized column
might be comparatively benign, but can quickly intensify into a funnel cloud
or tornado.[92][95][96]

An arcus feature is a roll cloud with ragged edges attached to the lower
front part of cumulus congestus or cumulonimbus that forms along the
leading edge of a squall line or thunderstorm outflow.[97] A large arcus
formation can have the appearance of a dark menacing arch.[92]

Several new supplementary features have been formally recognized by

the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The feature fluctus can
form under conditions of strong atmospheric wind shear when a
stratocumulus, altocumulus, or cirrus cloud breaks into regularly spaced
crests. This variant is sometimes known informally as a Kelvin–Helmholtz
(wave) cloud. This phenomenon has also been observed in cloud
formations over other planets and even in the Sun's atmosphere.[98] Another
highly disturbed but more chaotic wave-like cloud feature associated with
stratocumulus or altocumulus cloud has been given the Latin
name asperitas. The supplementary feature cavum is a circular fall-streak
hole that occasionally forms in a thin layer of supercooled altocumulus or
cirrocumulus. Fall streaks consisting of virga or wisps of cirrus are usually
seen beneath the hole as ice crystals fall out to a lower altitude. This type
of hole is usually larger than typical lacunosus holes. A murus feature is a
cumulonimbus wall cloud with a lowering, rotating cloud base than can lead
to the development of tornadoes. A cauda feature is a tail cloud that
extends horizontally away from the murus cloud and is the result of air
feeding into the storm.[84]
Accessory clouds
[edit]
Supplementary cloud formations detached from the main cloud are known
as accessory clouds.[77][87][92] The heavier precipitating clouds, nimbostratus,
towering cumulus (cumulus congestus), and cumulonimbus typically see
the formation in precipitation of the pannus feature, low ragged clouds of
the genera and species cumulus fractus or stratus fractus.[80]

A group of accessory clouds comprise formations that are associated

mainly with upward-growing cumuliform and cumulonimbiform clouds of
free convection. Pileus is a cap cloud that can form over a cumulonimbus
or large cumulus cloud,[99] whereas a velum feature is a thin horizontal sheet
that sometimes forms like an apron around the middle or in front of the
parent cloud.[92] An accessory cloud recently officially recognized by the
World meteorological Organization is the flumen, also known more
informally as the beaver's tail. It is formed by the warm, humid inflow of a
super-cell thunderstorm, and can be mistaken for a tornado. Although the
flumen can indicate a tornado risk, it is similar in appearance to pannus
or scud clouds and does not rotate.[84]
Mother clouds
[edit]
 Cumulus partly spreading into stratocumulus
cumulogenitus over the port of Piraeus in Greece
Clouds initially form in clear air or become clouds when fog rises above
surface level. The genus of a newly formed cloud is determined mainly by
air mass characteristics such as stability and moisture content. If these
characteristics change over time, the genus tends to change accordingly.
When this happens, the original genus is called a mother cloud. If the
mother cloud retains much of its original form after the appearance of the
new genus, it is termed a genitus cloud. One example of this
is stratocumulus cumulogenitus, a stratocumulus cloud formed by the
partial spreading of a cumulus type when there is a loss of convective lift. If
the mother cloud undergoes a complete change in genus, it is considered
to be a mutatus cloud.[100]

Cumulonimbus mother cloud dissipating into

stratocumulus cumulonimbogenitus at dusk
Other genitus and mutatus clouds
[edit]
The genitus and mutatus categories have been expanded to include certain
types that do not originate from pre-existing clouds. The
term flammagenitus (Latin for 'fire-made') applies to cumulus congestus or
cumulonimbus that are formed by large scale fires or volcanic eruptions.
Smaller low-level "pyrocumulus" or "fumulus" clouds formed by contained
industrial activity are now classified as cumulus homogenitus (Latin for
'man-made'). Contrails formed from the exhaust of aircraft flying in the
upper level of the troposphere can persist and spread into formations
resembling cirrus which are designated cirrus homogenitus. If a cirrus
homogenitus cloud changes fully to any of the high-level genera, they are
termed cirrus, cirrostratus, or cirrocumulus homomutatus. Stratus
cataractagenitus (Latin for 'cataract-made') are generated by the spray
from waterfalls. Silvagenitus (Latin for 'forest-made') is a stratus cloud that
forms as water vapor is added to the air above a forest canopy.[100]
Large scale patterns
[edit]
Sometimes certain atmospheric processes cause clouds to become
organized into patterns that can cover large areas. These patterns are
usually difficult to identify from surface level and are best seen from an
aircraft or spacecraft.
Stratocumulus fields
[edit]
Stratocumulus clouds can be organized into "fields" that take on certain
specially classified shapes and characteristics. In general, these fields are
more discernible from high altitudes than from ground level. They can often
be found in the following forms:

 Actinoform, which resembles a leaf or a spoked wheel.

