NCE

EDU 213
Edgal Oaikhena

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY: THEORY AND PRACTICE (2

CREDITS)
 The concept and history of Educational Technology in
Nigeria
 The place of Educational Technology in communication and
the Teaching -
Learning Processes at the Junior Secondary Level.
 The concept and process of communication
 The concept of Systems Approach to Instruction (SAI) at
the Junior Secondary Level
 Multi-Media in Junior Secondary Education, Major
Characteristics of Educational Media; Use of Multi-Media
in promoting interdisciplinary/integrated studies.
 Computer-Assisted Teaching/Learning at the Junior
Secondary Level
 Enter-Educate (Entertainment Education) approach to
teaching of POP/FLE at the Junior Secondary Level.
 Principles and practice of design, production,
improvisation, use, maintenance. storage and retrieval of
educational media for the Junior Secondary Level.
 Community resources in Junior Secondary Education
 Photocopying and video production (with practicals)
  (The CET must be adequately funded to provide all that are
required).

*Not for sale. For Education and research purposes.*

EDU 213

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The Concept and History of Educational Technology in Nigeria

INTRODUCTION

We are going to define educational technology at a global level, it is natural to narrate how the discipline
emerged into the educational practice in the country. We shall therefore devote this topic to the study
of history of educational technology in Nigeria.

Education technology (EdTech) was defined by Denis Hlynka as “the study of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating,
using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources”, it is a combination of education and information technology, it blends
both the use of software, hardware, educational theory, and learning. All information and communication technology tools used in
education is referred to as Education Technology (EdTech), EdTech is not restricted to the use of advanced technology but the usage of any
resources or tool that facilitates learning or research using technology or technological related tools.

The concept Education technology is to make available platforms for numerous tools, these tools include products and services such as E-
learning systems, digital libraries, learning management systems, mobile learning systems and social media.

In Nigeria, education technology attempts to address educational challenges, its usage is to provide information and aid in the teaching-
learning process, it provides necessary resources to teachers, students, and researchers when it is needed, these resources may be in the
form of academic and non-academic digital libraries, Online assessment systems, textbook, magazine, statistics, and tools to improve
communication. Institutions, learners, teachers, and researchers use EdTech to enhance education by making the traditional objective of
learning more efficient.

Origin of Educational Technology in Nigeria

The origin of the application of educational technology in the Nigerian educational system is not quite clear (Agun and Imogie, 1988). According
to the duo, the history of educational technology was not given adequate attention by the chroniclers of educational development in the
country. However, there were reasons that suggested that educational technology has been with us from time immemorial. As succinctly
described by Aniemeka (2005), the concept of educational technology has been in practice in this part of the world even before the
geographical entity called Nigeria was created. The author therefore recognised two major periods in the development of educational
technology in Nigeria. These are: (a) Pre-missionary era, and (b) Era of missionary activities. Let us attempt to briefly discus these two periods.
Pre-missionary Era:
This era, as suggested by the name, referred to the period before the advent of the missionaries and the introduction of Qur’anic Schools in
Nigeria. For a clearer understanding of this era, you would recall that the Nigerian society had been educating its citizens before the
establishment of the school system in what we regard as informal education. During this period, efforts were made by the adult members of the
society, family members, etc. to provide opportunities for the newly born child to grow up and acquire the fundamental, basic and necessary
knowledge, skills and education that will invariably make him/her a responsible adult who would take good care of him/herself and contribute
positively towards the development of the society. This situation was typical of all the various diversified cultural traits of the very many
communities in Nigeria.

Specifically, concrete objects like pebbles, sticks, stones, etc. were used to teach the young child to be able to count and solve mathematical
problems. The use of symbols in dissemination of information was also an effective strategy. Initiation, regurgitation or role-leaving, acronyms,
modelling, etc. were also utilised to ensure effective teaching-learning process. No child was left to develop in isolation, and so, peer-group and
teamwork were highly encouraged.

The curriculum though not written was quite extensive and in terms of treatment, intensive. The curriculum covers modern-day subjects like:
history, geography, social studies, religious knowledge, sciences, fine arts/crafts, etc. Acquisition of knowledge, skills and the right type of
behaviour were the central focus of the curriculum. Efforts were made to making sure that an individual who passed through the curriculum was
properly brought up.

Evaluation, both in terms of formative and summative, were applied. Cane was used in situations whereby an individual was considered to be
too slow or lackadaisical in his/her attitude towards learning. In terms of methods and materials deployed to effect learning, it could be said that
they were inferior, but were nevertheless effective as compared to modern time. The coming of the Christian Missionaries and the Islamic
Clerics changed this approach with a “corresponding technology for learning” (Aniemeka, 2005).

Era of Missionary Activities:

The incoming of the missionaries to the Northern and Southern parts of the country marked a watershed in the historical development of
educational technology in Nigeria. The Christian missionaries came and realised the need to establish mission schools to enable them achieve a
lot in their evangelical mission. In 1842, a school was established in Badagry. Subsequently, prominent missions started establishing schools. In
the North however, Qur’anic schools were established. In terms of introduction of aspects of technology, the western education seems to
support its integration into the curriculum than the Islamic education.

Noticeable in this era, especially with western education that the Christian missionaries championed were among other things; emphasis on
preparation of lesson notes, statement of aims of the lesson, preparation of teaching apparatus, use of teaching aids, chalkboards then known
as the blackboards as they usually came in “black” colours, charts, slates, penholders, pencils, ink wells with fountain pens, books, etc.

It should be mentioned that the establishment of teacher training colleges that prepared teachers for the primary school system in particular St.
Andrew’s Teacher Training College, Oyo and Wesley College, Ibadan among others were a great sources of advancement for the entrenchment
of educational technology. At these colleges, student teachers were made to see the need for making use of “teaching aids” while teaching.
More importantly, the need for the teachers in training to improvise was emphasised. Indeed, there was no hope of passing the Teaching
Practice, an important component of training of professional teachers without making use of instructional materials by student-teacher.

Government Support for Educational Technology

On its part, in addition to notable moves to improve the quality of education, government took a bold step to launch educational broadcasting
first by encouraging instructional radio and later instructional television. The impetus for this development was received from the British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) with the first educational broadcast in Nigeria in 1953.

The Northern Nigerian Government followed suit when in 1954 it established the School Broadcasting Unit (SBU) in Kaduna. The Western
Nigerian Government succeeded in establishing the Western Nigeria Broadcasting Service and symbolically established the first television in
Africa in 1959 with the establishment of the Western Nigeria Television (WNTV).

With the intervention of the Federal Government of Nigeria in the early 1960’s, the Schools Broadcasting Units had its nomenclature changed to
the Educational Radio Service Unit (ERSU) in the first instance, and later to Federal School Broadcast and Audio-Visual Aids Development Centre.

Again, on the basis and need to expand its roles and functions, the ERSU was changed to the National Educational Technology Centre (NETC),
Kaduna in 1977. The action of the Federal Government was regarded as “the climax of the direct involvement of the Federal Government in the
field of educational broadcasting which began in 1964” (Agun and Imogie, 1988). The NETC was established to perform the following functions:

(1)The development and production of Educational Radio and Television programmes for schools (Primary, Secondary and teacher training
colleges);

(2)The development and production of instructional teaching aids for use in schools, using local materials;
(3)The training of specialists in the field of educational broadcasting (Radio, Television, Audio-visual aids);

(4) Organisation of seminars/conferences for teachers and teacher trainers on the application of educational technology to class teaching;

(5) Provision of consultancy services to the Federal and State governments in the fields ofthe broadcast media, audio-visual aids and
instructional systems technology;

(6) Establishment of a National Educational Resource Library of equipment and materials for distribution throughout the country;

(7) Documentation and collation of statistical data on the broadcast and audio-visual aids services in the country;

(8) Training of educational technologists and cinematographers for services in Federal and State Government establishments;

(9) Assessment, evaluation and classification of imported instructional aids, materials and equipment marketed in the country.

Foreign Intervention
It will amount to an abridged history if the contributions of the foreign bodies and organisations towards the advancement of the cause of
educational technology in the country are not given attention. Prominent among these foreign bodies were: United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Ford Foundation, British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Carnegie Foundation, The Centre for
Educational Development Overseas (CEDO) as well as The British Council.

Specifically, the Ford Foundation and the British Broadcasting Corporation assisted the old Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation now Federal Radio
Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) to establish its Schools Unit in 1960 (Agun and Imogie, 1988). UNESCO also played a significant role in the
establishment of the audio-visual units at the Colleges of Education at Abraka and Lagos by supporting both institutions, in both the needed aids
and personnel. With the UNESCO and Carnegie Foundation’s support, the University of Ibadan was able to establish its audiovisual aids unit of
its Institute of Education in 1962. The unit also benefited from the goodwill of the United Kingdom Ministry for Overseas Development and the
Canadian Universities Overseas.

Another aspect of educational technology that enjoyed its entrenchment into the teacher education curriculum in Nigeria is micro-teaching.
With the assistance received from the UNESCO and UNDP in terms of equipment and personnel, Alvan Ikoku College of Education, Owerri in Imo
State became the home of Microteaching in Nigeria.

Educational Technology in Nigeria’s Higher Institutions

The contributions of institutions of higher learning in the area of educational technology is worthy of note (Aniemeka, 2005). As at 1970, the
Alvan Ikoku College of Education had become popular with micro-teaching using television monitors and videotapes recordings and cameras.

Dearth of experts in some disciplines coupled with increase in the population in students’enrolment for courses-especially the introduction of
general studies programmes compelled some Universities from the mid-1970’s to explore the usage of educational technology media to address
the challenges. Thus, in 1974, the University of Ife now Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife established an audiovisual centre and a closed-
circuit television (CCTV).

The University of Lagos established its audio-visual aid centre and later upgraded it to a Centre for Educational Technology. The Ahmadu Bello
University (ABU), Zaria equally established an Educational Technology Centre while at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, a Curriculum and
Instructional Materials Centre (CUDIMAC) was established.

With the establishment of Centres for Educational Technology in the nation’s first generation universities, it becomes a tradition to find in all the
second generation universities and private ones at least a structure in which the traditional as well as modern roles of the Centre for Educational
Technology are being performed

Educational Technology has been a discipline being studied at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels in Nigerian Universities. For
example, the University of Ilorin started a Bachelor of Education programme with majors in educational technology in the 1980’s.

At the Colleges of Education, educational technology and micro-teaching are two courses that students are to take and pass before graduation.
All the Colleges are mandated to establish Centre for Educational Technology for the purpose of supporting teaching and learning.

The field of educational technology though relatively young in the country, has produced a number of Nigerian academics with professorial
chairs. Among them are Professors: Balogun Taju, Nwabonu Nwaboku, Onyejemezie, Abdullahi, Abolade, A., Agun, I., Akanbi, D.K., Benedict, N
Abraham,I, Lade J. Adeyanju and a host of others.

The Role of Professional Associations

As early as 1964, the association of professionals and practitioners of educational technology, the Northern Nigeria Audio-Visual Association
(NNAVA) was formed. In 1965, however, there was the need to further extend the membership of the association to cover the entire length and
breadth of the country; thus, it acquired a new name – Nigeria Audio-Visual Association (NAVA). Development in the field necessitated two
major changes in the name – NAVA. First, Audio-Visual became a narrow concept to describe what educational technology is. Second, the
membership of NAVA did not incorporate all who either specialise in the field or perform tasks that are related to the field. As a result of these
lapses, the name NAVA was changed to Nigeria Association for Educational Media and Technology (NAEMT) in 1986.

Among other things, the Association performs the following functions:

- Promote educational technology at both local and international levels;

- Hold annual convention and conference;

- Advise government on educational practice;

- Organise training, seminar and lectures for schools;

- Research into educational practice generally and in particular production, usage, storage and challenges and problems facing educational
media.

Today’s Realities
Today, the development of educational technology in Nigeria has assumed a multidimensional form. As the Federal Government is making
efforts to integrate technology into the educational system, the institutions of higher learning as well as other levels of education are seriously
committed to the same purpose through the various agencies: Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC), Nigeria Educational Research and
Development Council (NERDC), National Universities Commission (NUC), National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE), etc.

It is however sad to report that the hope of the achievement of the new initiative in the establishment of a Network of Educational Services
Centres in Nigeria (NESCN) will be significantly affected negatively with the lost of the much orchestrated Nigerian Satellite -NIGCOMSAT of
recent.

THE PLACE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNICATION

AND THE TEACHING – LEARNING PROCESSES AT THE JUNIOR
SECONDARY LEVEL.

Introduction

Educational Technology has absolutely revolutionized the entire education system. Until recently, the
teachers used to be the sole interpreter of knowledge to the learners and the textbooks the sole
resource. Educational technology has affected the conventional roles and it has opened up the new
areas of teacher functions such as management of resources and management of learning. Today,
teachers have a range of media to assist and supplement the instructional work.

Teachers can even specify the learning intentions, select the topic, identify the stimulus situation,
determine media, manage teaching and finally conduct evaluation and modify the instructions in the
light of evaluation results.

Educational process can’t proceed systematically without the help of educational technology. Every
aspect of educational system is fully enlightened with educational technology.

Role of Educational Technology in the Teaching-Learning Process

1. Individualized instruction: Educational Technology is very helpful in individualizing instruction by enabling us to make use of self-

instructional programmes
 2. Improvement in the quality of teaching: Educational Technology assists in the improvement of the teaching-learning process by

enabling us to use more varied rich and motivational programmes through T.V. and other media

3. Meeting the problem of mass education: Educational Technology helps in using programmes developed by experts for a large

population of students with the use of computers and TV. Etc.

