Business & Company Law

Go to download the full and correct content document:

https://ebookgrade.com/product/business-company-law/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Business and Company Law 2nd Edition James Nickolas;

https://ebookgrade.com/product/business-and-company-law-2nd-edition-
james-nickolas/

ebookgrade.com

Understanding Company Law

https://ebookgrade.com/product/understanding-company-law/

ebookgrade.com

Q&A Company Law

https://ebookgrade.com/product/qa-company-law/

ebookgrade.com

Company Law 2nd Edition

https://ebookgrade.com/product/company-law-2nd-edition/

ebookgrade.com
Understanding company law 18th Edition

https://ebookgrade.com/product/understanding-company-law-18th-edition/

ebookgrade.com

Wiley Series 26 Exam Review 2017 The Investment Company

and Variable Contracts Products Principal Examination

https://ebookgrade.com/product/wiley-series-26-exam-review-2017-the-
investment-company-and-variable-contracts-products-principal-
examination/
ebookgrade.com

Company Law Concentrate Law Revision and Study Guide

https://ebookgrade.com/product/company-law-concentrate-law-revision-
and-study-guide/

ebookgrade.com

Unlocking Company Law 4th Susan McLaughlin

https://ebookgrade.com/product/unlocking-company-law-4th-susan-
mclaughlin/

ebookgrade.com
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 SYCAMORE MAPLE
Acer pseudo-platanus
Page 30
 Chapter IV
THE ASHES
1. Red Ash. 2. White Ash. 3. Black Ash. 4. European Ash.
 Chapter IV
THE ASHES

Family Oleaceæ

I N winter there is little to attract us in ash trees beyond a certain

bold strength of trunk and limb. There is no grace or delicacy
whatever in the branches, the twigs are coarsely moulded, and the
buds are thick and leathery. The popular prejudice existing against
ash trees in summer, when the contrast of their light foliage and
heavy trunks makes it less deserved, is fully warranted in winter; but
if the ash is ugly, the wood of few trees is as generally useful, and
its literary history dates back to the “Odyssey” and to the Eddas of
Norse mythology.
The generic name, Fraxinus, comes from the Latin phraxis
(separation), and probably alludes to the wood of the European
species which splits easily. There are about fifteen different species
in the United States, three of which are found commonly in New
England. The green ash, which used to be considered a distinct
species, is now thought to be a variety of the red ash.
All the ashes have opposite leaf-scars.
A large tree with a straight trunk. Bark furrowed
White or with irregular ridges, the hollows forming diamond
American Ash shapes frequently. Buds smooth, thick and hard
Fraxinus
like leather, and a rusty brown color. Twigs smooth,
americana
without down. Leaf-scars opposite, and the stems
are flattened at the nodes. Cross-shaped branching of the twigs
against the sky.
 AMERICAN ASH
Fraxinus americana
Page 36