 Closed cell, which is cloudy in the center and clear on the edges, similar
to a filled honeycomb.[101]
 Open cell, which resembles an empty honeycomb, with clouds around
the edges and clear, open space in the middle.[102]
Vortex streets
[edit]
Main article: Karman vortex street

Cirrus fibratus intortus formed into a Kármán

vortex street at evening twilight
These patterns are formed from a phenomenon known as a Kármán
vortex which is named after the engineer and fluid dynamicist Theodore
von Kármán.[103] Wind driven clouds, usually mid level altocumulus or high
level cirrus, can form into parallel rows that follow the wind direction. When
the wind and clouds encounter high elevation land features such as a
vertically prominent islands, they can form eddies around the high land
masses that give the clouds a twisted appearance.[104]

Distribution
[edit]
Convergence along low-pressure zones
[edit]
Main articles: Intertropical convergence zone, Extratropical cyclone, Cold
front, and Warm front

Global cloud cover, averaged over the month of

October 2009. NASA composite satellite image.[105]These maps display the
fraction of Earth's area that was cloudy on average during each month from
January 2005 to August 2013. The measurements were collected by the
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's
Terra satellite. Colors range from blue (no clouds) to white (totally cloudy).
Like a digital camera, MODIS collects information in gridded boxes, or
pixels. Cloud fraction is the portion of each pixel that is covered by clouds.
Colors range from blue (no clouds) to white (totally cloudy).[106] (click for
more detail)
Although the local distribution of clouds can be significantly influenced by
topography, the global prevalence of cloud cover in the troposphere tends
to vary more by latitude. It is most prevalent in and along low pressure
zones of surface tropospheric convergence which encircle the Earth close
to the equator and near the 50th parallels of latitude in the northern and
southern hemispheres.[107] The adiabatic cooling processes that lead to the
creation of clouds by way of lifting agents are all associated with
convergence; a process that involves the horizontal inflow and
accumulation of air at a given location, as well as the rate at which this
happens.[108] Near the equator, increased cloudiness is due to the presence
of the low-pressure Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) where very
warm and unstable air promotes mostly cumuliform and cumulonimbiform
clouds.[109] Clouds of virtually any type can form along the mid-latitude
convergence zones depending on the stability and moisture content of the
air. These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar
fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical
or subtropical origin.[110] This leads to the formation of weather-
making extratropical cyclones composed of cloud systems that may be
stable or unstable to varying degrees according to the stability
characteristics of the various airmasses that are in conflict.[111]
Divergence along high pressure zones
[edit]
Main articles: Subtropical ridge and Polar high
Divergence is the opposite of convergence. In the Earth's troposphere, it
involves the horizontal outflow of air from the upper part of a rising column
of air, or from the lower part of a subsiding column often associated with an
area or ridge of high pressure.[108] Cloudiness tends to be least prevalent
near the poles and in the subtropics close to the 30th parallels, north and
south. The latter are sometimes referred to as the horse latitudes. The
presence of a large-scale high-pressure subtropical ridge on each side of
the equator reduces cloudiness at these low latitudes.[112] Similar patterns
also occur at higher latitudes in both hemispheres.[113]

Luminance, reflectivity, and coloration

[edit]
The luminance or brightness of a cloud is determined by how light is
reflected, scattered, and transmitted by the cloud's particles. Its brightness
may also be affected by the presence of haze or photometeors such as
halos and rainbows.[114] In the troposphere, dense, deep clouds exhibit a
high reflectance (70–95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of
water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud
before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color,
especially when viewed from the top.[115] Cloud droplets tend to scatter light
efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth
into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to
very-dark-gray depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is
being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. High thin tropospheric
clouds reflect less light because of the comparatively low concentration of
constituent ice crystals or supercooled water droplets which results in a
slightly off-white appearance. However, a thick dense ice-crystal cloud
appears brilliant white with pronounced gray shading because of its greater
reflectivity.[114]