4. Equalizing educational opportunity: Educational Technology assists us in making effort for equalizing educational opportunities

irrespective of economic, social and geographical status of the learners.

5. Providing continuing education: TV lessons and self-instructional programmed materials sent to the learners or to in-service

personnel and vocational workers help them to keep themselves abreast of the latest materials.

FUNCTION OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1. Identification of the educational goals and objectives of the community

2. Developing appropriate curriculum for the achievement of stipulated goals

3. Analyzing the process of teaching and learning

4. Developing suitable teaching-learning material

5. Selecting and developing proper teaching-learning strategies for obtaining optimum results

6. Developing and selecting appropriate audio-visual aids

7. Utilizing effectively the hardware and software media

8. Providing essential feedback and control through evaluation

Preparing teachers in the use of new technology of teaching.

THE CONCEPT AND PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION

Communication is essential for the existence of societies, whether they are developed or Developing. It
is necessary for your accumulation of knowledge and capability. Furthermore, it Serves as an instrument
of social interaction. For the desirable change in learners’ behaviour and Acquisition of knowledge and
skills to be accomplished, communication must both take place Between the teachers and learners. It is
important for teachers to have deep knowledge of what Communication process is and also be skillful in
the use of communication skills. This unit is Devoted to the study process of communication for you to
be able to acquaint yourself with how You can improve your communication as an individual and more
importantly as a teacher..

Meaning / Definitions of Communication

Communication is a universal and everyday occurrence, and therefore, it is a concept that has generated a lot of interest on the part of
researchers, governments and organisations. The universal nature of communication has led to countless definitions of the term (Sybil, Oche
and Oludayo, 1990). Some of these definitions, according to them, are:

(1) Communication is any means by which a thought is transferred from one person to another (Chappell, R. and Read, W.L. 5th ed., 1984).
(2) Communication is the process by which one person (or a group) shares and imparts information to another person (or group) so that both
people (or group) clearly understood one another (Udall, R. and Udall, S., 1979).

(3) Communication is not just the giving of information, it is the giving of understandable information and receiving and understanding the
message. . ..It is the transferring of a message to another party so that it can be understood and acted upon (E.C. Eyre, 1983).

(4)Communication is an exchange of ideas, thought or knowledge between at least two people with an intention of changing the behaviour of
one another particularly the decoder (Abimbade, 1997).

In terms of classroom usage, the term communication can be defined as the totality of the teacher’s efforts to ensure that all the stated
instructional objectives are accomplished through effective manipulation of the task, method(s), media, learners as well as the entire teaching
learning environment.

Communication Process
By its nature, communication involves an exchange of ideas or information with at least two people. By so doing, many variables are involved,
and therefore account for communication being regarded as cyclical or rather than being linear. The interchange of the variables makes the
interaction to be regarded as a process. Thus, the process of communication always involves the ender, the message/information, the
medium/media and the receiver. According to Berlo (1960), the ingredients of communication process include: the source, the message, the
receiver, the channel or medium. Bardell (1978) referred to the sender and the receiver as the “encoder”and the “decoder” respectively.

As a process involving many interrelated parts, all the parts are expected to work harmoniously for the purpose of communication to be
achieved. It is important to note that if there is a problem why any of the elements/ingredients of communication process, communication will
be impaired thereby resulting to either partial or complete communication breakdown. The communication process may be illustrated in a
simple form this way:

Source: Communication Noise Salawu, I.O. and Afolabi, A.O. (2001) – Introduction to Educational Technology, Ojo K-Blessings Publishers, pg. 18

Sender
This is a technical term that refers to the person who initiates the exchange of idea / information. He/she is responsible for what is to be
disseminated, how it should be done, where and how it should be assessed. The sender plays a prominent role in communication process. If the
sender is to be successful in conveying his message, he must, according to Lazarus (1981):

- know the receiver and present the information at his/her level;

- speak or write clearly and concisely;-

- convey the desire to reach the receiver by his attitude, and

- obtain feedback to confirm that the message has been received correctly.
In order to achieve the above four points, the sender must take into account the language proficiency, cognitive ability, social status, aspirations,
learning styles, psychological situation as well as the family structure of the receiver. The sender must always use the basic skills in speaking and
writing interpreted as the “KISS” principle – Keep It Short and Simple. Lazarus (1981) was of the opinion that “Brevity and simplicity may not win
forensic honours, but they warrant paramount consideration in effective communication”. Simplicity and brevity are therefore antidotes to
misunderstanding and ambiguity.

Furthermore, a sender has to be mindful of his attitude to the receiver during presentation. Attitude of the sender to the receiver must be warm
and friendly. Saul (1968) said that “communication depends on the attitude of the sender towards the receiver”. An attitude of understanding by
the sender can serve as a motivating factor to the receiver. In addition, the sender is expected to consider selecting appropriate
medium/channel of communication. When wrong channel of communication is used, communication will be impaired.

It is also expected of the sender to be sure that the communication process is effective. A way by which this could be done is for the sender to
engage himself in periodic assessment of the receiver’s gains during communication process. The adoption of the formative evaluation
procedure will provide him/her the needed feedback on the receiver’s performance. Where expected outcomes are discovered as
accomplished, necessary steps are taking to encourage further practice and retention. However, where the expected outcomes are lacking,
immediate steps must be taken to “fine-tune” the communication process. This is necessary because without the purpose of communication
being achieved, the sender’s efforts are regarded as nullity and of no effect.

In order to find out whether the communication process is effective or not, feedback can be sought by using such approaches like:

(i) questioning the receiver on specific points during presentation;

(ii)careful observation of the receiver’s facial expressions and manner;

(iii)solicit suggestions, or explanations, or examples from the receiver;

(iv)in general, make your receiver(s) active during communication.

Decoder
The decoder is the receiver of the message. He is referred to as the decoder, communicattee, as well as the audience. The decoder therefore
refers to the person for which the message is designed. The extent to which communication process is effective can be determined by the
degree of changes noticeable in the decoder.

For effective communication to take place, the decoder should be:

(i) a good listener for him/her to get correct information from the sender/encoder;

(ii)psychologically ready in that he should be in right frame of mind. Nothing should preoccupy his mind other than what the sender is
imparting to him;

(iii)ready for the task in terms of maturity as well as determination to learn;

(iv)follow instructions and take active part in the communication process.

The Message
This refers to the information, the task; the content, the subject matter; knowledge, attitude, values, beliefs and/or skills designed and planned
to be acquired by the decoder. The message

has to be correct and adequate.

The Channel
Anything that relays the message to the receiver is a channel. Another common term commonly used as channel is “the medium”. A general
interpretation of means through which information is packaged and disseminated as a combination of channels and medium will include, not
only oral, written, and non-verbal; but also such media like: the radio, the television, overhead projector, films, etc.

Noise
Sybil, Oche and Soola (1990) refer to noise in communication as “a technical term for all forms of obstacles which conspire to reduce the fidelity
of communication”. It then implies that what makes it impossible for the decoder to get the message as intended by the encoder constitute
communication noise. Noise can be physical/environmental, physiological and psychological.
Physical/Environmental Noise
Any form of disturbances to communication process traceable to the factors within the immediate physical environment is classified as
physical/environmental noise. Continuous or intermittent loud sounds from radio sets, markets, grinding machines, block making machines,
hooting by moving vehicles, outcry from the next class, sound from technical workshops, etc. are examples of physical/environmental noise.

Physiological Noise
Any form of disturbances to the communication process arising from ill-health on the part of the sender and/or the receiver is referred to as
physiological noise. Cases of headache, stomach disorder, body pains, etc. during communication process are examples of physiological noise.

Psychological Noise
This refers to unfavourable state of the mind of the sender and/or the receiver. Psychological noise includes fatigue, emotional depression,
annoyance and lack of enthusiasm arising from internally or externally related problems.

Other sources of communication noise especially on the part of the sender include:
- poor preparation -

-lack of deep knowledge of the message/topic under discussion

- usage of wrong media

- exhibition of disturbing mannerisms

- inadequate mastery/usage of language of communication

-insensitivity to the receiver and a host of others

Feedback
This is a technical term which refers to the available facts collected to determine the effectiveness or otherwise of the interaction between the
sender and the receiver during communication process. The feedback provides opportunities for the sender to readdress, in whole or in part,
deficiencies during the course of communication. Close to feedback is assessment. Feedback is necessary in communication because without it,
decisions on whether communication is effective or not cannot be determined.

THE CONCEPT OF SYSTEMs APPROACH TO INSTRUCTION (SAI) AT THE JUNIOR SECONDARY

LEVEL.

SYSTEM AND SYSTEMS APPROACH

These two terms are becoming more relevant in issues relating to human endeavours these days. It is imperative to state that these two terms
are quite popular in the literature of education today (Kaufman, 1968).

A System: Definition
A system by way of description is a holistic way of viewing things. It generates from the idea that a “whole” is made up of separate parts but
each part works cooperatively to make forefficient performance. In other words, the philosophical saying – “A whole is greater than the sum
total of its parts” actually describes what a “system” is. According to Kaufman (1968), a system is defined as “the sum total of separate parts
working independently and in interaction to achieve previously specified objectives”. This “system” view can be applied to educational and
instructional processes. This is so when “education” and “instruction” are viewed as concepts with separate and yet interlocking parts which
function together to achieve predetermined objectives. When “systems” is used in an applied form as is the case above, we then talk of
“systems approach”. Systems Approach (SA) can thus be defined as a systematic process of solving problems, particularly educational or
instructional problems.

Systems Approach
Systems Approach is a problem-solving process in which the problem solver engages in series of steps –
taking at solving a particular identified educational problem. Broadly speaking, systems approach
comprises of two major parts, namely: (i) system analysis, and (ii) system synthesis.

By system analysis we are speaking of a process whereby a given problem is broken down into bits. It is at
this stage that the actual problem is identified and analyzed with a view of setting goals or objectives.
Technically speaking, system analysis consists of “Mission analysis, functional analysis, task analysis and
consideration for methods and means” (Kaufman, 1968).

Mission analysis, on the other hand refers to the determination of the end product of the system analysis.
It includes the various steps of identifying an overall “mission objective”.

Functional Analysis:

As is expected, it is closely related to mission analysis. It consists of breaking down of functions earlier
identified under mission analysis with a view of grouping them into various components that would make
for a functional mission profile.

Functional analysis is the attempt used to leave out impossibilities and concentrate on “possible”options.
Since functional analysis centres on “specifics” rather than “general”, it naturally leads to “task analysis”.
Task analysis is concerned with the determination of the sub-skills that are required to learn an identified
task. The “task” has to be analysed to make it easy to identify the best strategy that could be adopted to
accomplish the objective.

The remaining system analysis step is called “method-means analysis”. This step is important in the sense
that at every stage of system analysis, there is need to consider “alternatives” that are considered best in
terms of speed and accuracy in the attainment of set objectives.

In system synthesis, available data from system analysis stage are utilized to select solution strategies,
implementing solution strategies and the evaluation of the total system in the environment for which they
were designed. The discussion on systems approach can be summarized in a model form shown in the
figure
Source: Kaufman, R.A: A System Approach to Education: Derivation and Definition in AV

Communication Review, Vol. Winter, 1968.

Principle of Systems Approach

There are some fundamental principles of systems approach that the presented model succinctly demonstrates.

They are: principles of wholeness, principle of systemization, principle of environment, principle of optimization, principle of variety, and
principle of equifinality.

Principle of Wholeness
The first principle asserts ‘wholeness’ of a typical system. By this theory, it is implied that rather than placing emphasis on separate parts of a
system, the entire system should be recognized as an indivisible whole of which what happens to any part automatically affects every other
part.

Principle of Systemisation
The second principle is that which recognizes a system as a systematized process rather than disorganized, unplanned line of thought.

The principle of systematization believes that planning based on concrete data should proceed action and that in planning, orderliness and
sequence should be given adequate attention.

Principle of Environmental Compatibility

Every system operates within a given systems environment. In other words, it is only when a system is made to function in a conducive and
appropriate environment that one should expect appreciable results. The idea of system environment becomes relevant when it is realized that
systems vary according to point of focus. We can then talk of a system, a sub-system and suprasystem. The country, Nigeria can be considered as
a system made up of several sub-systems (political system, economic, educational and social system). Immediately we focus attention on any of
the sub-systems for closer study or analysis, a sub-system becomes a system while other related units or parts become the sub-systems.

The major point to note is that the terms – a system and sub-systems are used relatively depending on situations surrounding the usage for
what is regarded as “a system” somewhere can become a sub-systems elsewhere. What is certain is that all systems, whether sub or a system,
establishes contact with their environment for sustained supply of energy, information and other input that might be deemed necessary for
system survival. It is “this environment” that serves as life-wire of any system that is being referred to as the systems environment.

Principle of Optimization
The fourth principle of system theory is that of “optimization”. A system designed should be able to function in a full capacity to achieve
predetermined objectives.

The goal of a functional system is to apply all necessary inputs that would lead to the desired output. To achieve “optimization” capacity, all the
units must be seen to be functional. For example, for a school system to set its objectives, all within the school system including the gardener,
kitchen staff, administrative staff, teaching staff and students need to work full strength. Half-functioning or non-functioning of any or a
combination of them might not lead to a successful result.

Principle of Variety
The fifth principle of system theory emphasizes “variety” as an important element of a system. Variety used here encompasses many things.
Varieties of ideas, techniques, means, methods, procedures, strategies and viewpoints.

A system designer must recognize that there are always alternative means of solving a problem. However, the designer must look for the most
relevant, or in some cases, the best choice that could be systematically used to solve a given problem.