The white ash is a tree which we find frequently along roadsides

and in the woods everywhere in New England. The characteristics
which distinguish it from other trees in winter are the close diamond-
shaped fissures of the bark, the rusty brown buds, and often the old
clusters of paddle-shaped fruit hanging on the tree. On some ash
trees black, berry-like excrescences are found hanging in dry clusters
on the ends of the branches. These are not clusters of fruit, as might
at first be supposed, but the diseased and undeveloped remains of
the panicles of staminate flowers which have been injured by mites,
—curious freaks resembling oak-apples and the outgrowths of other
insect poisoned plants. Occasionally these berry-like clusters have
been gathered as seeds, by mistake, instead of the true fruit, a
mistake which does not seem remarkable when the fruit-like
appearance of the clusters is considered.
The wood of the white ash is heavy, tough, and strong, and is
much used for agricultural implements, tool handles and oars, for
the interior finish of houses and in the construction of carriages.
Emerson tells of an ash which was felled in Granville many years
ago, the wood of which furnished three thousand rake stalks. The
tree from which I took the following photograph, stands on a farm in
Sterling, Massachusetts, and measures over fourteen feet in
circumference, five feet from the ground. This trunk illustrates the
massive strength which gives the ash its one æsthetic quality.
This tree resembles the white ash, but is
Red or Downy distinguished from it by the down on the recent
Ash Fraxinus shoots. It is a smaller tree than the white ash,
pennsylvanica
more spreading in shape. The twigs are less coarse
and branch more frequently, with less space between the buds,—
shorter internodes,—on shoots of the same age. Buds
inconspicuous, smaller and blacker than those of the white ash. Bark
closely furrowed, like that of the white ash. Leaf-scars opposite.
The red ash is much less coarsely moulded than the white ash,
and in its leafless season, particularly, the contrast between its
branches and those of the white ash is plainly seen. The fissures in
the bark of the red ash seem a little finer and nearer together than
those of the white ash bark on trees of the same age. The soft down
on the recent shoots remains through the winter; and this, with the
finer twigs, which branch more frequently, and the smaller, darker
buds, makes the tree easily distinguished from the white ash in
winter,—more easily even than in summer.
The staminate flowers of the red ash are afflicted by mites in the
same way as those of the white ash, producing unsightly clusters
which hang on the tree all winter.
The wood is much less valuable than that of the white ash.
A slender tree, 40 to 70 feet high. Trunk dark
Black Ash gray, often disfigured with knobs. The buds are
Fraxinus nigra black, and the young shoots greenish. Coarse
twigs; opposite leaf-scars.
The black ash is distinguished from the white and red ashes by its
darker buds and by having a less pinched, flattened appearance at
the nodes on the stem. It grows throughout New England in
swamps, in wet woods, and in moist, muddy ground near rivers. In
the woods its trunk is found frequently without branches to a great
height, and Emerson calls it the most slender deciduous tree to be
found in the forest. It is sometimes seventy or eighty feet high, with
a trunk scarcely a foot in diameter.
The wood of the black ash is heavy but not strong. It is used for
fences, for the interior finish of houses, and, after being separated
into thin strips, it is used in making baskets and the bottoms of
chairs. Its sap was an old remedy for earache, obtained by holding a
green branch before the fire.
The specific name, nigra, refers to the color of the buds.
 A large tree, with a lofty, spreading head and
European Ash short, thick trunk. The bark is ash-colored when
Fraxinus old, and dark gray when young. Very black buds
excelsior
distinguish it from the American species. Opposite
leaf-scars.
The European ash is planted frequently along roadsides and in our
parks and gardens. It is indigenous to Northern, Central, and
Southern Europe. Its jet black buds distinguish it from other ash
trees. In the chapter called “A Visit to an old Bachelor,” in Mrs.
Gaskell’s “Cranford,” Mary Smith tells us how she was talking to Mr.
Holbrook in the fields, and how he quoted poetry to himself and
enjoyed the trees and clouds and glimpses of distant pastures, and
how he suddenly turned sharp round and asked, “Now, what color
are ash buds in March?”
“Is the man going mad? thought I. He is very like Don Quixote.
‘What color are they, I say?’ repeated he vehemently. ‘I am sure I
don’t know, sir,’ said I, with the meekness of ignorance. ‘I knew you
didn’t. No more did I—an old fool that I am!—till this young man
comes and tells me. Black as ash buds in March. And I’ve lived all
my life in the country; more shame for me not to know. Black: they
are jet black, madam.”
The “young man” he refers to is Tennyson, and the quotation,
“Black as ash buds in the front of March,” is a simile used in “The
Gardener’s Daughter,” and it shows how acute Tennyson’s powers of
observation were, and how true his descriptions of nature.
The buds of the ash open later in the spring than those of other
trees, and the leaves unfold very slowly. Tennyson also noted this
characteristic:—

“Why lingereth she to clothe her heart with love,

Delaying as the tender ash delays
To clothe herself, when all the woods are green?”
The rare fitness of this simile might pass unheeded if we did not
study trees first and poetry afterwards.
In Europe ash seeds were used for medicine. They were called
lingua avis by the old apothecaries, on account of a fancied
resemblance to the tongues of birds; young ash seeds were also
pickled and used in salads. Evelyn says the wood “is of all others the
sweetest of our forest fuelling, and the fittest for ladies’ chambers.”
The horsechestnuts, the maples, and the ashes are the three
genera of large trees which have opposite leaf-scars.
 Chapter V
THE WALNUTS AND HICKORIES
1. Butternut. 2. Black Walnut. 3. Pignut Hickory. 4. Mockernut
Hickory. 5. Shagbark Hickory. 6. Bitternut Hickory.
 Chapter V
THE WALNUTS AND HICKORIES