As a tropospheric cloud matures, the dense water droplets may combine to

produce larger droplets. If the droplets become too large and heavy to be
kept aloft by the air circulation, they will fall from the cloud as rain. By this
process of accumulation, the space between droplets becomes
increasingly larger, permitting light to penetrate farther into the cloud. If the
cloud is sufficiently large and the droplets within are spaced far enough
apart, a percentage of the light that enters the cloud is not reflected back
out but is absorbed giving the cloud a darker look. A simple example of this
is one's being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog. This
process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color
from white to black.[116]

Striking cloud colorations can be seen at any altitude, with the color of a
cloud usually being the same as the incident light.[117] During daytime when
the sun is relatively high in the sky, tropospheric clouds generally appear
bright white on top with varying shades of gray underneath. Thin clouds
may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or
background. Red, orange, and pink clouds occur almost entirely at
sunrise/sunset and are the result of the scattering of sunlight by the
atmosphere. When the Sun is just below the horizon, low-level clouds are
gray, middle clouds appear rose-colored, and high clouds are white or off-
white. Clouds at night are black or dark gray in a moonless sky, or whitish
when illuminated by the Moon. They may also reflect the colors of large
fires, city lights, or auroras that might be present.[117]

A cumulonimbus cloud that appears to have a greenish or bluish tint is a

sign that it contains extremely high amounts of water; hail or rain which
scatter light in a way that gives the cloud a blue color. A green colorization
occurs mostly late in the day when the sun is comparatively low in the sky
and the incident sunlight has a reddish tinge that appears green when
illuminating a very tall bluish cloud. Supercell type storms are more likely to
be characterized by this but any storm can appear this way. Coloration
such as this does not directly indicate that it is a severe thunderstorm, it
only confirms its potential. Since a green/blue tint signifies copious
amounts of water, a strong updraft to support it, high winds from the storm
raining out, and wet hail; all elements that improve the chance for it to
become severe, can all be inferred from this. In addition, the stronger the
updraft is, the more likely the storm is to undergo tornadogenesis and to
produce large hail and high winds.[118]

Yellowish clouds may be seen in the troposphere in the late spring through
early fall months during forest fire season. The yellow color is due to the
presence of pollutants in the smoke. Yellowish clouds are caused by the
presence of nitrogen dioxide and are sometimes seen in urban areas with
high air pollution levels.[119]


Stratocumulus stratiformis and small castellanus made orange by the sun

rising

An occurrence of cloud iridescence with altocumulus volutus and

cirrocumulus stratiformis
 

Sunset reflecting shades of pink onto gray stratocumulus stratiformis

translucidus (becoming perlucidus in the background)

Stratocumulus stratiformis perlucidus before sunset in Bangalore, India

Late-summer rainstorm in Denmark. Nearly black color of base indicates

main cloud in foreground probably cumulonimbus.
 

Particles in the atmosphere and the sun's angle enhance colors of

stratocumulus cumulogenitus at evening twilight.
Effects
[edit]
See also: Cloud cover, Cloud feedback, Global dimming, and Climate
change

Cumuliform cloudscape
over Swifts Creek, Australia
Tropospheric clouds exert numerous influences on Earth's troposphere and
climate. First and foremost, they are the source of precipitation, thereby
greatly influencing the distribution and amount of precipitation. Because of
their differential buoyancy relative to surrounding cloud-free air, clouds can
be associated with vertical motions of the air that may be convective,
frontal, or cyclonic. The motion is upward if the clouds are less dense
because condensation of water vapor releases heat, warming the air and
thereby decreasing its density. This can lead to downward motion because
lifting of the air results in cooling that increases its density. All of these
effects are subtly dependent on the vertical temperature and moisture
structure of the atmosphere and result in major redistribution of heat that
affect the Earth's climate.[120]

The complexity and diversity of clouds in the troposphere is a major reason

for difficulty in quantifying the effects of clouds on climate and climate
change. On the one hand, white cloud tops promote cooling of Earth's
surface by reflecting shortwave radiation (visible and near infrared) from
the Sun, diminishing the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed at the
surface, enhancing the Earth's albedo. Most of the sunlight that reaches
the ground is absorbed, warming the surface, which emits radiation upward
at longer, infrared, wavelengths. At these wavelengths, however, water in
the clouds acts as an efficient absorber. The water reacts by radiating, also
in the infrared, both upward and downward, and the downward longwave
radiation results in increased warming at the surface. This is analogous to
the greenhouse effect of greenhouse gases and water vapor.[120]