Principle of Equifinality
The sixth and final principle is that of “equifinality”. This theory recognizes a system or system approach as a process in which there is no
beginning and no end. In other words, problem solving is a continuous process, in fact, solving of one problem could be an invitation to another
problem.
CONCLUSION:
The six principles of system approach were discussed with adequate reflections on the implications of each to the teaching and learning process.

For a teacher to be effective as a teaching staff and administrator, she/he needs to apply all these principles, where need be, from time to time.
Most of the problems teachers and school administrators are having come from their inability to understand the basic principles of how the
system works.

SUMMARY
The main thrust of this Unit is an attempt to define a system, and systems approach. Further Attempts were made to discuss the principles of
systems approach. You would recall that the Teacher and the school administrator need to have full grasp of the principles of system approach
So as to empower them to implement relevant principles as the need arises.

MULTI-MEDIA IN JUNIOR SECONDARY EDUCATION, MAJOR

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL MEDIA; USE OF MULTI-
MEDIA IN PROMOTING INTERDISCIPLINARY / INTEGRATED
STUDIES.

Definition and Types of Instructional Media

The term media merely refers to a collection of materials and equipment that can be used effectively for communication. They include non-

projected and projected; hardware and software; print and non-print; ―little mediaǁ and ―big mediaǁ. Also, media can be seen as channels

through which messages, information, ideas and knowledge are disseminated (Abimbade, 1997).

Whenever a collection of materials and equipment are used for teaching and learning so as to promote effective communication in a classroom

setting, then, we refer to them as educational media. In other words, educational media may be defined as a collection of teaching-learning

materials that constitute an integral component of an instructional or training process and are utilised in delivering educational information to

the learners. Educational media are manipulated, seen, heard and talked about.

Educational media are either used for individual, small or large group of learners. There is a need to emphasise that educational media are

designed, prepared, produced, evaluated and utilised mainly to facilitate learner‘s understanding of the topics being taught. Basically,

educational media are learner-centred.

Characteristics of Media

There are five main characteristics of media.

1. By nature, some are audio e.g. radio, loudspeaker, telephones, talking drum, human voice etc. Some are visual e.g. slides,

transparencies, maps, charts, models, mock-ups etc. Yet, others are audio-visual in nature, that is, they combine both sound and

vision e.g. motion pictures and television.

 2. Some are big while some are small or little. Big media are usually very complex, sophisticated and expensive. Examples include

television, sound films, and computerassisted instructions. Small media are less complex, less sophisticated and expensive. Examples

are charts, slides, films, maps etc.

3. Some are static while some are dynamic. Examples of static ones include pictures, photographs and maps. Examples of dynamic ones

are motion films and television.

4. Some are in the realm of mass media such as the press, radio and television.

5. Some are locally designed and produced by local classroom teachers while others are commercially produced by companies with the

sole aim of maximizing profit. Each has its merits and demerits.

While locally produced ones are designed to suit immediate classroom needs and cost less, the commercially produced ones may not suit

immediate classroom use completely and they usually cost more. It should, however, be pointed out that locally designed and produced media

can become commercially produced if they are mass produced and have big network distributions.

Classification of Media

It is difficult, if not impossible, to undertake a watertight compartmentalization of media due to the fact that some media materials do not lend

themselves to any rigid form of classification.

However, three systems of classification will be examined.

Under the first one, all forms of media are divided under two broad categories, namely:

(a) Print media, and

(b) Electronic or Technological media

Print media include textbooks, reference books, journals, newspapers, posters, bulletin, handouts and hand bills through which man acquire

facts, information, knowledge, skills, principles and enlightenment.

Electronic media are simply information carrying devices which can be used for disseminating information. These could be sub-divided into two,

namely: big media and small media. This form of classification looks rather simple, and if it is to be stuck to, many forms of media which do not

readily fall under any of the two may be left out completely (Abimbade, 2006).

The second system of classification of media groups or forms of media falls under:

(a) realia

(b) print

(c) hardware, and

(d) software

Realia simply means real objects. Examples include car, dog, fly, specimen, chair etc.
 Print media include textbooks, journals, newspapers, posters etc.

Hardware are the machines, equipment, tools or gadgets upon which the software will be transmitted. They can be used times without number,

without damaging easily and when they do, they are usually repairable.

Software are the materials. They are the consumables or the disposables. They wear and tear as

they are used. They are relatively cheaper than the hardware.

The two (hardware and software) are indispensable. The table below shows examples of

hardware and the software accompanying each of them.

S/N

Hardware

1. Audio cassette recorder

2. Video cassette recorder

3. 8mm Film projector

4. 16mm Film projector

5. Slide projector

6.film strip projector

7. Overhead projector

Software

1.Audio cassette

2.Video cassette

3.8mm film

4.16mm film

5.Slide

6.Film strip

7.Transparency

The third system of classification categorizes all media under three broad subdivisions, namely:

(i) Audio media

(ii) Visual media

 (iii) Audio-visual media

Audio Media – These forms of media carry sound alone. They are teaching and learning devices that mostly appeal to the sense of hearing.

They include tape recorder, compact disc, records, public address system, talking drums, telephone, human voice.

Visual Media – These are teaching and learning devices that mostly appeal to the sense of seeing only (pictorial ones). These can also be

subdivided into two namely:

Projected and Non-projected visuals – The project visuals require electricity for projection, e.g. filmstrips, slides, transparencies, using their

projectors. The non-projected visuals do notneed light source and these can be further divided into the two-dimensional and threedimensional

non-projected visuals. The two-dimensional non-projected visuals have only length and breadth and these include posters, charts, prints:

textbooks, journals, bulletins etc. while the three-dimensional nonprojected visuals are those with length, breadth and height/volume and they

include real objects, models, mock-ups, puppets, globes etc.

Audio-Visual Media – Another name for audio-visual media is transmitted media. They refer to those instructional materials, which provide the

learners with the opportunity of seeing and hearing at the same time. Examples are instructional or educational television, closed circuit

television, computer etc.

Reasons for using Educational Media

According to Ajelabi (2005), the underlisted are some of the reasons for using media in teaching And learning:

(i) Educational media make learning to become real and concrete.

(ii) By using educational media, learning effectiveness is

increased as learners are more Likely to retain and recall

with ease a greater percentage of what they hear, see and

Manipulate.

(iii) They help in focusing attention and motivating learners,

when appropriate educational Media are used to introduce,

develop or conclude a teaching-learning session. Learner‘s

Interest is aroused and developed through the lesson.

(iv) Educational media give learners the opportunity to learn at their own pace, rate

and Convenience – media cater for individual differences.

(v) Educational media help in magnifying or reducing objects for classroom use.

(vi) They provide experiences that may not otherwise be available to learners.

(vii) Educational media give chance for teacher participation in the design and development of

Meaningful curriculum.

Criteria for Selecting Educational Media

1.Instructional Objectives – This is one of the major determinants of selection. This is Usually based on the topic to be taught. The instructional

objectives are to be stated in Behavioural, specific and measurable terms.

2.Availability – Before selecting any educational media, one must be sure that such Material or equipment is available and easy to purchase, borrow

or produced.

3.Cost – The financial implication of the educational media that the teacher wants to select Is of topmost importance.

4.Content Accuracy – The educational media must present authentic, valid and current Information or latest ideas.

5.Suitability – The age, ability and character of the learners must be taken into Consideration when selecting media for classroom use.

6.Size of the Class – If learners are large in number, bold visuals should be used. This Would lead to consideration of the size/dimension of the media

to be selected. It may Also make a teacher to provide for more of the media so selected. This is because, in a Situation whereby the class is

large, visibility factor has to be given consideration. Thus, The question of quantity and quality set in. As for the quantity, the teacher may need

to provide for media that will go round each of The learners in the class. Whereas as regards quality, it involves preparation of bold Media to

allow for all the learners in the class to view it.

7.Operating Facilities – The facilities for operating the equipment should be functional And available. Also, the teacher should be able to manipulate

effectively the material or Equipment for teaching and learning.

8.Interactivity – Learner-learner, Learner-media, Learner-teacher, teacher-media Interactions should be promoted as a result of using the educational

media.

Media and Instructional Process

For media to be effective in the instructional process, teachers must:

i. Be Prepared ahead of time;

ii. Prepare environment e.g. light, electricity, air, ventilation;

iii. Prepare the class, arrange the seats so that there would be no hindrance in visualizing

iv. Objects that are displayed;

 The learners themselves must be prepared for the learning experiences they are about To be exposed to.

COMPUTER-ASSISTED TEACHING/LEARNING AT THE JUNIOR

SECONDARY LEVEL.

Computer As a Tool

Over the years, teachers grappled with problems of planning and implementing instruction using tools available to them – typewriters, pencil

and papers, etc. Students likewise were involved in the use of these traditional materials for learning.

The advent of computer changed the scenario and made teaching and learning more interactive. The introduction of computer into the learning

system makes it possible for students to attempt to solve complex problems. At times, it becomes an assistant, helping the teacher to manage

classroom and instructional development efforts. The versatility of a computer, coupled with its power to store, access, and manipulate huge

amount of information, is why so much attention has been devoted to computers in education (Newby, T. Stepich, Lehman and Russel, 2000).

Computer can be viewed generally as a tool for enhancing the various technologies of instruction. In other word, all modern technologies in

instructional technology, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) are all computer-based. So, computer can be seen as a tool that

enhances education, learning and communication.

When computer is integrated into instruction, as a tool, it allows students to learn at their own pace and produces significant result and time

saving over conventional classroom. It has high speed personalized responses to learners’ activities and this yield high reinforcement. When

used as a teaching tool, both teachers and learners have immediate response to activities thus it yields high motivational effects. Computer as a

tool has high record-keeping ability because of its high storage capacity. It can store, process and retrieve information for both immediate and

future use. Thus it makes individualized instruction feasible and also makes it possible to monitor students who are not in the academic

mainstream.

The computer is a multi-tool for teaching and learning. It can help with many different teaching and learning tasks. An advantage of computer is

its processing power. Rather than having separate tools for common task such as writing, drawing, filing and calculating only one tool perms the

task. Computer could be used as a tool for teaching and learning in various ways, thus it has made some giant strides in education. That is why it

is emphasized in the teaching and learning situation.

COMPUTER AND INSTRUCTION

Instruction is defined as the selection of information, activities, methods, and media to help students meet predetermined learning goals

(Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russel, 2000).

Computer is defined as a programmable, multiuse machine that accepts data – raw facts and figures – and processes, or manipulates, it into

information we can use (Williams & Sawyer, 2005)

Instructional computing is the use of computer in the design, development, delivery and evaluation of instruction (Newby, Stepich, Lehman and
Russel, 2000).
Information is defined as data that has been summarized or otherwise manipulated for use in decision-making (Williams & Sawyer, 2005).

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is the combination of networks, hardware and software as well as means of communication,
collaboration and engagement that enable the processing, management and exchange of data, information and knowledge (Ezekoka, 2008).

Computer is the focal point of Information and Communication Technology because it refers to the range of tools and techniques that are
computer-based. Information and Communication Technology is now seen as a natural part of good learning and teaching. The challenge is to
use it effectively to maximize learning to enhance and enrich teaching (Donaldson, 2007).

The development in computer technology has made it not an equipment to be used in industry alone but it is also integrated into teaching and
learning to make learning concrete, real, immediate and permanent. Granted that the purpose of instruction is to get learners take appropriate
actions that will result in learning that could be tested, the feature of computer which is to speed up problem solving and increase productivity
could be harnessed in education.

Computer has all the resources and services for learning integrated in a single box. This makes learner have the potential to exploit them all,
through an interface that is mostly intuitive. Instructors too, should exploit these potential to provide a set of events that will affect learners in
such a way that learning is facilitated.

The power of computer within education is ascribable to its versatility as a production and a presentation tool. It is different from other forms of
media because of its multiuse purpose. It could be used to present a story and at the same time monitor the internet to look for information.
Classroom teachers should harness these potentials and adapt it for learning.

According to Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russel (2000), instructional computing for teachers and learners can be used to

• enhance the quality of instructional materials using the electronic capabilities of the computer.

• reduce the time required to design, produce, and reproduce instructional materials.

• increase the overall effectiveness of instructional materials through enhanced presentations.

• combine graphics, video, audio, and textual form of media into single, integrated instructional presentations.

• store and quickly access huge amounts of information and data.

• communicate with others at both near and distant locations.

• function as a learner, in which the student programmes the computer to complete a task or to solve a problem.

• function as an instructional expert, in which the computer makes decisions about levels of student learning, suggests media and learning
experiences to students, and then selects and presents those media and experiences. It could be rightly stated that computer enhances the
quality of instruction, increases effectiveness of instruction, allows combination of various media for presentation, bridges the gap between the
learners and learning situation, encourages storage and quick access to information and assist learners in problem solving.

Computer as Teacher, Assistant and Learner

The computer can perform three basic activities in education. It can act as the teacher, the assistant and the learner. This was exemplified in
Robert Taylor (1980) reported by Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russel (2000), Taylor categorized computer as ‘tutor’, ‘tool’ and ‘tutee’. This
model divides the educational application of computers into three broad categories – computer as a teacher, where the computer presents
instruction to the learner. In the second category, computer aids the teacher or the learner in performing routine tasks such as writing,
calculating or presenting information and the final category presents computer as the student. The learner teaches the computer to perform
some tasks. This model is a simple way of looking at different computer uses in education.

Computer as Teacher
The oldest use of computer in education dated back to the early 1960s (Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russel (2000). Here, computer was used as
a tool that presents instruction directly to students. Such use is termed Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), Computer-Based Instruction (CBI),
or Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL).

