CHAPTER 3 THE MOLE CONCEPT, CHEMICAL FORMULA AND

CHEMICAL EQUATION

3.1 Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Molecular Mass

1. The mass of an atom is very small that is cannot be measured directly on a balance.
2. The mass of an atom is obtained by comparing its mass with another atom which is taken
as a standard. The mass obtained is called relative atomic mass.
3. During 19th century, hydrogen atom was chosen as the standard atom.
(a) The lightest atom.
(b) The mass of hydrogen atom is one unit.
No longer used because
(a) Hydrogen is a gas at room temperature.
(b) Hydrogen consists of 3 isotopes H-1, H-2, and H-3 with different masses.
(b) The average relative atomic mass of hydrogen is more than one.
4. Later on, the oxygen atom was chosen as the standard atom.
(a) Oxygen consists of 3 isotopes O-16, O-17, and O-18.
No longer used because
(a) Physicist used O-16 isotope.
(b) Chemists used the average mass of the 3 isotopes of oxygen.
5. Finally in 1961, the International Unions of chemists and physicist agreed to use carbon-12
as the new standard. Carbon-12 was chosen as the standard atom because:
(a) C-12 is a solid at room temperature and can be easily handled.
(b) The average mass of the three isotopes of carbon (C-12, C-13, and C-14) is still 12.00
units./
Has accurate mass of 12.00 g.

Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)

𝟏
The average mass of one atom of the element compared to of the mass of one carbon-12
𝟏𝟐
atom.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
1
12 × 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 − 12 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

Relative atomic mass does not have any unit.

Example:
The relative atomic mass of a helium atom is 4. This means that average mass of one atom of
1
helium is 4 times heavier than the mass of of carbon-12 atom.
12

Relative Molecular Mass (RMM)

𝟏
The average mass of the molecule compared to of the mass mass of one carbon-12 atom.
𝟏𝟐
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
1
12 × 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 − 12 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

Example:
The relative molecular mass of water molecule, H2O is 18. This means the average mass of a
1
water molecule is 18 times heavier than the mass of of carbon-12 atom.
12

MAU1
Relative Formula Mass (RFM)
The relative mass for ionic substances.

Example:
The relative formula mass of an ionic substance such as sodium chloride is 58.5. This means
1
that the mass of one sodium chloride is 58.5 times heavier than the mass of of carbon-12
12
atom.

Calculation involving RAM, RMM and RFM of substances

1. Calculate the relative molecular mass and relative formula mass of
[RAM : H =1; Cl = 35.5; Na = 23; C = 12; O = 16; Al = 27; Cu = 64; N = 14; Br = 80; Pb = 207;
S = 32; Co = 59]

(a) Hydrochloric acid, HCl (molecule) (b) Aluminium nitrate, Al(NO3)3 (Al3+, NO3- ion)
RMM = 1 + 35.5 RFM = 27 + 3(14) + 9(16)
= 36.5 = 213
(c) Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 (d) Hydrated copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4.5H2O
(Na+, CO32- ion) (Cu2+, SO42- ion)
RFM = 2(23) + 12 + 3(16) RFM = 64 + 32 + 4(16) + 10(1) + 5(16)
= 106 = 250

(e) Bromine, Br2 (molecule) (f) Nitrogen dioxide, NO2 (molecule)

RMM = 2(80) RMM = 14 + 2(16)
= 160 = 46

(g) Copper (II) hydroxide, Cu(OH)2 (h) Glucose, C6H12O6 (molecule)

(Cu2+, OH- ion) RMM = 6(12) + 12(1) + 6(16)
RFM = 64 + 2(16) + 2(1) = 180
= 98

(i) Lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4 (j) Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4

(Pb2+, SO42- ion) (NH4+, SO42- ion)
RFM = 207 + 32 + 4(16) RFM = 2(14) + 8(1) + 32 + 4(16)
= 303 = 132

(k) Sulphur, S8 (molecule) (l) Hydrated cobalt (II) chloride, CoCl2.6H2O

RMM = 8(32) (Co2+, Cl- ion)
= 256 RFM = 59 + 2(35.5) + 12(1) + 6(16)
= 238

2. A molecule of compound B is 13.25 times heavier than the mass of a C-12 atom.
Calculate its relative molecular mass.
RMM of compound B = 13.25 x 12
= 159

3. Calculate how many times heavier a lead atom is from a carbon atom.
[RAM : Pb = 207; C = 12]
207
Number of times =
12
= 17.25
MAU2
4. A compound has the formula NaXO3. The relative molecular mass of the compound is 151. Find
the relative atomic mass of X. [RAM : Na = 23; O = 16]
NaXO3 = 151
23 + X + 3(16) = 151
X = 151 – 23 – 48
X = 80