High-level genus-types particularly show this duality with both short-wave

albedo cooling and long-wave greenhouse warming effects. On the
whole, ice-crystal clouds in the upper troposphere (cirrus) tend to favor net
warming.[121][122] However, the cooling effect is dominant with mid-level and
low clouds, especially when they form in extensive sheets.
[121]
Measurements by NASA indicate that on the whole, the effects of low
and mid-level clouds that tend to promote cooling outweigh the warming
effects of high layers and the variable outcomes associated with vertically
developed clouds.[121]

As difficult as it is to evaluate the influences of current clouds on current

climate, it is even more problematic to predict changes in cloud patterns
and properties in a future, warmer climate, and the resultant cloud
influences on future climate. In a warmer climate more water would enter
the atmosphere by evaporation at the surface; as clouds are formed from
water vapor, cloudiness would be expected to increase. But in a warmer
climate, higher temperatures would tend to evaporate clouds.[123] Both of
these statements are considered accurate, and both phenomena, known as
cloud feedbacks, are found in climate model calculations. Broadly
speaking, if clouds, especially low clouds, increase in a warmer climate, the
resultant cooling effect leads to a negative feedback in climate response to
increased greenhouse gases. But if low clouds decrease, or if high clouds
increase, the feedback is positive. Differing amounts of these feedbacks
are the principal reason for differences in climate sensitivities of current
global climate models. As a consequence, much research has focused on
the response of low and vertical clouds to a changing climate. Leading
global models produce quite different results, however, with some showing
increasing low clouds and others showing decreases.[124][125] For these
reasons the role of tropospheric clouds in
regulating weather and climate remains a leading source of uncertainty
in global warming projections.[126][127]

Stratospheric classification and distribution

[edit]

Lenticular nacreous clouds over Antarctica

Polar stratospheric clouds (PSC's) are found in the lowest part of the
stratosphere. Moisture is scarce above the troposphere, so nacreous and
non-nacreous clouds at this altitude range are restricted to polar regions in
the winter where and when the air is coldest.[8]

PSC's show some variation in structure according to their chemical makeup

and atmospheric conditions, but are limited to a single very high range of
altitude of about 15,000–25,000 m (49,200–82,000 ft) Accordingly, they are
classified as a singular type with no differentiated altitude levels, genus
types, species, or varieties. There is no Latin nomenclature in the manner
of tropospheric clouds, but rather descriptive names of several general
forms using common English.[8]

Supercooled nitric acid and water PSC's, sometimes known as type 1,

typically have a stratiform appearance resembling cirrostratus or haze, but
because they are not frozen into crystals, do not show the pastel colors of
the nacreous types. This type of PSC has been identified as a cause of
ozone depletion in the stratosphere.[128] The frozen nacreous types are
typically very thin with mother-of-pearl colorations and an undulating
cirriform or lenticular (stratocumuliform) appearance. These are sometimes
known as type 2.[129][130]

Mesospheric classification and distribution

[edit]
 Noctilucent cloud over Estonia
Noctilucent clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and are found near
the top of the mesosphere at about 80 to 85 km (50 to 53 mi) or roughly ten
times the altitude of tropospheric high clouds.[131] They are given this Latin
derived name because of their illumination well after sunset and before
sunrise. They typically have a bluish or silvery white coloration that can
resemble brightly illuminated cirrus. Noctilucent clouds may occasionally
take on more of a red or orange hue.[8] They are not common or widespread
enough to have a significant effect on climate.[132] However, an increasing
frequency of occurrence of noctilucent clouds since the 19th century may
be the result of climate change.[133]

Ongoing research indicates that convective lift in the mesosphere is strong

enough during the polar summer to cause adiabatic cooling of small
amount of water vapor to the point of saturation. This tends to produce the
coldest temperatures in the entire atmosphere just below the
mesopause. [132] There is evidence that smoke particles from burnt-up
meteors provide much of the condensation nuclei required for the formation
of noctilucent cloud.[134]

Noctilucent clouds have four major types based on physical structure and
appearance. Type I veils are very tenuous and lack well-defined structure,
somewhat like cirrostratus fibratus or poorly defined cirrus.[135] Type II bands
are long streaks that often occur in groups arranged roughly parallel to
each other. They are usually more widely spaced than the bands or
elements seen with cirrocumulus clouds.[136] Type III billows are
arrangements of closely spaced, roughly parallel short streaks that mostly
resemble cirrus.[137] Type IV whirls are partial or, more rarely, complete rings
of cloud with dark centers.[138]