In this mode, the computer acts as the teacher. It presents instruction, provides instructional activities or situations, quizzes or otherwise
requires interaction from learners, evaluates learners’ responses, provides feedback and determines appropriate follow-up activities. The
advantage of this is the interactivity of computer. Whereas printed worksheet may leave space for learner’s response or instructional video may
pose questions without ascertaining the viewer’s response, the computer can require a response and equally demand learner’s active
involvement. When a teacher utilizes computer as a teaching machine, it can be highly interactive, individualized, engaging, and infinitely
patient.

In this Information Age computer has a great role to play as a teacher and teachers can harness the benefits of these roles as enumerated by
Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russel (2000).

• CAI should be used in a supporting or adjunct role. Educational software broadens classroom activities but cannot replace the classroom
teachers. CAI should be seen as tools at the disposal of the teacher that he can use for helping the students iearn.

• Certain types of CAI are appropriate for certain learning goals. Just as there are various strategies for teaching and learning, teachers should
equally vary the application of CAI to meet the desired goals.

• CAI can help students and free time for the teacher. As the students benefit from the software, the teachers also have the opportunity to
address individual learners’ needs.

Categories of Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

There are various categories of using computer as teachers and the advantages are enormous. Typical examples are Drill and PracticeIn drill and
practice, computer has the following advantages.

• Interactivity – the computer can present many problems and require learners’ responses.

• Immediate feedback – The computer informs the learner immediately if the answer is wrong and tells the learner why.

• Infinite patience – It can go all days without getting tired or irritable.

• Variable level of difficulty – The computer can adjust the level of difficulty. This could be set by the teacher or by the learner or the programme
may adjust automatically based on the student’s performance.

• Motivation – Through the use of challenge and gaming elements or because it is on the computer, a drill and practice programme may be
more motivating to students than similar paper-and-pencil exercises. These characteristics make the computer an excellent tool for drill and
practice. Tutorial

The computer assumes the role of the teacher in tutorial application. A tutorial contains an organized body of knowledge. Computer-based
tutorials offer a number of advantages such as

• Embedded questions – Tutorial questions on computer has the advantage of being interactive. Students take active roles by answering
embedded questions and there is provision for immediate feedback.

• Branching – Computer tutorials can automatically branch, that is, adjust content presentation according to the learner’s needs.

• Dynamic Presentation – The computer can present information dynamically. Important text can be highlighted on the screen to capture
learners’ attention, or by depicting processes using animation graphics. A multimedia computer system may employ audio and video.

• Record keeping – Computer tutorials can automatically maintain student’s records, which can be used to inform them of their progress. It can
also be used by teachers to ascertain whether students are progressing satisfactorily.

A well designed tutorial is highly interactive and can be an effective form of instruction that respond to the needs or wants of individual
learners. They are often used to address verbal and conceptual learning. They are available for a range of subject matter and at all grades.
Computer productivity packages, e.g., Microsoft word, come with associated tutorials that provide instruction on how to use the package.
Tutorials are used in schools to supplement regular instruction rather than to replace it. Where computer hardware is limited, computer
tutorials may be used with selected students for remediation, enrichment, or make-up work.

Simulation

This is a representation or model of a real (or sometimes imaginary) system, situation or phenomenon. In most cases, it simplifies or makes
learning easier. It makes excellent use of computer’s capabilities.

• Control of multiple variables – Computer can manage multiple variables simultaneously as a result, they can realistically depict complex
phenomena such as growth and change of a city or the physical indices in motion. These can be manipulated to observe the effects on the
system being modeled.

• Dynamic Presentation – Simulation enjoys computer’s ability to dynamically present information. Simulated instrumentation can change like
the real thing, and processes such as plant growth can be physically depicted.

• Time Control - Computer can contract or expand time to allow the study of phenomena that are too slow (e.g. population growth) or too fast,
(e.g., chemical reactions) for normal classroom observation. The computer can also depict historical situations (e.g., slave trade).

• Effects of chance – Elements of chance and randomness are found in some simulations which make them look realistic, allowing students to
interact with them differently in different occasions. Simulations vary in degrees. Simulations in education are simplified and also vary in
required use. Computer simulation can be effectively used with both individual and small groups of students Instructional Game This adds an
element of fun to Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). Games are modified version of other types of CAI such as drill and practice or simulation
but are distinguished by the following characteristics.

• Motivation – it has motivational elements which include competition, cooperation, challenge, fantasy, recognition and reward.

• Game structure – It has rule of play and end goal.

• Sensory appeal – Computer games attributes of sound, graphic animation and other sensory enhancement.

Computer games vary in time requirement. Some are few minutes while some take hours or days. Care must be taken to integrate these into the
curriculum. Problem Solving Some CAI applications are designed to foster students’ problem-solving skills. Computer problem-solving
applications have the advantages of focusing on

• specific type – specific problem-solving programme.

• quantity – a large number of problems in a short period requiring interaction and providing feedback.

• variety – The computer is capable of presenting variety of problems. This helps students to generalize their problem-solving skills. Problem-
solving applications help to promote students’ higher thinking skills, such as logic, pattern recognition, and strategies. It provides concrete
representation of abstraction.

Computer as Assistant
The common tools are word processors, graphic and desktop publishing, presentation software, database and spreadsheets. We shall discuss
each of them for you to understand.

Word Processors Students can use word processor to ;

• write papers, stories, poems and other in-class work. Major emphasis is on writing. It helps students to practice creating a draft, editing the
work and predicting a new draft.

• write letters – teachers can encourage their students to write letters to their friends and this reinforces their writing skills.

• do writing related activities – take notes, record experiments, or record project’s progress.

• do language exercise – type spelling words, science vocabulary word and practice language skills.
• Type handwritten notes as a way of study: typing handwritten notes one word-processor can reinforce learning or study for examination.

Graphic and Desktop Publishing Tools;

Computer graphic tools provide students with capability to work on images of all types, e.g., photographs, clip art, charts, graphs and desktop
publishing software give them control over the layout of text and graphics on printed pages to produce professional looking printed materials.
The following can be learnt using the tools.

• Create drawing – cutting and drawing programme can produce original work.

• Illustration of work – using printing and drawing or clip art to illustrate written stories, reports or hyper media projects.

Presentation Software;

Designed for display of computer text and images usually for presentation to a group. While they are seen as tools for the teachers to enhance
lectures, students can use them as well. Students can use them to do the following:

• Make in-class presentation or reports – Presentation packages make it easy for students to create professional-looking reports with complete
multimedia elements.

• Store and display electronic portfolios – Student can use them to assemble portfolio of work including text, graphics, and even digital audio
and video.

• Transfer of work to other media. Many presentation packages provide single mechanism for converting electronic shades to print,
photographs or web page. Presentation software has multimedia capability and thus share usage characteristics with graphics software as well
as hypermedia authoring.

Database Computer;

database software provides the capability of creating, editing and manipulating organized collection of information. Student can use database
management software to do the following:

• Create information in databases – Use database software to fill information, e.g., locate book in the School electronic Library.

• Develop problem-solving and higher-order thinking skill – Using database,

student can develop problem-solving and higher order skills. For example, students might want to look at budget allocation for education and
the rate

• of growth in the country’s education. They could ask the question: Is there any relationship between budgeting and growth in education?

• Develop original data bases – Student can learn about research, information, and a particular content area by developing their database. For
example, impact of ICT in a tertiary institution.

Teachers should help students learn the structure of and organization of the database, and guide them through the process of using it.

Spreadsheets ;

These include enhancement of database elements and and the capability to graphically depict data. Student can use these tools to do the
following:

• Track financial information – spreadsheet first became a popular tools for helping businessmen track finances. Students can use them tracking
financial information.

• Keep records – Though primarily calculating tools, thy can be used to keep simple record and maintain information list.

• Create charts and graphs – Students can use it to keep record of investment.

• Perform complex calculations – can quickly produce results involving complex calculations.
 • Perform “what-if” simulation or hypotheses-testing activities. The rapid recalculation of spreadsheet can enhance students’ investigating how
changes in one factor impact other factors – “What will happen if I change……..” Students in demography and statistics class could explore the
rate of marriage and education of a girl-child in a community.

Spreadsheet allows students to concentrate on real-world problems without becoming bugged down in the calculation. An incorrect formula or
bad data can lead to erroneous results. This is relevant to the expression in computer world: “garbage in, garbage out.”

Computer as Learner
When using computer as learner, the following should be noted:

• Students must learn both the content and how to present it.

• Students should be actively involved.

• There is more than one way to achieve success. Student can ‘teach’ the computer using programming language or hypermedia authoring tools. Logo
is a popular programming language for education and Hyper Studio, a hypermedia authoring package is widely used in schools.

Logo: a computer language developed by Seymour Papert and his associates at MIT, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Unlike most
computer language, Logo was created with education in mind. Logo can be used in the classroom for a variety of educational activities including
learning objectives in the classroom:

• Introductory computer programming – Its simplicity makes it possible for a student to start doing something immediately after instruction. It
can permit problem-solving and exploration for a long time.

• Problem-solving – Using logo, student can become acquainted with the computer and controlling it through a programmed language. This
involves problem solving.

• Geometry – Turtle graphics introduces student to many geometric concepts at a much early age, and in much different way than has been in
the past. An elementary student may not understand the concept of degrees in the Logo command RIGHT 90, but might later intuitively acquire
the sense of degrees and other geometric concepts.

• Arts – Turtle graphics in Logo can provide a natural linkage to art and demonstrate the geometric underpinnings of many designs.

• Microworlds – Logo can be used to explore small, well-defined environment, called microworlds, in a variety of subject areas from
mathematics to language to physical sciences. This affords learners the opportunity to enrich their knowledge of one small well-developed
environment.

• Lego Logo – This takes Logo back to its roots. Students use Logo building blocks and small electric machines to construct simple machines that
can be controlled via Logo. This makes their programming efforts real.

Hypermedia Authoring – refers to systems of information representation in which the information – text, graphics, animation, audio and/or
video – is stored digitally in interlinked locations called nodes. The success of creating hypermedia is called authoring. Hypermedia Authoring in
the class – Opportunities in the classroom activities include:

• Hypermedia Projects – This allows students, either individually or in groups, to create reports that summarize a major effort such as a science
experiment or interdisciplinary project. Rather than simply writing about it, students can include written work, pictures, sound clips, video, and
links to describe what they did and/or to present background information.

• Multimedia presentation – Students (and teachers) can use hypermedia authoring tools to create multimedia presentations or slide shows.
ENTER-EDUCATE (ENTERTAINMENT EDUCATION) APPROACH TO
TEACHING OF POP/FLE AT THE JUNIOR SECONDARY LEVEL

INTRODUCTION
It has been discovered that it is not easy for human beings to change opinion and behaviour. This brought about
the concept of 'Enter-Educate' This concept means in simple terms Entertainment and Educate i.e. to educate
through entertainment. Because of the fact that people like to be entertained, it has been a way of educating
people. The mass media-print, electronic, theatres are all filled up with entertainment having one message or the
other for the listening and watching audience. The concept of 'Enter-Educate' was conceived in the mid 1980s by
the Johns Hopkins University Population communication services ex-director Patrick Coleman who started it
through popular music in Mexico to change people's sexual behaviour. The approach has been most successful in
Nigeria and the Philippines. In Mexico, a family planning soap opera changed Mexicans' attitudes to family
planning. "A number of surveys indicate that the show has a significant effect on the audience behaviour. In
addition, we believe that the family planning soap opera was the determining factor in the drop of Mexico's
population growth rate from 3.1 to 2.7 percent" (Population Report, 1989, p.20). Also, it has been prove that
'Enter-Educate' from the audience and does motivate changes in opinion and behaviour. 'Enter-Educate' as
described by Phyllis Piotrow, Director centre for communication programs, the John Hopkins University School of
Hygiene and Public Health as Personal, Popular, Pervasive, and Profitable. It is personal because entertainment
moves people. They share the joys, sorrows and crises of the characters. It is popular because everybody likes to be
entertained. "Choices" and "Wait for me", songs and music videos about family planning by international stars King
Sunny Ade and Onyeka Onwenu, Pushed Sunny's album to the top of the charts in Nigeria" (NAEMT, 1999) 'Enter-
Educate' is also pervasive due to the fact that entertainment is everywhere. Young people all over the world have
heard songs like 'We are the World' by the United States Artists. It is persuasive because entertainment can change
behaviour. Also, it is profitable because entertainment attracts commercial support.

MODALITY FOR 'ENTER-EDUCATE:

Working with television, video, and film, population family life educators have a variety of formats to choose from. The target
group or audience for communication dictates the format to use. Because the media has not really tackled population
issues particularly in the developing countries, population/family life educators have to search for right format to reach
the people, although "It cannot be said that the media (press, radio and television) never deal with regional and
population problems. But they do not tackle them regularly or in depth" (Watshisambi, 1980). Some of the formats
through which 'Enter-Educate' could be introduced are:

News Coverage: Newsworthy information on population/family life could be supplied to the television and radio. News
coverage format is inexpensive and very valuable. For a country like Nigeria that transmits her news on network basis, the
information on population/family life will receive credible exposure. Also because of the geopolitical nature of a country
like Nigeria, one has to be careful of the type of information one gives out for news coverage.