5. Calculate how many carbon atoms will have the same mass as 1 silver atom.
[RAM : C = 12; Ag = 108]
108
Number of carbon =
12
= 9 atoms

6. The mass of a krypton atom is equal to the sum of two magnesium atoms and three carbon
atoms. What is the relative atomic mass of krypton?
[RAM: C =12; Mg = 24]
RAM of krypton = 2 Mg + 3 C
= 2 (24) + 3 (12)
= 84

7. The relative atomic mass of element X, Y and Z are 12, 16 and 24 respectively.
(a) How many times is an atom of Z heavier than an atom of Y?
(b) How many atoms of X will have the same mass as the sum of three atoms of Y and two
atoms of Z?
24
(a) Number of times =
16
= 1.5

(b) Mass of X = 3 Y + 2 Z
= 3 (16) + 2 (24)
= 96
96
Number of atoms =
12
= 8 atoms

8. Vitamin B2 has the formula C17H24N4Ox. If its relative molecular mass is 380, determine the
value of x. Then write the molecular formula of vitamin B2.
[RAM : H = 1; C = 12; N = 14; O = 16]

C17H24N4Ox = 380
17(12) + 24(1) + 4(14) + x(16) = 380
204 + 24 + 56 + 16x = 380
16x = 380 – 204 – 24 – 56
16x = 96
96
x=
16
x=6
Formula of Vitamin B2 = C17H24N4O6

MAU3
3.2 Mole Concept
Number of moles and number of particles
What is a mole?
A mole is an amount of substance that contains the same number of particles in exactly 12g of
carbon-12 which is 6.02 x 1023 particles.
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 particles (Avogadro Constant)

What is Avogadro Constant, NA?

The Avogadro Constant, NA is the number of particles (atom, molecule or ion) in one mole of
a substance.

Example:
If one mole of a substance contains 6.02 x 1023 particles, then
(a) one mole of Na contains 6.02 x 1023 sodium atoms
(b) one mole of Na+ contains 6.02 x 1023 sodium ions
(c) one mole of NaCl contains 6.02 x 1023 sodium ions, Na+ and 6.02 x 1023 chloride ions, Cl−
(d) one mole of H2O contains 6.02 x 1023 water molecules.

Calculation involving the number of moles and the number of particles

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 =
𝑵𝑨

1. Calculate the number of moles of the following substances:

[NA: 6 x 1023 mol−1]

(a) 1.5 x 1024 atoms of silver, Ag

Number of particles
Number of mole =
NA
1.5×1024
=
6×1023

= 2.5 mol
(b) 3 x 10 oxide ions, O2−
22
Number of particles
n=
NA
3×1022
=
6×1023

= 0.05 mol
(c) 4.5 x 1023 nitrogen molecules, N2
Number of particles
n=
NA
4.5×1023
=
6×1023

= 0.75 mol

MAU4
2. Calculate the number of particles in:
[NA: 6 x 1023 mol−1]

(a) 3.5 mol lead, Pb (b) 0.5 mol lead (II) ions, Pb2+
Number of particles = Number of mole × NA Number of particles = n × NA
= 3.5 × 6 × 1023 = 0.5 × 6 × 1023
= 2.1 × 1024 atoms = 3 × 1023 ions

(c) 0.25 mol carbon dioxide, CO2 (d) 1.5 mol of sodium chloride, NaCl
Number of particles = n × NA Number of particles = n × NA
= 0.25 × 6 × 1023 = 1.5 × 6 × 1023
= 1.5 × 1023 molecules = 9 × 1023 ions

3. Find the number of atoms in:

[NA: 6 x 1023 mol−1]

(a) 1.5 mol of chlorine gas, Cl2 (2 Cl) (b) 0.75 mol of nitrogen dioxide, NO2
Number of atoms = Number of mole × NA (1N 2O)
= 1.5 × 6 × 1023 × 2 Number of atoms = n × NA

= 1.8 × 1024 atoms = 0.75 × 6 × 1023 × 3

= 1.35 × 1024 atoms

(c) 2 mol of ammonia, NH3 (1N 3H) (d) 1 mol of aluminium, Al (1 Al)
Number of atoms = n × NA Number of atoms = n × NA
= 2 × 6 × 1023 × 4 = 1 × 6 × 1023 × 1
= 4.8 × 1024 atoms = 6 × 1023 atoms