Distribution in the mesosphere is similar to the stratosphere except at much

higher altitudes. Because of the need for maximum cooling of the water
vapor to produce noctilucent clouds, their distribution tends to be restricted
to polar regions of Earth. Sightings are rare more than 45 degrees south of
the north pole or north of the south pole.[8]

Extraterrestrial
[edit]
See also: Extraterrestrial atmospheres

Cirrus clouds on Neptune, captured

during Voyager 2's flyby
Cloud cover has been seen on most other planets in the Solar
System. Venus's thick clouds are composed of sulfur dioxide (due to
volcanic activity) and appear to be almost entirely stratiform.[139] They are
arranged in three main layers at altitudes of 45 to 65 km that obscure
the planet's surface and can produce virga. No embedded cumuliform
types have been identified, but broken stratocumuliform wave formations
are sometimes seen in the top layer that reveal more continuous layer
clouds underneath.[140] On Mars, noctilucent, cirrus, cirrocumulus and
stratocumulus composed of water-ice have been detected mostly near the
poles.[141][142] Water-ice fogs have also been detected on Mars.[143]

Both Jupiter and Saturn have an outer cirriform cloud deck composed of
ammonia,[144][145] an intermediate stratiform haze-cloud layer made
of ammonium hydrosulfide, and an inner deck of cumulus water clouds.[146]
[147]
Embedded cumulonimbus are known to exist near the Great Red
Spot on Jupiter.[148][149] The same category-types can be found
covering Uranus and Neptune, but are all composed of methane.[150][151][152]
[153]
Saturn's moon Titan has cirrus clouds believed to be composed largely
of methane.[154][155] The Cassini–Huygens Saturn mission uncovered
evidence of polar stratospheric clouds[156] and a methane cycle on Titan,
including lakes near the poles and fluvial channels on the surface of the
moon.[157]
Some planets outside the Solar System are known to have atmospheric
clouds. In October 2013, the detection of high altitude optically thick clouds
in the atmosphere of exoplanet Kepler-7b was announced,[158][159] and, in
December 2013, in the atmospheres of GJ 436 b and GJ 1214 b.[160][161][162][163]

In culture and religion

[edit]
Joshua Passing the River Jordan with the Ark of the Covenant (1800)
by Benjamin West, showing Yahweh leading the Israelites through the
desert in the form of a pillar of cloud, as described in Exodus 13:21–22[164]
Clouds play an important mythical or non-scientific role in various cultures
and religious traditions. The ancient Akkadians believed that the clouds (in
meteorology, probably the supplementary feature mamma) were the
breasts of the sky goddess Antu[165] and that rain was milk from her breasts.
[165]
In Exodus 13:21–22, Yahweh is described as guiding
the Israelites through the desert in the form of a "pillar of cloud" by day and
a "pillar of fire" by night.[164] In Mandaeism, uthras (celestial beings) are also
occasionally mentioned as being in anana ("clouds"; e.g., in Right
Ginza Book 17, Chapter 1), which can also be interpreted as female
consorts.[166]

In the ancient Greek comedy The Clouds, written by Aristophanes and first
performed at the City Dionysia in 423 BC, the
philosopher Socrates declares that the Clouds are the only true
deities[167] and tells the main character Strepsiades not to worship any
deities other than the Clouds, but to pay homage to them alone.[167] In the
play, the Clouds change shape to reveal the true nature of whoever is
looking at them,[168][167][169] turning into centaurs at the sight of a long-
haired politician, wolves at the sight of the embezzler Simon, deer at the
sight of the coward Cleonymus, and mortal women at the sight of the
effeminate informer Cleisthenes.[168][169][167] They are hailed the source of
inspiration to comic poets and philosophers;[167] they are masters of rhetoric,
regarding eloquence and sophistry alike as their "friends".[167]

In China, clouds are symbols of luck and happiness.[170] Overlapping clouds

(in meteorology, probably duplicatus clouds) are thought to imply eternal
happiness[170] and clouds of different colors are said to indicate "multiplied
blessings".[170]
Informal cloud watching or cloud gazing is a popular activity involving
watching the clouds and looking for shapes in them, a form of pareidolia.[171]
[172]