Music Videos: This format is very credible because it educates while entertaining. Video cassette recorders. (VCRs) are now
spreading all over the world and they are getting more popular. Musicians now reinforce and promote the messages in
their songs by making video tapes. These are distributed to radio stations, television houses and to the public. Music
videos have been used to educate people on population/family life issues and problems in many countries. In Nigeria
Sunny Ade and Onyeka Onwenu educates the people on family planning in their songs 'Wait for me' and 'choice'
(Schreyer, 1977). In music video, the language a musician uses tells the audience what his music is targeted at. If the
audience does not understand the language, the information and message in the music will be lost to the thin air and
therefore worthless. The musician has to arrange his language carefully and use the language that is well accepted by the
audience because "knowledge is acquired much more easily if it was a language already known, used in daily life and
 perfectly mastered(Schreyer, 1977). King Sunny Ade and Onyeka Onwenu sang in Pidgin English so as to reach wider
audience in Nigeria.

Documentaries. These are reports on real-life situations in the society in a factual and formal way of educating the society.
Topics on population issues could be documented and presented through this format. For example, the Nigerian
Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) (Population Education Department) has a documentary on
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) which is always shown to participants at workshops. The reaction of
participants has been that of being informed of the causes and effects of AIDS to the individual and the society at large.
Even for some of them that are doubting Thomases it has informed them that AIDS is around us. Although documentaries
are less entertaining and sometimes boring, but it can still influence policy-makers and government officials to take some
drastic decision.

Televised Mini-Dramas and Variety Shows: These shows are popular on television. Population/Family life themes
could be easily included in the scripts of the shows. They could go a long way to changing society's attitude and behaviour
to some important national issues. The shows are always short and therefore catchy and attract viewers attention. An
example of this is the 43 drama episodes involving family planning which were incorporated into, "In a lighter mood", a
popular television variety show in Enugu, Anambra Sate, Nigeria.

Advertising sports and Jingles: Spot in advertising are very short and versatile. They can be made to be educative while
performing their informative role. They can also be shown before and after films slated to population/Family issues.
Repetition of the advertising spots keeps on reminding, promoting and teaching people of the issues therein.

Soap Operas: These are popular shows on television that can incorporate population/family life issues and themes into the
scripts. Soap operas combine the entertainment features of television with the didactic features of non-formal education.
They can also be used in reinforcing the desirable social behaviour the country requires from its people, like the
controversial one woman, four children in Nigeria.

Training and Educational Videos: Videos for training and educating population/family educators are very valuable because they are portable,
inexpensive and it can be easily transported. Videos can be viewed by the trainers immediately after recording and this could help them in
improving on their performance following suggestions and criticisms from colleagues. Actually, population Education Department of NERDC has
been using this method to train teachers on population/family education and it has proved effective (NAEMT, 1999). Video can also train
trainers.

USING THE 'ENTER-EDUCATE APPROACH IN NIGERIA

Nigeria has the largest population in Africa and one of most populous countries in the world. For some years back the Federal
Government of Nigeria has warned of the growing population against the limited resources available. However, "a large
proportion of the nation's population, especially in rural areas, have limited access to information, and low level of
literacy. Hence, on action programme of population education and information gathering and dissemination needs to be
vigorously pursued to enlighten the people on rapid population growth and its implication" (Federal Republic Of Nigeria,
1988). In order to back this up with action, the Federal Government approved a National policy on Population for
Development, Unity, Progress and self-reliance on 4th Feb., 1988. But, inspite of government's efforts the situation is not
changing. This may be due to traditional high placed on having children. The Federal Ministry of Health, planned
parenthood Federation of Nigeria, United States Agency for International Development and John Hopkins University/
Population Communication Services decided to embark on projects through the 'enter-educate' approach to reach the
Nigerian audience(Federal Republic Of Nigeria, 1988, p.23). Television is very powerful in Nigeria and it was discovered
that there are some popular variety shows on the television through which population/family life messages could be
relayed to the public. In Ilorin, the attendance of the public to the Ministry of Health clinics increased after family planning
messages were incorporated into existing shows that were crowd-pullers(Federal Republic Of Nigeria, 1988, p.23). As
earlier mentioned, the 43 drama episodes incorporated into "In a lighter mod', a popular show in Enugu with family
planning messages increased the number of clients at major clinics during this period. With the successes of these two
 projects two popular variety shows in Ibadan 'Koko close" and "Mulero" were incorporated with family planning themes.
It was discovered during this period that the number of clients at clinics increased threefold. Many claimed that their
sources were the two variety shows. Also music can create awareness and by 1989 two popular musicians in Nigeria along
with some writers, journalists and the academic were invited to various symposia starting from Senegal, Zimbabwe and
finally United Sates of America (NAEMT, 1999, p.42-46). The result was the release of 'Wait for me' and 'choices' by King
Sunny Ade's album 'Wait for Me; Earlier both artists did an album each with Sunny Ade devoting his own to 'The child and
onyeka Onwenu preaching 'One Love' to promote peace and togetherness in the family, and the nation. These songs are
all full population/family life messages that have helped to create awareness and change of attitude and behaviour to one
of the most important issue of our time. The album 'Wait for me' was given wide publicity and advertisement. With the
popularity of the two musicians, the album was able to reach wider audience in both the rural and urban areas of the
country. A preliminary evaluation carried out by the Planned Parenthood Federation of Nigeria, Federal Ministry of
Health, USAID and technical assistance from JHU/PCS shows that five months after its launch: "57% of 1,500 urban people
and 22% of 300 rural people saw the video or heard the songs. In the urban areas 48% said that they had spoken to their
friends about the songs, and 27% said that they had spoken to their sexual partners about them. The interviews also
found that more than 90% agreed or strongly agreed with the messages that couples should practice family planning and
have only the number of children that they can care for" (Population Report, 1989). This demonstrates that 'enter-
educate' approach has worked in Nigeria and more effort should be made to reach people through this approach.

AFRICAN CULTURAL RELEVANCE OF 'ENTER-EDUCATE' APPROACH

Historically, before the introduction of western education, Africans had their own ways of passing information and educating

themselves. Naturally, music plays significant role in the political and social life of Africans for many years and these are

methods by which Africans passed on skills and knowledge from one generation to the other, as well as communicating

with each other. Acting, story telling and music could be likened to the modern 'enter-educate'. They have almost the

same qualities with 'enter-educate' concept. Like the modern enter-educate, the usual role of acting, story telling and

music is to entertain but they also educate. They even went further than this, all the lyrics in African music have meaning

and are attached to the social norm of the society. Moreover, they teach and educate the people on moral education on

how to live happily in the society and the accepted behaviour in the society (Kalu, 1991). For example, the African tom-

tom drum is essentially used for transmitting messages and providing musical rhythm for the solemn and normal events

of life: birth, marriage, funerals, war, hunting, dancing, installation of chiefs. The *African enter-educate' format could be

up-dated for modern use. Because of the cost of television, video and film that have made then less accessible to the

people particular in the rural areas, population/family life issues could be introduced into 'African enter-educate' formats.

Another advantage the 'African enter- educate' formats have are that they are well liked and respected by the people,

because they are easily linked with Africa culture. Once the village spiritual heads are already convinced of the

importance of the message to the improvement of the lives of their people, they would like to pass the message in their

own way and the message will be well accepted. Perhaps, Kalu C. N. said it all in his paper that "enter-educate" is

indigenous to Africa. It is a tradition we can up-date not only to facilitate development but also to help solve modern

problems such as the spread of Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome (AIDS)"(Kalu, 1991).

DEVELOPMENT 'ENTER-EDUCATE' PROGRAMMES

There are some lessons an educator should know when trying to influence behaviour through the mass media.

Step 1: Analyze the situation

In this step the problem, the audience, and the media environment are studied. One should understand the problem in question and

should try to define it. It is when these are done that solutions would be sought to solve the problem. The objectives of the

programme should be audience-oriented rather than programme-oriented and should be stated in behavioural terms. Hence, one

should have the understanding of the intended audience one has in mind so as to know how to develop the message. One has to do

research on the interests and attitudes of the audience and how the audience reacts to changes. Even the preferences of the media,

willingness of the audience to adopt to new behaviour, now population/family life issues are discussed and accepted within the

audience, and the language, are all equally important to know. To get these information, interviews, discussions and surveys are

needed. Having identified the intended audience, one needs to be clear about resources available (both human and non-human) and

the constraints within which the programme will have to be confined. Certain media could be ruled out due to the legal or social

obstacles in a particular country. For example in some counties, certain aspects of population/family life issues like family planning

and sex education can not be freely and openly discussed on the television. The support of the journalists, radio announcers,

politicians, elders in the society, religious leaders, television programmes are needed because they have access to the media and

they determine what is shown to the audience. Developing projects on television, video and-films are expensive. Population

Communication Service had put some questions together for educators and project managers to consider before embarking on the

project (Population reports, 1989, p.25). "Are there personnel and fund to carry out the project? What should be done in-house, and

what by outside organization? Who could be in charge? What other organizations, consultants, and corporate sponsors can be

enlisted to help? Who would supply technical advice and production facilities and services?" These are crucial questions that could

determine the quality and the acceptability of the message therein. The media professionals have to be involved because "without

imaginative, creative people in key roles from the project managers to directors and performers would lead to, a good, and well

produced product possible but a real hit is unlikely. For the project manager, finding talented people is as important as following the

process" (Population report, 1989, p.25). Evaluation of the project starts right from the first step so as to give room for improvement

in the subsequent steps.

Step 2: Design the project

The information gathered in step 1 helps in designing the project. It will supply the best format to use to spread the message and the

media to influence the intended audience. Messages are supposed to appeal to the audience so as to achieve the desired result.

Humour can be used to spread population family life messages. Although in some cases, the message may not be well understood.

Fear can also be used in passing messages to the audience. It is useful to catch the attention of the audience and to persuade then to

change their behaviour. Messages are more attractive, accurate, relevant and carry weight when they are short on the television.

Appropriate source for the message should be relevant to the message. In other words, the person or persons that will deliver the

message should be people that belong to the same group with that of the intended audience because message is associated with the

person who delivers it. The audience will easily and quickly accept the message, if this is done. It is at this juncture, one selects the

media for the message.

Step 3: Message Pre-Testing and Materials Production:

This step involves pre-testing of materials so as to improve on them, and to avoid further errors. The intended audience has to be involved

in the pre-testing before the final production. Some of the questions pre-testing should answer include: Is the message understood?

Is the language appropriate? Does the material hold the viewers attention? Are the messages relevant to the intended audience? Are

they appropriate and believable? Does the audience like the sport, film, or video, would they tell their friends about it? Does the
 sport, film, or video offend anyone? Could it be changed to reduced the offence without losing the message? What is wrong with

material? What can improve it?" (Population report 1989, p.27). At the production phase, all members of the crew like, the actors,

the technical experts and others are to be ready before the actual shooting. This phase is always the shortest and the most costly.

Step 4: Implementation and Monitoring:

Implementation means the actual execution of the project or the process of turning an idea into reality. The implementation period should

be very long so as to give the message time to change behaviour. People tend to understand message more when it is repeated over

and over. Though people gets bored when message is over exposed, the way out is to have different messages with this same theme.

Monitoring phase involves ensuring that television keeps to the scheduling time and the message gets enough audience.

Step 5: Evaluation:

Evaluation is very important in assessing changes among the intended audience' and how effective the materials used are. Evaluation can

also be used to improve upon the project and also useful for subjects else planning a similar project. Evaluation can take three forms,

namely: Process, outcome and project evaluation. Each takes care of the different stages of the projects.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF "ENTER-EDUCATION" APPROACH Advantages:

Agenda Setting: This is the idea of making some issues important than others by paying more attention to for the viewers
consumption. This can help to influence people's opinion on certain issues. Portable: Video cassette recorders (VCR) and film

projectors are portable and could be carried wherever, particularly when a message is intended for a particular audience.

Educational: Video could be used in training session. In Nigeria, there is a programme on television called Instructional Television (ITV)
to educate students at home. There are others like quiz time, schools debate etc. All these programmes are educative.

Attractive: Television, video and film are attractive because of the images on the screen. People remember images than only verbal
messages. Few people can walk past a television without looking at the images there.

Repayable: Films video and television programmes can be played back. Programmes can be repeated as many times as possible. There
are some people that need to see and hear messages many times for them to understand.

Influential: Video, television and film are watched by different classes of people in the society including the decision-makers.

Decision-makers prefer to get and gave their information through these media because they know that many people also prefer these

media and many people will be seeing them. Cost-Effective: Productions from video, television, and film can reach many people for

very little cost.

'Enter-Educating': This is the concept of the media, educating while performing their role of entertainment. This concept can be used
to educate people on how to improve their lives. The media can play a codifying role in bringing people and programmes closer

together.

Exemplary: Characters in drama, soap opera can serve as examples of behaviour to people. They serve as role-models to copy or
condemn. Celebrities can be used in programmes related to population/family life issues because they are "seen as more credible

and trustworthy sources of information than other people, especially among young people" (Population Reports, 1989, p.13). Movie:
 The media can elicit emotions that may change behaviour through entertainment. Emotions can influence people and arouse the

attention of some message.

LIMITATIONS

Restricted: Television under the control of government are usually closely monitored. Government officials may not like some issues to
be discussed on television because they fear reaction or when they feel that it will negatively affect their political campaign

strategies.

Costly: Television, videos and film projects are very costly and tend to limit the audience. Every process of making productions under
these media is very costly.

Time-Consuming: Because of the process involved before the final production, 'enter-educate' approach tends to be time consuming. It takes
months and sometimes years to finish a film project. Technical: It is not easy to get all the trained technical personnel needed to ensure a high-

quality production.

Less Accessibility: The rural people do not have access to television, video and film. Messages on population/family life are really meant for this
people.