MAU5
Number of Moles and Mass of Substances
What is molar mass?
1. Molar mass is the mass of one mole of substance.
2. The molar mass of a substance = The mass of 1 mol of the substance
= The mass of 6.02 x 1023 particles
3. The unit of molar mass is grams per mole or g mol−1.
4. The value of molar mass of an element is equal to its relative atomic mass.
Example: RAM of He = 4; Molar mass of He = 4 g mol−1
5. The value of molar mass of a compound is equal to its relative molecular or formula mass.
Example: RMM of H2O = 18; Molar mass of H2O = 18 g mol−1
RFM of NaCl = 58.5; Molar mass of NaCl = 58.5 g mol−1

Calculation involving the number of moles and the mass of substances

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔(𝒈)
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔(𝒈𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏 )

1. Find the number of moles in:

[RAM : Cu = 64; H = 1; C = 12; O = 16]
(a) 31.5 g copper, Cu (b) 45 g ethane gas, C2H6
mass mass
Number of mole = n=
molar mass molar mass
31.5 45
= =
64 2(12)+6(1)

= 0.49 mol = 1.5 mol

(c) 32 g oxygen atom, O (d) 16 g oxygen gas, O2
mass mass
n= n=
molar mass molar mass
32 16
= =
16 2(16)

= 2 mol = 0.5 mol

2. Calculate the mass of the following

[RAM : Cl = 35.5; C = 12; O = 16; N = 14; H = 1; Mg = 24]
1
(a) 0.3 mol chlorine atom, Cl (b) mol of carbon dioxide, CO2
8
Mass = Number of mole × molar mass
Mass = n × molar mass
= 0.3 × 35.5 1
= × [12 + 2(16)]
8
= 10.65 g
= 5.5 g
(c) 3.2 mol ammonia gas, NH3 (d) 0.25 mol of magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2
Mass = n × molar mass Mass = n × molar mass
= 3.2 × [14 + 3(1)] = 0.25 × [24 + 2(16) + 2(1)]
= 54.4 g = 14.5 g

MAU6
Number of Moles and the Volume of Gases
What is molar volume?
1. The molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at a particular
temperature and pressure.
2. The molar volume of gas is 22.4 dm3 mol−1 at STP (standard temperature, 0°C and pressure,
1atm) or 24 dm3 mol−1 at room conditions (25°C, 1atm)

Calculation involving the number of moles and the volume of gases

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒔(𝒅𝒎𝟑 )
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆(𝒅𝒎𝟑 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏 )

𝟏 𝒅𝒎𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑

1. Calculate the number of moles of gas at STP:

[Molar volume: 22.4 dm3 mol−1 at STP]
(a) 5.6 dm3 of oxygen gas, O2 (b) 448 cm3 of nitrogen gas, N2
volume volume
Number of mole = n=
molar volume molar volume
5.6 0.448
= =
22.4 22.4

= 0.25 mol = 0.02 mol

2. Calculate the number of moles of gas at room conditions:

[Molar volume: 24 dm3 mol−1 at room conditions]
(a) 0.72 dm3 of ammonia gas, NH3 (b) 480 cm3 of carbon dioxide gas, CO2
volume volume
Number of mole = n=
molar volume molar volume
0.72 0.48
= =
24 24
= 0.03 mol = 0.02 mol

3. Calculate the volume occupied by the following gasses at STP:

[Molar volume: 22.4 dm3 mol−1 at STP]
(a) 3.5 mol of nitrogen dioxide gas, NO2 (b) 0.125 mol of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2
Volume = n × molar volume Volume = n × molar volume
= 3.5 × 22.4 = 0.125 × 22.4
= 78.4 dm3 = 2.8 dm3

4. Calculate the volume occupied by the following gasses at room conditions:

[Molar volume: 24 dm3 mol−1 at room conditions]
(a) 0.05 mol of nitrogen gas, N2 (b) 1.5 mol of hydrogen gas, H2
Volume = n × molar volume Volume = n × molar volume
= 0.05 × 24 = 1.5 × 24
3
= 1.2 dm = 36 dm3

MAU7
Calculation involving the number of mole, number of particles, mass of substances and
volume of gases

Formulae to remember:
Number of particles
1. Number of mole = ; Number of particles = n × NA
NA
mass
2. Number of mole = ; Mass = n × molar mass
molar mass
volume
3. Number of mole = ; Volume = n × molar volume
molar volume

