Engineering Science

N2
 Chapter 1: Dynamics

MASS AND WEIGHT

Mass (measured in kilograms) is the amount of matter a body contains while
weight (measured in newtons) is the gravitational force acting on a body.

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 Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance is the distance covered, regardless of direction and displacement is
the straight line distance that a body moves.

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 Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)

SPEED AND VELOCITY

Speed is the rate of change of distance and velocity is speed in a given
direction or the rate of change of displacement.

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 Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)

CONSTANT VELOCITY
When a body moves at a constant velocity, it is often useful to represent the
relationship between the displacement and time graphically.

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 Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)

ACCELERATION
When the velocity of a body increases, it is said to be accelerating, thus
acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

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 Chapter 2: Statics

REVISION OF FORCES AS VECTORS

A force possesses both magnitude and direction and is therefore a vector
quantity. In order to represent a force fully, its point of application must be
included in the vector or its nature must be stated. Therefore, in
order to represent a force fully, the following must be indicated:
• Magnitude;
• Direction; and
• Point of application or nature.
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 Chapter 2: Statics (continued)

PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES
If two similar forces acting on a point are represented as vectors by two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant will be represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from that
point.

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 Chapter 2: Statics (continued)

COMPONENTS OF A FORCES
When two or more forces can replace a single force and still have the same
effect as that single force, they are termed components of that force.

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 Chapter 2: Statics (continued)

MOMENTS
The moment of a force is the turning effect of a force about a point. A
spanner tightening a nut is an example of this.

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 Chapter 2: Statics (continued)

BEAMS
When a horizontal beam, resting on supports, is in equilibrium when acted
upon by vertical forces, then;
• Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments about the
same point, and;
• Sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces.

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 Chapter 2: Statics (continued)

A COUPLE
A couple is two equal parallel forces acting in opposite directions, but not
opposite each other. Tightening a wingnut or closing a tap with two fingers is
probably the most common examples of a couple.

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 Chapter 3: Energy and momentum

ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy is measured in joules.
Energy occurs in many forms such as thermal (or heat), chemical, electrical,
potential, kinetic, magnetic and atomic energy.

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 Chapter 3: Energy and momentum (continued)

POTENTIAL ENERGY (PE)

Potential energy is the energy a body possesses by virtue of its “position” or
“state of strain”.

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 Chapter 3: Energy and momentum (continued)

KINETIC ENERGY (KE)

Kinetic energy is the energy that a body possesses by virtue of its motion.

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 Chapter 3: Energy and momentum (continued)

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The law of the conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another.

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 Chapter 3: Energy and momentum (continued)

MOMENTUM
Momentum is the quantity that a body possesses as a result of its motion.
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Type equation here.
Where P = momentum of the body;
m = mass of the body; and
v = velocity of the body.

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 Chapter 3: Energy and momentum (continued)

ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Linear momentum is proportional to the mass and velocity (in a straight line)
of the body. When considering a rotating disc, the momentum is also
proportional to the mass and the angular velocity of the body.

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 Chapter 4: Work, power and efficiency

WORK
Work is the measure of change of energy state. It is measured in joules.
Work is done regardless of whether the force moves in a straight line or
rotates about a point.
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹xs
Where W = work,
F = effective force, and
s = distance.
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 Chapter 4: Work, power and efficiency (continued)

POWER
Power is the rate of doing work.

𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑡𝑡
Where P = power,
W = work, and
t = time.

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 Chapter 4: Work, power and efficiency (continued)

FORCE/DISTANCE GRAPHS
Work done may also be determined graphically by making use of a work
diagram. The distance moved is plotted on the x-axis of a graph and the
effective force on the y-axis. The enclosed area will represent the work done.

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 Chapter 4: Work, power and efficiency (continued)

WORK DONE ON A HORIZONTAL SURFACE

The force required to move a body across a horizontal surface at a constant
velocity, is that force required to overcome friction and wind resistance.

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 Chapter 4: Work, power and efficiency (continued)

EFFICIENCY
Efficiency is a measure of how effectively energy is converted from one form
to another.

𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂 = × 100%
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Where 𝜂𝜂= percentage efficiency,
output = output work done, and
input = corresponding input work done.
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 Chapter 4: Work, power and efficiency (continued)

WORK DONE ON AN INCLINED PLANE

When the body considered moves up an inclined plane, a third resistive
component appears; the resistance due to gravity.

In the diagram:
w𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑊𝑊 sin 𝜃𝜃 × 𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

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 Chapter 4: Work, power and efficiency (continued)

WORK DONE IN ROTATION

All work done by rotating machines is done by a torque (or turning moment).
𝑊𝑊 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Where W = work done in rotation,
N° = number of revolutions, and
T = torque.