Principles and practice of design, production,

improvisation, use, maintenance. storage and retrieval of
educational media for the Junior Secondary Level

Digital media design is the process of creating and delivering engaging and effective content for
various platforms, such as websites, social media, apps, games, and e-learning. It involves
applying principles of visual communication, user experience, interactivity, and storytelling to
achieve specific goals and meet the needs and expectations of the audience. In this article, you
will learn some of the key principles and best practices of digital media design that can help you
create more impactful and memorable digital media content.

principles and practices of media design

Know your audience

One of the most important aspects of digital media design is to understand who you are designing for and what they want. You need to

research and analyze your target audience, their demographics, preferences, behaviors, motivations, and challenges. You also need

to consider the context and environment in which they will consume your content, such as the device, platform, location, and time.
 By knowing your audience, you can tailor your content to suit their needs, interests, and emotions, and create a more personalized

and relevant experience.

Define your goals and objectives

Another essential step in digital media design is to establish what you want to achieve with your content and how you will measure
its success. You need to define your goals and objectives, both for yourself and for your audience. Your goals should be specific,
measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). Your objectives should be aligned with your goals and describe the
actions or outcomes that you want your audience to take or achieve. By defining your goals and objectives, you can focus your
content on delivering value and solving problems, and evaluate its effectiveness and impact.

Use design principles and elements

To create visually appealing and coherent digital media content, you need to apply some basic design principles and elements.
Design principles are the guidelines that help you organize and arrange your content in a logical and harmonious way, such as
contrast, alignment, balance, hierarchy, proximity, and repetition. Design elements are the components that make up your content,
such as color, shape, texture, typography, images, icons, and animations. By using design principles and elements, you can enhance
your content's readability, clarity, consistency, and aesthetics.

Optimize for usability and accessibility

Usability and accessibility are the qualities that make your digital media content easy and enjoyable to use and access by different
types of users. Usability refers to how well your content meets the needs and expectations of your users, such as how intuitive,
efficient, satisfying, and error-free it is. Accessibility refers to how well your content accommodates the needs and abilities of users
with disabilities, such as how compatible, adaptable, perceivable, operable, and understandable it is. By optimizing for usability and
accessibility, you can improve your content's functionality, performance, and inclusivity.

Incorporate interactivity and feedback

Interactivity and feedback are the features that make your digital media content more engaging and responsive to your users.
Interactivity refers to how your content allows your users to interact with it, such as by clicking, scrolling, swiping, dragging,
dropping, or typing. Feedback refers to how your content responds to your users' actions, such as by providing sounds, animations,
messages, or scores. By incorporating interactivity and feedback, you can increase your content's immersion, motivation, retention,
and learning.

Tell a story
Storytelling is the technique that makes your digital media content more compelling and memorable to your users. Storytelling
refers to how you use your content to convey a message, emotion, or idea through a narrative structure, such as by having a
beginning, middle, and end, a protagonist, a conflict, a resolution, and a moral. By telling a story, you can connect with your users on
a deeper level, capture their attention, inspire their imagination, and influence their behavior.

Digital Media Production in the Classroom

There are three distinct phases to the media production process:

Pre-production & storyboarding: idea generation; research; location ideas (interior/exterior); script writing; create a shot list;
gather crew, talent (family, friends, & roommates will love being in your video!), equipment, props
Production – shoot everything on your shot list, record all audio needed
Post-production – editing, creating graphics, finalizing

Improvisation simply means to source, select, create, make, substitute, and provide local media and materials obtained within and
outside the school environment in the absence of the original ones.

Use: Media can be a powerful way to enhance student learning. Instead of always relying on lectures, you can use print, audio, and
visual media, such as books, videos, audio, television, CDs, DVDs, or short films, to hold your students’ attention and help them
retain information.
Maintenance in this chapter means those preventive, diagnostic, updating, replacement, and repair procedures that a
school or district has in place. Maintenance can be provided either by persons who are part of the school system or
through an outsourced contract. It includes documenting trends and patterns in the use of applications or equipment.
Specific maintenance items might include:
Periodic replacement of parts and renewal of consumable supplies;
Repair or replacement of faulty components;
Periodic inspection and cleaning of equipment;
Updating or upgrading hardware and software, including installing new operating system versions;
Adding or deleting users from a system, or modifying user rights and properties;
Periodic backup of stored files on a school network;
Monitoring the condition and functionality of networks and equipment, including testing web site accesses and links; and
Installing and removing equipment and applications

Storing and Retrieving data is a 2 step process for retaining data. Storing saves data and information for
later use, retrieving obtains the data and information that has been previously saved

Community resources in Junior Secondary

Education

Introduction
We are all a part of a community, whether it be in terms of geographical locations or because of the
values we grew up with. It is impossible to isolate ourselves from our community. Even for students,
after the completion of their education, they are going to be professionals who will be working for the
development of the communities we all are part of. Therefore, teachers can use community resources to
help students develop their social skills and prepare them for their future ambitions.

What are Community Resources?

Community resources are resources that enhance or facilitate the lives of people in a community. These resources are an integral part of every
individual’s development. Some examples of community resources are factories, educational institutions, cinema halls, libraries, religious places,
hospitals, community centers, parks, etc. It would be a great idea to make use of these resources in education as it develops a sense of value
and belonging among students.

What are the types of community resources?

As mentioned before, it’s not easy to gather all types of community resources since they form quite a wide group. However, it’s a
good start to look at the differentiation of people, places, and services. These can be seen as the main types of community
resources with many smaller groups and individuals within them.

Here are some examples of these to give you a general idea about community resources.

People
 teacher;

 postal worker;
  firefighter;

 florist;

 doctor;

 priest;

 mechanic;

 vet;

 police officer;

 dentist.

Places
(ii) place of worship;

(iii) butcher shop;

(iv) bakery;

(v) flower shop;

(vi) grocery store;

(vii) post office;

(viii) GP;

(ix) gym;

(x) playground;

(xi) train station;

(xii) zoo;

(xiii) museum;

(xiv) library;

(xv) cinema;

(xvi) theatre;

(xvii) restaurant.

Services
6. physical and mental health services;

7. youth services;

8. substance abuse services;

9. religious services;

10. financial services;

 11. entertainment services.

How to teach community resources?

When teaching young children about community, resources and helpers, it’s important to build on their existing knowledge. They
might get intimidated by the term ‘community resource’, so why not approach the topic from another angle? Ask your class if they
can name any people, places or things from their local area that helps someone on a regular basis. They can try to come up with a
list of their ideas individually or in smaller groups to reinforce team work. Have them start their thinking process for themselves
before looking for other examples from their broader surroundings.

Once the pupils have finished with their lists start a discussion within the class. To make the lesson more interactive, you can turn
the activity into a fun debating session. Before asking for examples, hand out empty cards or papers to the young ones. They can
write their ideas onto these, then go up to the blackboard and stick them on. Once everyone contributed to the board, let the debate
begin. Go through each and every idea and see what the majority thinks; is it a type of community resources or not? Make sure to
also ask the children why they think one or the other.

Having a fun conversation like this about the topic will reinforce the main features of community resources in the children. And once
they have a general understanding of the subject, you can use various teacher-made resources to talk more about the topic and to
have your class practice it. It’s important that children from a young age realise what others are doing for them so that they can fully
appreciate their service, devotion, time and hard work.

Benefits of Using Community Resources in Teaching

Using community resources in teaching can enrich the learning experience for students. Their knowledge with regard to the community will
provide students with real-life opportunities for learning. It expands the spectrum of knowledge of students and helps them understand the
functioning of different institutions in the community. It helps them be responsible and take an initiative to bring about positive changes in the
society they live in. It also enables them to get exposed to different ideas and facilitates the formation of an inclusive atmosphere.

In addition, as they encounter different institutions and professionals, they would ignite an interest in certain professions and will be inspired to
pursue that. Community resources would assist in picking up democratic traits and aid in understanding democracy in a broader sense. This
would empower students and these experiences will help them in developing ideas of their own.

Methods to Make Use of Community Resources

Community Survey
Community surveys enable students to learn about various aspects of the society they live in. They will get exposed to a variety
of cultures, traditions, values, ideals, and a lot more. They will be able to gain a lot of information and knowledge which will not
be possible through note learning. They will be able to comprehend a variety of issues that different types of communities are
facing and can learn the factors leading to these issues. They can also correlate this data with their course material and learning
concepts. Moreover, these community surveys will provide them with knowledge about the importance of education and the
kinds of changes they can effect through education.

Community Services
Community services are another way of enhancing the process of teaching and learning. It gives students an idea about the
variety of community resources and gives exposure to the issues that exist in the community. With this knowledge, they can
make the necessary improvements and take initiatives to eliminate the problems. Community services build the skills of students
as they get an opportunity to interact with a multicultural crowd. It eradicates the prejudices that exist in their minds and can help
in breaking the stereotypes that exist in society and thereby working towards the betterment of society as a whole.
Community services may entail programs like clean-up drives, eco-friendly initiatives, educating the public about various issues
like environmental issues, or the importance of leading a healthy lifestyle. In this way, community services widen the
perspectives of students and instill a sense of responsibility in their minds. As a community service, students can plant trees and
improve the aesthetics of the community, hence building a healthier environment. In this way, they are acquiring the importance
of leading a sustainable life.

Excursions
Excursions or field trips can unfold new learning experiences for students. Unlike a classroom learning environment, field trips
would unveil a sea of learning opportunities for them. These trips can spark new interests in students and they may lay bare
different values and traditions before them. For instance, if the trip is to a historical location, they will be able to witness the
historical aspects of that location in a new light. Students will have the feeling that they are walking through the pages of history.
They can get so inspired that they would pursue a career in the field of history.
The above-mentioned instance is just one example of how community resources can assist students in their development. The
scope of the influence that these resources have on education is unfathomable as they provide students with firsthand
knowledge. It can enlighten them in a novel way and can help in developing a myriad of skills. It enhances their critical thinking
abilities and improves their learning abilities. They will be able to evaluate various circumstances from a broader perspective and
in this way, these experiences will help in the development of their problem-solving skills. They will be well-equipped to deal with
the challenges with ease.

Conclusion
Community resources can be a textbook flooded with information and experiences for learning social science. Teachers can act
as a facilitator and make the most of the resources and provide students with the opportunity to maximize their knowledge in the
field of social science. By involving the community services in learning social studies, teachers can cultivate an affinity towards
the subject. Moreover, it would kindle an innate curiosity about the topic and broadens their horizons.
.

Photocopying and video production (with practical’s)

Photocopying

Introduction
The process of producing copies of original documents and drawings by exposing the originals to chemicals, light,
heat, or electrostatic energy and recording the resulting images on a sensitized surface is called photocopying. The
use of an original document distinguishes photocopying from the duplicating processes, such as offset lithography;
stencil, or mimeograph, reproduction; and spirit duplication, all of which require the preparation of a separate
master copy.

Photocopying is widely used in business, education, and government. There have been many predictions that
photocopiers will eventually become obsolete as information workers continue to increase their digital document
creation and distribution and rely less on distributing actual pieces of paper. However, photocopiers are undeniably
more convenient than computers for the very common task of creating a copy of a piece of paper.

Process of Photocopy
Photocopying is a process that makes paper copies of documents and other visual images quickly and cheaply. Most current photocopiers use a
technology called xerography, a dry process using heat. (Copiers can also use other output technologies such as ink jet, but xerography is
standard for office copying.)

How Photocopiers Work (practical)

Walk into almost any business office, and you'll probably find a photocopier ("copier") with a line of people waiting to use it. For most
businesses, small or large, the copier has become standard equipment, much like having a desk to work at and a chair to sit in.

Photocopier courtesy Xerox

A typical business photocopier from Xerox

What if you had to resort to making carbon copies of important documents, as many people did before copiers came along? Or worse, imagine
how tedious it would be if you had to recopy everything by hand! Most of us don't think about what's going on inside a copier while we wait for
copies to shoot neatly out into the paper tray, but it's pretty amazing to think that, in mere seconds, you can produce an exact replica of what's
on a sheet of paper! In this edition of How Stuff Works, we will explore what happens after you press "Start" on a photocopier.

The Basics

The human-end of making a copy begins with a few basic steps:

● Open the copier lid

● Place the document to be photocopied face-down on the glass

● Select the options you want (number of pages, enlargements, lighter/darker)

● Press the Start button

What happens inside the copier at this point is amazing! At its heart, a copier works because of one basic physical principle:

opposite charges attract.

As a kid, you probably played with static electricity and balloons. On a dry winter day, you can rub a balloon on your sweater and create enough
static electricity in the balloon to create a noticeable force. For example, a balloon charged with static electricity will attract small bits of paper
or particles of sugar very easily.

A copier uses a similar process.

Inside a copier there is a special drum. The drum acts a lot like a balloon -- you can charge it with a form of static electricity.

●Inside the copier there is also a very fine black powder known as toner. The drum, charged with static electricity, can attract the toner
particles. There are three things about the drum and the toner that let a copier perform its magic:

The drum can be selectively charged, so that only parts of it attract toner. In a copier, you make an "image" -- in static electricity -- on the surface
of the drum. Where the original sheet of paper is black, you create static electricity on the drum. Where it is white you do not. What you want is
for the white areas of the original sheet of paper to NOT attract toner. The way this selectivity is accomplished in a copier is with light -- this is
why it's called a photocopier!
● Somehow the toner has to get onto the drum and then onto a sheet of paper. The drum selectively attracts toner. Then the sheet of paper
gets charged with static electricity and it pulls the toner off the drum.

● The toner is heat sensitive, so the loose toner particles are attached (fused) to the paper with heat as soon as they come off the drum.

● The drum, or belt, is made out of photoconductive material. Here are the actual steps involved in making a photocopy:

● The surface of the drum is charged.

An intense beam of light moves across the paper that you have placed on the copier's glass surface. Light is reflected from white areas of the
paper and strikes the drum below.