1. Calculate the number of particles in

[RAM: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16; Pb = 207; NA = 6 x 1023 mol−1; 1 mole gas occupies 24 dm3 at
room conditions]
(a) 0.44g carbon dioxide, CO2
mass
Number of mole = Number of particles = n × NA
molar mass
0.44
= = 0.01 × 6 × 1023
12+2(16)
= 0.01 mol = 6 × 1021 molecules
(b) 372.6g lead, Pb
mass
Number of mole = Number of particles = n × NA
molar mass
372.6
= = 1.8 × 6 × 1023
207
= 1.8 mol = 1.08 × 1024 atoms
(c) 6 dm3 of ethane, C2H6 at 25°C
volume
Number of mole = Number of particles = n × NA
molar volume
6
= = 0.25 × 6 × 1023
24
= 0.25 mol = 1.5 × 1023 molecules

2. Find the mass of the following:

[RAM: H = 1; N = 14; O = 16; Ag = 108; NA = 6 x 1023 mol−1;1 mole gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at
STP]
(a) 1.56 x 1023 atoms of silver, Ag
Number of particles
Number of mole = Mass = n × molar mass
NA
1.56×1023
= = 0.26 × 108
6×1023
= 0.26 mol = 28.08 g
22
(b) 1.2 x 10 molecules of nitrogen dioxide, NO2
Number of particles
Number of mole = Mass = n × molar mass
NA
1.2×1022
= = 0.02 × [14 + 2(16)]
6×1023
= 0.02 mol = 0.92 g
(c) 180 cm3 of hydrogen, H2 at STP
volume
Number of mole = Mass = n × molar mass
molar volume
0.18
= = 0.008 × [2(1)]
22.4
= 0.008 mol = 0.016 g

MAU8
3. Calculate the volume occupied by the following gases:
[RAM: C = 12; O = 16; NA = 6 x 1023 mol−1; 1 mole gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at STP;
1 mole gas occupies 24 dm3 at room conditions]
(a) 2.8g carbon monoxide, CO at STP
mass
Number of mole = Volume = n × molar volume
molar mass
2.8
= = 0.1 × 22.4
12+16

= 0.1 mol = 2.24 dm3

(b) 1.5 x 1023 molecules of oxygen, O2 at room conditions
Number of particles
Number of mole = Volume = n × molar volume
NA
1.5×1023
= = 0.25 × 24
6×1023

= 0.25 mol = 6 dm3

4. Calculate the number of atoms in:

[RAM : Mg = 24; C = 12; N = 14; O =16; NA = 6 x 1023 mol−1 ; 1 mole gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at
STP; 1 mole gas occupies 24 dm3 at room conditions]
(a) 1.2 dm3 of methane, CH4 at room conditions
volume
Number of mole = Number of atoms = n × NA
molar volume
1.2
= = 0.05 × 6 × 1023 × 5
24

= 0.05 mol = 1.5 × 1023 atoms

(b) 240 cm3 of dinitrogen oxide, N2O at STP
volume
Number of mole = Number of atoms = n × NA
molar volume
0.24
= = 0.011 × 6 × 1023 × 3
22.4

= 0.011 mol = 1.98 × 1022 atoms

(c) 1.2g of magnesium, Mg
mass
Number of mole = Number of atoms = n × NA
molar mass
1.2
= = 0.05 × 6 × 1023 × 1
24

= 0.05 mol = 3 × 1022 atoms

5. Calculate the number of nitrate ion in 3.76g copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2.

[RAM: Cu = 64; N =14; O =16; NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol−1]
mass
Number of mole = Number of nitrate ions = n × NA
molar mass
3.76
= = 0.02 × 6.02 × 1023 × 2
64+2(14)+6(16)

= 0.02 mol = 2.408 × 1022 ions

MAU9
3.3 Chemical Formulae

What is chemical formula?

1. Chemical formula is a representation of a chemical substance using alphabets to represent
the atoms and subscript numbers to show the number of each type of atoms found in the
elementary entities of the substance.
(Using International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, IUPAC nomenclature)
2. There are two types of chemical formula:
(a) Empirical formula
(b) Molecular formula

What is empirical formula?

Chemical formula that shows the simplest ratio of atoms of each element in a compound.

What is molecular formula?

Chemical formula that shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a compound.