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 Chapter 5: Mechanical drives and lifting
machines
BELT DRIVES
Belt drives are used to transmit rotary motion and power from one shaft to a
other. They can also be used to alter the axis of rotation of shafts, to change
the speed or direction of rotation of a shaft or to act as force amplifiers.

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 Chapter 5: Mechanical drives and lifting machines (continued)

CHAIN DRIVES
The most common example of a chain drive is the chain used on a bicycle.

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 Chapter 5: Mechanical drives and lifting machines (continued)

GEAR DRIVES
Gear wheels are used to transmit rotary motion and power from one shaft to
a parallel shaft in close proximity. They can also act as force amplifiers.

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 Chapter 5: Mechanical drives and lifting machines (continued)

LIFTING MACHINES
Lifting machines are mechanical devices designed to make work easier.
These machines make it possible for a load larger than the applied effort, to
be raised.

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 Chapter 5: Mechanical drives and lifting machines (continued)

WHEEL AND DIFFERENTIAL AXLE

The differential wheel and axle and simple differential winch are similar in
operation and the same equations may be used for both, provided the
diameter of the circle through which the effort of the differential
winch moves, is considered.

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 Chapter 5: Mechanical drives and lifting machines (continued)

DIFFERENTIAL PULLEY BLOCK

A pulley block, which has a pulley
with two diameters and slots into
which a chain fits, is coupled to the
snatch-block, which also has a
pulley with slots, by means of an
endless chain.

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 Chapter 5: Mechanical drives and lifting machines (continued)

HYRDRAULICS
A quantity of gas adjusts its volume and its shape to a vessel. A quantity of
liquid will adjust its shape to the lower portion of a vessel, but it does not
change its volume.
Pressure is the force exerted on a surface per unit area. According to
Pascal’s law, a confined fluid transmits externally applied pressure uniformly
in all directions.

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 Chapter 6: Friction

FRICTION
When two surfaces are in contact and movement takes place, or tends to
take place, a force appears which resists motion. This force is known as the
force of friction.

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 Chapter 6: Friction (continued)

FRICTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE

The angle of friction is the largest angle to the horizontal that one body will
rest on another before it starts sliding.

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 Chapter 7: Heat

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Heat is a form of energy and temperature is an indication of the degree of
hotness or coldness of a body.

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 Chapter 7: Heat (continued)

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of a substance 1 °C (or 1 K).

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 Chapter 7: Heat (continued)

CONSERVATION OF HEAT
When a hot substance is mixed or brought into contact with a cooler one,
heat is transferred from the hotter substance to the cooler one until their
temperatures are equal. This is referred to as the Principle of Conservation
of Heat.

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 Chapter 7: Heat (continued)

THERMAL EXPANSION
The volume of most substances increases when their temperature is
increased. In engineering, the increase in volume of a liquid or gas is of most
importance. In the case of solids, the increase in area and length is of most
importance. When a substance is cooled, the reverse takes place.

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 Chapter 7: Heat (continued)

HEAT VALUE
The calorific value of fuel is the quantity of heat released per unit quantity of
fuel (a substance which is burned in order to release heat energy) completely
burned.

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 Chapter 7: Heat (continued)

STEAM
Steam has many advantages and outstanding qualities. It is produced from
water, which is plentiful in most areas and relatively cheap to obtain. Both
water and steam are clean to use. Steam has a very high heat content and
can store large quantities of heat energy, which can, in turn, be converted
into useful work. It can also be condensed and used over and over again.

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 Chapter 8: Particle structure of matter

PARTICLE STRUCTURE
Familiar examples of matter are water, air, copper, tin, smoke, iron and salt.
All matter is made up of extremely small particles called molecules.

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 Chapter 8: Particle structure of matter (continued)

ATOMS
An atom is the smallest part of an element that has all the characteristics of
that element. Atoms are made up of electrons, neutrons and protons.

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 Chapter 8: Particle structure of matter (continued)

ELECTROLYTES
An electrolyte is a solution able to conduct electric current.
Electrolytes can be used:
• In cells (batteries); and
• In electroplating and electro-refining processes.

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 Chapter 9: Electricity

GROUPING OF RESISTORS
• Resistors in series: • Resistors in parallel:

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 Chapter 9: Electricity (continued)

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

The resistance of a conductor depends on four factors, namely:
• The type of material from which the conductor is made.
• The length of the conductor in metres (m).
• The cross-sectional area of the conductor in 𝑚𝑚2 .
• The temperature of the conductor.

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 Chapter 9: Electricity (continued)

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
• Dynamically-induced emf is the generation of an emf by the relative
motion between a magnetic flux and an electric circuit.
• Mutual induction is the generation of an emf in one circuit by varying the
current in another circuit.
• Self-induced emf is the generation of an emf in a circuit by varying the
current in that same circuit.

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