● Wherever a photon of light hits, electrons are emitted from the photoconductive atoms in the drum and neutralize the positive charges
above. Dark areas on the original (such as pictures or text) do not reflect light onto the drum, leaving regions of positive charges on the drum's
surface.

● Negatively charged, dry, black pigment called toner is then spread over the surface of the drum, and the pigment particles adhere to the
positive charges that remain.

● A positively charged sheet of paper then passes over the surface of the drum, attracting the beads of toner away from it.

● The paper is then heated and pressed to fuse the image formed by the toner to the paper's surface.

The process:
When the copier illuminates the sheet of paper on the glass surface of a copier, a pattern of the image is projected onto the positively charged
photoreceptive drum below. Light reflected from blank areas on the page hits the drum and causes the charged particles coating the drum's
surface to be neutralized. This leaves positive charges only where there are dark areas on the paper that did not reflect light. These positive
charges attract negatively charged toner. The toner is then transferred and fused to a positively charged sheet of paper.

Inside a Photocopier
If you take a photocopier apart, you might be overwhelmed by how many different parts there are. However, the actual

photocopying process relies on only a few, key pieces:

● Photoreceptor drum (or belt)

● Corona wires

● Lamp and lenses

● Toner

● Fuser

Color photocopiers
Color photocopying is a concern to governments since it makes counterfeiting currency much simpler. Some countries have introduced anti-
counterfeiting technologies into their currency specifically to make it harder to use a color photocopier to counterfeit. These technologies
include watermarks, microprinting, holograms, tiny security strips made of plastic, or other material, and ink that appears to change color as the
currency is viewed at an angle. Some photocopying machines contain special software that will prevent the copying of currency that contains a
special pattern.

Copyright Law and Photocopying Practice in Nigeria

Photocopying material that is subject to copyright (such as books ) is subject to restrictions in most countries. It is common practice, especially
by students, as the cost of purchasing a book for the sake of one article or a few pages may be excessive. The principle of fair use or fair dealing
allows this type of copying for research purposes. Nigeria has its own copyright law.

industrial property, chiefly inventions trademarks and industrial design. Items generally classified as intellectual property include literary and
artistic works, films, computer programmes, inventions, designs and marks, etc. Copyright is a legal right that protects the owner of an
intellectual property from being exploited. The law protects indiscriminate copying and distribution of an author's work without the permission
of the author. Copyright law in Nigeria is governed by the Copyright Act 1988 with its amendments of 1992 and 1999 which is now re-codified in
the Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2010. The primary function of Copyright under the law is to protect from annexation the fruits of a
person's work (Babafemi, 2007).

Photocopying without permission is a form of copyright violation. The copyright law under the doctrine of fair use creates a legal exception. The
law specifically states that the concept of fair use can be invoked for purposes of research, private use, criticism, or review of the reporting of
current events. Reproduction of literary works by photographic and like means on a large scale is a comparatively recent phenomenon. Until the
late 1960s, the usual means of obtaining multiple copies of textual matter was by carbon copying, and stencil duplicating (Bush & Dreyfuss
1979).

Odunowo (2002) asserts that copyright law protects the owner of property rights in literary and artistic works against those who adopt the exact
form of words or arrangement employed by the author in the production of his work. Nigeria is a signatory to the Universal Copyright
Convention 1952, the Berne Conventions of 1886 and 1971 for the protection of rights in literary, musical and artistic works and the Rome
Convention of 1961 for the protection of performers, producers, broadcasting organizations (Asein, 2002). The aim of conventions is to enable
countries give the same protection to the works of the nationals of other countries as they give to their nationals (Flint, 1979). This article looks
at the history of copyright law in Nigeria, concepts of ‘copyright’, ‘photocopying’, and ‘fair use’ under the Nigerian copyright law.

video production

INTRODUCTION

In today’s experience economy, video is everything, everywhere, all at once. Who among us hasn’t
streamed a TV show about television on Apple TV while scrolling through our feed on YouTube during the
commercial break for a YouTube video on our laptop?

We love being immersed in the content that helps us get through the day, so naturally, video is the ideal
way to introduce new audiences to your brand through targeted advertisements.

What is Video Production?

Video production is simply the process of making video content.
In a narrow sense, “video production” can refer simply to the shooting part of the process. However, generally speaking, it comprises all five steps of the
process.
We’ll explore this in greater depth below, but the steps are:
 Planning & Development: The early stages of deciding what kind of content you’re making, what its purpose is, and
what its scope will be
 Pre-Production: Can involve writing, storyboarding, location scouting, and other logistical elements that must precede
production
 Production: The actual physical shoot, in which cameras capture footage to use later
 Post Production: Editing, scoring, mixing, and visual effects
 Marketing & Distribution: Putting the final product out into the world
The goal of this complex and lengthy process is to produce video content, which will likely be distributed via the web or
social media.

Video Production vs. Film Production

Content is undoubtedly converging, and the differences between traditional “film” and “video” are blurring. But there’s still
a difference between video production vs. film production. In the most literal sense, this is technical — film implies actual
old-fashioned celluloid passing through a camera versus the use of a digital medium.

More likely, though, “film production” these days refers to a feature-length movie. In contrast, “video production” refers to producing
short video content for web distribution (“TV production” is still used to refer to Netflix and streaming-style shows, even though the
medium of TV has changed substantially from the days when broadcast networks were dominant).

Video Production vs. Videography

 Video Production: Refers to the entire process of making a piece of content
  Videography: Refers more directly to the technical process of recording footage with a video camera

 Videographers” tend to be (for example) the personnel who shoot weddings, while “video production” covers a more
professional process of planning, shooting, editing, and distributing video content.

 The term “cinematographer” or “director of photography” is still used to describe the craftsperson who oversees the filming
process in video production. The cinematographer oversees lighting, camera movement, and a team of technicians who
make sure the images being captured are right — that their color, focus, and other aesthetic and technical considerations
support the message of the video production.

 By contrast, videographers tend to film what’s already there, using minimal lighting and probably no crew.

Benefits of Video Content

Video is compelling — and it’s also shareable, a key plus in our digital era. With every site competing for attention, even
legacy media companies have discovered that video is an important way to break out of the pack.

 In-House Video Production vs. Outsourcing

With video becoming an essential part of web content, many large media conglomerates have turned their attention to in-house
video production in recent years. Popular examples include all the cooking and recipe videos that populate the websites and Twitter
accounts of cooking magazines like Bon Appetit. Video is perfectly suited for capturing the finer points of cooking techniques in a
way that words and illustrations can only vaguely gesture.

Pros of In-House Video Production

In-house production allows for immediate responsiveness to the needs of your content production. For example, Bon Appetit‘s Test Kitchen has a simple
set-up but can quickly and efficiently produce videos. Still, it only allows for one kind of video — and even the most ardent fan can quickly tire of the same
type of content. Similarly, the New Yorker‘s in-house video tends to be simple content shot in one location with a gray background.
Pros of Outsourcing Video Production
By contrast, outsourcing production — that is, engaging the services of outside production companies — allows companies to use the broader skills and
resources of other production creatives. Outsourcing allows companies to develop a wider range of content across different genres and styles. That
makes for a more engaging experience for your viewers and potential customers. Outsourcing also means you don’t need to keep production staff on
retainer, which can be beyond the means of most small and medium-sized businesses.
Of course, when it comes to outsourcing, you need to find reliable partners. The good news is that now that production is mostly
remote and truly globalized, you can find what you need anywhere. This gives you access to a tremendous range of production
styles and resources.

Video Production Stages

As mentioned previously, there are five general stages of video production (some leave out the first and last stages mentioned here, but
it’s important to include them, so you understand the big picture of the video production process)

Phase 1: Planning & Development

For many, this can be the most exciting phase of production: video production planning. It’s the phase in which the big questions and topics driving a
video content shoot are posed and answered.
These could include:
 What is the overall aim of this video content?

 Who is the target audience?

 How can you best express the content’s aim and reach the audience?

 What resources do you have?

 What are the problems or hurdles you might face in creating the content?

Planning and development start with macro questions that get progressively more granular.

Once you know the goal of a video, you can start considering how to best convey it.

Questions of style will be discussed, like:

 Will it be live-action or animated?

 Will the style feel polished or more in the vein of authentic-feeling User Generated Content (UGC)?

 Is this video content going live on Instagram? TikTok?

 Will it be used across several platforms, albeit tweaked and refined?

  Questions of budget and shoot length (which helps dictate budget) will also come up. Can the idea be achieved on the
proposed budget, or does it need to be scaled down?

 Sometimes, video planning and development can involve an iterative process of trying video marketing ideas, testing them
and retesting them. Still, this is the production phase that can be the most fun, as ideas get floated and tested before any
video has been shot. Eventually, the process will end with a brief or outline, ready to go to a production team that can
improve it with their ideas and ultimately execute it.

 Phase 2: Pre-Production
The questions surrounding “how will this get made?” start taking on a more practical edge in pre-production. So do questions about:

 Hiring personnel and crew

 Answering questions related to location

 Budget

 The duration of the shoot (which will directly impact the shoot’s budget)

It’s a great time to run an audit on your historical production budgets, see where you can cut fat, and ensure you’re keeping key
performance indicators (KPIs) in mind.

Ideally, many problems get solved during video pre production. Productions often get scaled-down during this phase, as it comes
clear that original plans are too costly.

During pre-production, many teams rely on pre-visualization techniques like storyboards, shot listing, and software that allows 3D
visualization of sets and lighting. By the time production starts, it’s all but a formality, and it’s relatively straightforward capturing the
right footage.

When it comes to video content production, sometimes the best tactic is to keep things simple. The important thing is the concept,
which can likely be achieved more modestly than you realize with the right choices of props and location.

Pre-production is the time to note exactly what deliverables you need by the end of the process, including:

 Aspect ratios

 File types

 Video lengths

Phase 3: Production
Production involves the actual shoot. Production is usually highly controlled, as it involves talent and crew who are on the clock and
who will be paid overtime if the shoot runs long. Despite the best-laid plans, there are often hurdles to deal with, whether these are
logistical issues like weather or a location that’s somehow different than expected or a performance by an actor that isn’t quite
jelling.

It’s key to remember all the different end uses for your footage. That means (among other things) framing aspect ratios so footage
can work for Instagram, YouTube, Facebook, and any other social media formats.

Phase 4: Post-Production
Video post production involves everything required to make your video look and sound polished after the shoot. That includes:
 Editing

 Color correction

 Visual FX

 Sound design and mixing

Post production is usually a mixture of problem solving and creativity, like adding motion graphics and music. Post production can allow you to repurpose
production content to work in several ways, effectively giving you an entire campaign from just a day or two’s shooting.
Phase 5: Marketing & Distribution
Marketing and distribution were once done purely on instinct or happenstance. Now they’re achieved with the help of data and targeting. You should have
a good idea of where your audience lies and ensure content is crafted so that it connects with them.
This phase can still involve creativity as you monitor the popularity of your campaign and keep testing and tweaking to make sure you’re hitting your KPIs.
Types of Video Production
Different genres of video production work better for certain kinds of products and audiences. Some common types of videos are:
This is a video extolling the virtues and story of your brand and company. Brand/company videos create a narrative in which your brand is the hero.
These could involve testimonials from customers or employees.

Explainer Video
These videos explain how a product works, often through animated or graphic content. They’re especially suited to more abstract services and
technologies, like apps. The best ones are both informative and friendly.
Industry-Specific Video
Industry-specific videos target audiences who work or are looking for a service in a particular sector.
Product Video
Product videos center on an actual product and turn it into the hero of a narrative. Effective product videos could involve UGC-style content, featuring
social media influencers or “regular users,” or case studies in which someone explains how a new product solved a problem for them.
Social Media Video
A social media video marketing strategy should be designed with native video advertising in mind, keeping to the style of a particular platform the video
appears on, like TikTok, Facebook, or Instagram. They’re designed to be easily consumed and also shared.
TV Commercial
This is the most polished, classic form of video content, typically featuring professional talent, graphics, testimonials, and beauty shots of your product
through linear TV or CTV advertising.
Website Video
These are typically for audiences already interested in your product, so they can involve longer and more detailed narratives to encourage conversion.

The CET must be adequately funded to provide all that

are required

Meaning of Educational Resource Centres

Educational Resource Centres are known by many names. They are collectively referred to as Media
Centres, Learning Centres, Audiovisual Aids Centres, Information Centres and a host of Others. We need
not be scared by this development which arose from choice of names and Preference for terminologies.
It is clear that the philosophy behind the evolution of the centre Arose from the much concern for highly
rewarding teaching-learning experience. One should Therefore point out, at this very beginning, that the
choice of the title for this unit is a matter of Choice.

Educational Resource Centre, according to Heinich, Molanda, Russell and Smaldino (2002), Refers to a
self-contained environment designed to promote individual or small group learning Around a specific
task. An educational resource centre can be described as an environment or a Structure that is
specifically designed to store, organise and allow for the use of instructional Materials by any user for
the purpose of bringing about learning.

Thus, according to Adeyanju (2003), the Learning Resource Centre is the laboratory of the Educational
technologist as well as a place where instructional materials are kept and maintained. Stressing the
importance of Educational Resource Centres, Salawu, Afolabi and Taiwo (2001)

Say they are as important to educational technology as a laboratory is to the teaching of science And
what a language laboratory is to the teaching of languages.
Name of Resource Centres: The Nigerian Experience
What’s in a name? You may want to ask!!!