Family Juglandaceæ

F EW trees are more lofty and majestic than certain species of

walnuts and hickories. They are stately in summer, but in winter,
when the foliage has gone and every branch and twig is thrown in
black relief against the sky, their beauty is truly imposing.
Both walnuts and hickories are valuable timber trees, and the nuts
of several species are sweet and edible.
Two genera of this family are found in America,—Juglans and
Hicoria. Of the first genus there are two species native in the
Northeastern States,—the butternut and the black walnut.
A low, spreading tree, branching a short way up
Butternut the trunk. Gray bark, slightly fissured, the clefts
Juglans cinerea not running together. Recent shoots downy, with a
fringe of hair over the leaf-scar. Leaf-scars
conspicuous, alternate, the bundle-scars horseshoe (U) shaped.
Light brown buds destitute of scales. Terminal bud encloses pistillate
flowers, which are fertilized by the staminate flowers enclosed in the
pineapple-like bud over the leaf-scars. These staminate flowers hang
in one long catkin, which drops off after shedding the pollen in
spring. The superposed buds (two or three over the leaf-scars)
contain the side branches. Pith light brown and chambered,—by
cutting a twig lengthwise this can be seen,—a characteristic of the
Juglans family.
 BUTTERNUT
Juglans cinerea
Page 46
 TRUNK OF A BUTTERNUT
Page 47

Among all the native trees, the butternut is perhaps the most
interesting for winter study. The naked buds, the irregular leaf-scars,
with horseshoe bundle-scars, the superposed buds containing the
lateral branches and the queerly marked buds of the staminate
flowers, the chambered pith, and the little fringes of down on the
stems, every structural detail of this tree is interesting and unusual.
The butternut is one of the few trees among the Juglandaceæ which
is not tall and beautiful in outline. It is a low tree, with wide-
spreading, rather straggling branches, frequently ill shapen and
uncouth in appearance. It is usually associated in our minds with
country lanes, and growing by the walls and fences bordering open
pastures and farm lands, and in these surroundings it seems
pleasing and appropriate; but when we find it planted in parks and
cultivated grounds it seems commonplace and insignificant. It is
found in all the New England States, in New York, and in
Pennsylvania. Very large specimens grow in the valley of the
Connecticut River.
The wood of the butternut is light brown in color, it is light, soft,
and easily worked, and is much used for furniture, gunstocks, and
for the interior finish of houses. The inner bark is used medicinally,
and a dye is made from the bark and nutshells. An excellent pickle is
made from the young nuts, and the kernels are sweet and edible,
although rather rich and oily. Professor Gray tried the experiment of
making sugar from the sap of the butternut. He found that it took
four trees to yield nine quarts of sap (one and a quarter pounds of
sugar), the amount that one sugar maple yields.
The generic name, Juglans, comes from Jovis glans, the nut of
Jove, in reference to the excellence of the fruit, and the specific
name, cinerea (ash-colored), probably alludes to the color of the
bark.
 A large tree, 50 to 120 feet high, with spreading
Black Walnut branches and rough bark, darker in color than that
Juglans nigra of the butternut. The buds are gray instead of light
brown like those of the butternut, and they are
shorter. The twigs are smooth in winter, without hair, and the pith is
chambered. Alternate, conspicuous leaf-scars. Characteristic
difference between the two trees is that the fringe of hair over the
leaf-scar in the butternut is absent in the black walnut.
The black walnut is a striking contrast to the butternut. It is tall
and erect, with a broad, spacious head and vigorous, wide-spreading
branches. The bark is much darker and rougher than that of the
butternut, and the buds are smaller, and gray rather than yellowish
in color, like those of the other species.
 BLACK WALNUT
Juglans nigra
Page 48
 TRUNK OF A BLACK WALNUT
Page 49

The wood is heavy, strong, and durable, and dark brown in color.
It takes polish well and is much used in cabinet making, boat-
building, interior house finishing, and for gunstocks and coffins. A
valuable wood in many ways, but the passing of the fashion for
black walnut furniture is not to be regretted. It has been cut most
recklessly in our forests during the last twenty-five years, and
already it has been almost exterminated in the Mississippi Basin.
Individual trees are now sold where there used to be whole tracts of
black walnut forests. In Tennessee last year, dealers were buying
stumps of old walnut trees which had been left when the trees were
first cut, in the early days of the lumber trade. Each stump brought
more money than the whole tree originally sold for.
Its fruit is edible, and an oil is made from its kernels. A kind of
bread has also been made from the kernels of these nuts, and the
husks are used as a dye.
The black walnut is found growing wild in the Northeastern States,
but it is more common west than east of the Alleghanies.
The English walnut, Juglans regia, originally came from Persia,
and is sometimes cultivated here. An interesting cross between the
English walnut and our native butternut is found on the north side of
Houghton’s Pond in the Blue Hills, Massachusetts. Only a few of
these hybrids are known to exist, and all of them are said to grow in
the vicinity of Boston.
A tall, stately tree, 70 to 90 feet high;
Shagbark; or unmistakable on account of its rough, flaking bark,
Shellbark which shags off in large plates. Yellowish brown
Hickory Hicoria
ovata
buds, with two outer dark scales, which also shag
characteristically. Coarse twigs; alternate leaf-
scars. The husk of the nut splits and breaks off.
 This is a tree peculiar to Northeastern America, and one of the
most rugged, magnificent specimens to be found anywhere in the
same temperate climate. It is especially adapted for broad treatment
in landscape gardening, and should be planted where there is plenty
of room for its full development, and where one can admire its lofty
proportions and symmetry. It is one among many trees, which is
seen at its best in winter unhampered by foliage, and then its naked
boughs are so inky black, that it seems as if it were etched against
the sky. These very dark colored branches are characteristic of the
hickories, and help one to distinguish the trees at a distance. The
rough bark shagging off in curving plates, and the buds with the
same shagging, curving outer scales are the distinctive
characteristics of the shagbark in winter.
 SHAGBARK HICKORY
Hicoria ovata
Page 50
 TRUNKS OF SHAGBARK HICKORIES
Page 51

The wood is heavy, hard, tough, and close-grained, and it is used

for agricultural implements, axe handles, wagon stock, walking
sticks, and baskets. In tensile strength and in the weight of
compression, a block of hickory is as strong as wrought iron of the
same length and weight. No other American wood burns with such
brilliancy or gives out so much heat as the shagbark. The fruit of this
tree is edible and sweet, and the nuts have greater commercial value
than those of any other hickory.
The generic name, hicoria, is of Indian origin and comes from
powcohicora, the name of an oily emulsion made from the pounded
kernels of mockernuts by the Virginian Algonkins. Ovata (egg-
shaped) refers to the shape of the leaves.
The shagbark is found from Southern Maine to Florida and
westward to Central Kansas. The forests of Indiana, once the centre
of the hickory trade, are now exhausted. The hickories are confined
to Eastern North America alone, and are a genus of rare and very
valuable trees.
A tall tree 60 to 100 feet high, with a lofty head.
Mockernut; or Bark smooth, with close, wavy furrows,—a
Whiteheart distinctive characteristic of the tree. Large, hard,
Hickory Hicoria
alba
round buds, without the dark outer scales peculiar
to the shagbark, but with downy, yellowish brown
scales. Coarse twigs; alternate leaf-scars. Nut somewhat hexagonal,
with a very thick shell, and a hard, thick husk.
The mockernut is one of the most interesting of the hickories in
winter. Its bark has a peculiar wavy appearance, entirely unlike any
other member of the family. The hollows are close together in
sinuous, shallow furrows, and the bark is so smooth over these
fissures that it looks as if the ridges were trying to grow over and
close up the hollows,—the effect is that of a thin, silk veil drawn over
the trunk. The twigs are large and heavily moulded, with large oval
buds, but they produce a pleasing effect of strength, instead of
seeming ugly and coarse, like those of the horsechestnut. The
curves and irregularities the stem takes in growing, and the general
alternate plan of branching save the mockernut from being rigid and
upright like the horsechestnut.
The mockernut is easily distinguished from every other hickory by
its peculiar bark, its smooth, large buds, and coarse stems.