When it became noted that several names, terms are used interchangeably to address the Multifarious
types of resource centres that have emerged, it got to a stage at which confusion was Envisaged. In order
to straighten out things, the Joint Consultative Council Reference Committee (JCCRC) on Educational
Technology recommended in 1990 certain nomenclature Systems for the resource centres in Nigeria.

All the resource centres are separated into two major categories – institutional and governmental.

Institutional Resource Centres: Learning Resource Centre ( LRC )

The JCCRC gave recognition to the three tier-educational systems as we have them in The Country. These
are: primary, secondary and tertiary.

However, in terms of naming the centres, the resource centres established at the primary And Secondary
schools are to be known and called Learning Resource Centres (LRCs). Those Established at the tertiary
institutions are to be known and called Centres for Educational Technology (CET).

Functions of the LRCs

They:

(1)Acquire and circulate educational materials.

(2)Provide professional assistance to teachers and students in the design, production and usage of
instructional materials.

(3) Liaise with State ERCs zonal educational offices.

Functions of the Centre for Educational Technology ( CETs )

They include:

(a)Providing a rationalized approach to the acquisition of audio-visual equipment and materials within
the institutions.

(b)Building up a pool of basic audio-visual equipment and materials.

(c)Providing campus audio-visual services for academic, administrative staff and students.

(d) Providing professional assistance to the staff and students in the design, production and

administration of media materials for improvement of teaching and learning.

(e) Planning and carrying out research activities in the field of educational technology.

(f) Serving as a centre for the adoption, diffusion and dissemination of media related centres and
agencies within and outside Nigeria.
(g)Providing training (through workshops, orientations, seminars and lectures in the use of educational
media for personnel in the institutions and public schools).

(h)Coordinating and providing audio-visual services in the lecture theatres / auditoria and classrooms,
including public address projection, radio and closed-circuit television systems.

Governmental Resource Centres: Educational Resource Centre (ERC)

The JCCRC gave recognition to the existing three-tier of government: local, state and federal.

However, in terms of naming of the resource centres, those at the local and state government levels are
to be known and called as Educational Resource Centres (ERCs). At the federal level, it is to be known
and called National Educational Technology Institute (NETI). It is to be noted that with this name, NETI,
there has been an additional responsibility to the former centre which was prior 1990 was named as the
National Educational Technology Centre (NETC). Personnel / Functions and structure of the NETC / NETI:

Functions of the National Educational Institute

The Centre performs the following functions:

(a)Planning and organising educational broadcasting.

(b)Designing and producing innovational instructional materials.

(c)Acquiring and circulating educational equipment and materials.

(d)Carrying out research, evaluation and training programmes in educational technology.

(e)Liaising with international bodies having similar interest to develop educational Technology in the
country.

(f)Giving financial and technical assistance to ERCs, CETs and LRCs, and

(g)Carrying out any other assignments designed for the upliftment of educational technology In Nigeria.

Responsibilities of the Centre’s Personnel:

The organisational structure of the National Educational Technology Centre should look Like This:
Source: Report of the JCC Reference Committee on Educational Technology, 1990

Responsibilities of the Centre’s Personnel:

1.The Director: He/She is the chief executive of the centre. As the overall boss, he/she is in Charge of
“Staff development, public relations and consultancy services and formulation Of the centre’s general
policy.

2.Assistant Director (Instructional Materials Design Research and Development). He/She is The officer
whose duties involve:

(i) Designing instructional materials in all the school subjects;

(ii) Development of the curriculum; (iii)Educational broadcasting (radio and
television);
(iv)Evaluation of the various educational technology programmes and
coordination of Research activities in educational technology;
(v)Organising workshops, seminars, lectures, exhibitions and in-service
training Programmes in the centre; (vi)Administering the centre’s
 educational technology library where books and nonbooks materials and
equipment are kept, and retrieved by the library users;
(vii)Links the centre with other centres in the country.

3.Assistant Director (Visual, Materials Production and Technical Services). The officer Performs the
following duties. He/She prepares:

(i) A comprehensive technical plan for establishment of educational technology Centres;

(ii) Guidelines for the procurement and storage of educational technology equipment Materials;
(iii)Coordinates installation, operation and maintenance of educational technology
Equipment as well as provision of technical services during the production and Transmission
of educational programmes;
(iv)He is in charge of the following units – photography, graphics, Cinematography And
printing of the centre.

4.Chief Education Officer (Administration). He/She performs dual roles, which include the Following:

(a)Administration matters:

(i) Transport control

(ii) Secretarial services
(iii) Purchasing and storage
(iv) Supply

(b)Accounts

The various sections of the centre are headed by sectional heads who are directly Responsible to their
respective Assistant Directors. Apart from preparing their Sectional schedule of duty, they equally
supervise the activities of other staff Under their care.

Models / Forms of Resource Centres

Classroom Learning Centres (CLC)

I could recall my experience as a primary school pupil in a typical village school. Don’t ask me Where and
when? My class teacher and indeed, all class teachers made provision for what was Then known and
called “Nature Corner”. No matter how small a class was in terms of space Availability, it was a tradition
that “Nature Corner” must be created.

The “Nature Corner” was a place (corner) with one or at most two reading/writing tables where Items of
nature like cowries, birds’ feathers, snail shells, specimen of bones, etc. were kept, Labelled and made
use of during teaching while they served as tourist attraction for learners as They appreciate them during
break time.

The concept of classroom resource corners is a reflection of the past experience discussed above. A
cursory observation of classroom environment nowadays, especially in public schools (primary and
secondary) reveals that a number of classes lack resources from which learners can Naturally learn
without the efforts of the teacher. The resources encourage learning. Therefore, With a rich display of
sourced instructional resources that are usually not natural, manmade Resources placed within the
classroom environment provide a learning environment for the Learners.

Community Learning Resource Centres

You may be wondering why you are being bothered to learn something about the subhead:

Community Learning Resources Centres. The reasons are not far-fetched. As a teacher, you are Expected
to be resourceful. In specific term, you are expected to make use of the Human, Material, natural and
man-made resources that abound within your immediate environment. I am Sure you are aware of the
fact that there is no environment, whether rural or urban, that is Not Endowed with some resources. You
are to tap these resources for the purpose of Effecting Effective teaching and learning process.

Generally speaking, instructional resources could be categorised as:

(i) Instructional resources by design, and

(ii) Instructional resources by utilisation.

Those instructional resources that are naturally designed, produced and available for the purpose Of
usage in the classroom teaching and learning situations fall under the first classification.

Instructional resources that are not intentionally produced for classroom usage, but could be used By the
teacher in his/her efforts in imparting knowledge are classified as those by utilisation.

Hints on Utilising Community Resources

 If it involves inviting human resource persons to school, there is a need for adequate planning;
 Direct the attention of the resource person(s) to the aspect he/she should cover in his
talk/speech;
 Prepare the class ahead of the interaction;
 Allow for pupils’ opinions/questions;
 Round up the lesson by providing a rich summary;
 Vote of thanks should be given;
 Letter/visit of appreciation should follow.

However, if the community resources are non-human, the teacher must ensure that the resources are:

 relevant to the topic being deployed for;

 Relevant to the objectives set for the lesson;
 Compensate for the efforts made to secure it;
 Cost effective;
 High quality guaranteed;
  Ease to use, and
 Free of complexity of content.

Management and Maintenance Educational Resource Centres (ERC)

Management simply means effective integration and utilisation of man, material and money resources to
achieve the goals of a resources centre. Care must be taken to adequately plan the physical layout of the
centre, adopt a clear-cut administrative pattern, source for skilled personnel, relevant equipment and
material etc.

Physical Plant Requirement

The activities that are carried out in a resources centre are many and diverse. It is therefore necessary to
operate in a space that provides basic comfort for staff and users of the centre. In other words, there
should be adequate spaces for work where traffic is restricted and aesthetically appreciable. The
structure to be used should be well-planned and constructed in a such a way that activities in one space
should not interfere with those in other space areas. It is considered that large structures are not
necessarily needed, but should be adequately used to achieve maximum effect by users of the resources.

Administrative Pattern
There are four administrative patterns for the management of resource centres as Brown et. al.

(1972) puts it. They are:

(i) Completed decentralisation;

(ii)Centralisation of library material and services only;

(iii) Centralisation of separate library and audiovisual services;

(iv) Centralisation of media centre services.

(i) Complete Decentralisation

Under this management, there is no central resources and no specialised personnel. Here, The intending
users of resource materials go out to search and obtain what they Need. Spires (1974) described this
pattern of resources centre administration as “go and find out Yourself if you think its worthwhile”
approach. There is no gainsaying that any Administrative pattern where nobody is particularly in charge
will not facilitate the Achievement of the goals for which that establishment was set up.

(ii) Centralisation of Library Material and Services only

This concern the concentration of print materials (texts) in a centre usually referred to as
Library. A professionally trained librarian is usually in charge to administer the print
Resources.
(iii) Centralisation of Separate Library and Audiovisual Services
Under this arrangement, print resources and audiovisual resources are collected under one Roof. There
are professionally trained librarian and audiovisual media personnel to Handle the resources
respectively. In most cases, the audiovisual media personnel Function on part-time basis.

(iv) Centralisation of Media Centre Services

Under this arrangement, there is an integrated print and audiovisuals or non-text facilities And resource.
The emphasis here is on the application of instructional technology and Systematic, insightful uses of
materials as basic, supplementary element of instruction (Spires, 1974). The centre personnel are usually
media specialists and professionals who Are trained in the area of media utilisation and management of
a full range of instructional Media. We shall now discuss media personnel because the resource centre
services are Facilitated by human beings.

Media Personnel
Well trained and professionally qualified personnel are needed for the efficient, effective and Smooth
running of a media resources centre. There are four categories of media personnel Required in a media
centre:

(i) Media Specialist

(ii) Media Professionals
(iii) Media Aides
(iv) Media

(i) Media Specialist

The media specialist is the overall head of the centre. He is in charge of the day-to-day Management of
the centre’s resources. He is trained and has experience in curriculum Development. Usually, he is
designated the director of the centre and may hold a Postgraduate qualification in educational
technology. Therefore, he is qualified by Training and by experience.

His function in the centre includes:

(a)Seeing to the effective maintenance and repair of all the resources in the centre;

(b)Helping in curriculum design and development; Drawing up budget of the centre, organising
workshops, seminars and Conferences, providing training in developing and implementing media
utilisation Policies of the centre;

(c)Providing training opportunities for teachers and members of the community in The designing and use
of learning materials;

(d)Evaluating staff performance and recommending them for promotion.

(ii) Media Professionals

Media professionals are personnel of the resources centre that take charge of Routine

Maintenance and repair of the centre’s equipment and facilities. They include the Technician, the
photographer, the projectionists, etc. These usually are qualified by Experience but not by certification.
 (iii) Media Aides

These are officers of the centre whose functions are mainly supportive of the activities of The centre.
They include the storekeeper, clerks, confidential secretary, typist, gardener, Office assistants, the driver,
etc.

(iv) Media
Media Acquisition

There are four major modes for acquiring instructional resources, namely: purchasing, Borrowing,
sharing and production (Beswick, 1978).

Usually, most resource centres go for outright purchase of resource materials that the centre Need. But
the harsh economic condition is beginning to make managers of centres to think of Alternative ways of
making resources available to users. In the event of non-availability of the required instructional
materials, the resources centre’s Manager or director can establish contact with other sister institutions
to borrow what is required. An establishment of relationship with more than one sister instructional
resource centres creates network of resources centres which will ensure constant supply of materials
needed by a member of that network at any given time.

Production of instructional materials by teachers and students should be encouraged as a way of

acquiring and stocking the centre with needed resource materials. Though such materials may have
crude finishing, they may be more appropriate for instructional purpose because they are products of
appropriate technology. This means that they are cheap and need-serving. It is reported that some
teachers develop phobia when confronted with the use of sophisticated technology product. Beswick
(1975) reported that:

Successful Centres in Great Britain were

those which began by offering services

directly related to the day-to-day problems

of teachers… teachers sometimes withdraw

in alarm from centres whose gleaming hardwares bore little immediate relation to their

own problems as they saw them. (p. )

The major advantage of using local instructional resource is that the objective for which the materials
are made is the makers own so that the users characteristics are known and considered along, while
designing and developing the materials.

Criteria for Acquiring Instructional Resources

There are some criteria that should be considered before instructional resources are acquired by a
resources centre:

(1)Content of materials: The content of the material must be relevant to the need of the centre and the
benefiting community. It should be up-to-date and accurate. For example, if it is a text, the content must
reflect present day realities.
(2)The Purpose: The purpose for developing such material should meet the purpose for which it is being
acquired.

(3)Appropriateness: Are the materials appropriate? Are they easy to handle? Are they relevant to client
characteristics? Are they sophisticated to the extent that users will have to undergo specific training
before they could use them? Are they suitable for various audience sizes? These are pertinent questions
that need to be answered before deciding to acquire such materials.

(4)Cost: To acquire materials, the centre’s director must ensure that all material acquired have cost
benefit. For example, is it appropriate to buy a multimedia projector or a video projector? Which is more
relevant to the users? Will the budget of the centre not be adversely affected? Can the centre afford the
cost at the expense of the material? Can the centre afford to maintain the department in case of any
damage to it?

(5) Technical Quality: There are various types of equipment and materials in the Market With varying
qualities. In the recent past, the Japanese products were more Favoured Because of their relatively high
technical qualities, ease of maintenance and repair And Cheaper cost over some European products.
Today, even though the various Japanese Products are still recognised for their high technical qualities,
products from different Sources of manufacture are available in the market and are competing most
Effectively With the Japanese products.

The onus is however on the centre’s director or manager to decide on what product or acquire Based on
known criteria and priorities of the users.