Exercises:
1. Give the empirical formulae of the following substances:
Compound Molecular formula Empirical formula
(a) nitrogen dioxide NO2 NO2
(b) ethanoic acid CH3COOH (C2H4O2 ÷ 2) CH2O
(c) pentane C5H12 C5H12
(d) propene C3H6 (÷ 3) CH2
(e) propyl propanoate C2H5COOC3H7 (C6H12O2 ÷ 2) C3H6O
(f) hydrazine N2H4 (÷ 2) NH2
(g) tetrafluoroethane C2F4 (÷ 2) CF2
(h) benzene C6H6 (÷ 6) CH
(i) glucose C6H12O6 (÷ 6) CH2O

Calculation of Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula

Guide:
Molecular formula = (Empirical formula)n
Therefore,
n(RMM of empirical formula) = relative molecular mass
(a) 0.32g of metal X combines with 0.36g of (b) In an experiment, a metal P combines with
non-metal Y. What is the empirical formula 4.32g oxygen to form 13.68g of a metal oxide
of this compound? of P. Find the empirical formula of the metal
[RAM: X = 64; Y = 35.5] oxide. [RAM: P = 52; O = 16]
Element X Y Element P O
Mass(g) 0.32 0.36 Mass(g) 13.68 – 4.32 = 9.36 4.32
Number 0.32 0.36 Number 9.36 4.32
of mole 64 35.5 of mole 52 16
= 0.005 = 0.01 = 0.18 = 0.27
Simplest 0.005 0.01 Simplest 0.18 0.27
ratio 0.005 0.005 ratio 0.18 0.18
=1 =2 =1x2=2 = 1.5 x 2 = 3
Empirical formula = XY2 Empirical formula = P2O3

MAU10
(c) Hydrocarbon X has a composition of C, (d) A sulphur oxide contains 60% of oxygen
85.71%; and H, 14.29%. What is the based on its mass. What is the empirical
empirical formula of this hydrocarbon? formula of this sulphur oxide?
[RAM: C = 12; H = 1] [RAM: S = 32; O = 16]
Element C H Element S O
Mass(g) 85.71 14.29 Mass(g) 100 – 60 = 60
Number 85.71 14.29 40
of mole 12 1 Number 40 60
= 7.14 = 14.29 of mole 32 16
Simplest 7.14 14.29 = 1.25 = 3.75
ratio 7.14 7.14 Simplest 1.25 3.75
=1 =2 ratio 1.25 1.25
=1 =3
Empirical formula = CH2
Empirical formula = SO3
(e) An element T combines with chlorine to (f) A metal oxide, M2O3 is formed when 5.4g of
form a compound TClx. Calculate the value the metal M combines with m gram of oxygen.
of X if 2.24g of element T combines with Find the value of m. [RAM: O = 16; M = 27]
11.36g of chlorine.
[RAM: T = 28; Cl =35.5] Element M O
Element T Cl Mass(g) 5.4 m
Mass(g) 2.24 11.36 Number 5.4 m
Number 2.24 11.36 of mole 27 16
of mole 28 35.5 = 0.2
= 0.08 = 0.32 Simplest 2 3
Simplest 0.08 0.32 ratio
ratio 0.08 0.08
=1 =4 m
(2) = 0.2(3)
Empirical formula = TCl4 16
m
= 0.6
TClx = TCl4 8
x=4 m = 0.6 × 8
m = 4.8 g

(g) A metal oxide, XO2, contains 63.22% of the metal X by mass. Calculate the relative atom mass
of the metal X. [RAM: O = 16]
63.22 36.78
Element X O (2) = (1)
Mass(g) 63.22 100 – 63.22 = 36.78 𝑥 16
63.22 36.78 𝑥 16
Number =
of mole 126.44 36.78
X 16 16
𝑥 = 36.78 × 126.44
Simplest 1 2 𝑥 = 55
ratio

MAU11
(h) The percentage composition of the elements in hydrate copper(II) sulphate is as follows:
Cu = 25.6%; S = 12.8%; O = 25.6%; H2O = 36%
Find the empirical formula of the hydrated salt.
[RAM: Cu =64; S = 32; O = 16; H = 1]
Element Cu S O H2 O
Mass(g) 25.6 12.8 25.6 36
Number 25.6 12.8 25.6 36
of mole 64 32 16 2(1) + 16
= 0.4 = 0.4 = 1.6 =2
Simplest 0.4 0.4 1.6 2
ratio 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
=1 =1 =4 =5
Empirical formula = CuSO4 . 5H2O

(i) 0.36g of carbon combines with 0.06g of hydrogen to form a hydrocarbon. The relative molecular
mass of the hydrocarbon is 42. Calculate the
(a) empirical formula of the hydrocarbon
(b) molecular formula of the hydrocarbon
[RAM: C = 12; H = 1]
Element C H (a) Empirical formula = CH2
Mass(g) 0.36 0.06 (b) Molecular formula = (CH2)n
Number 0.36 0.06 n [12 + 2(1)] = 42
of mole 12 1 n (14) = 42
42
= 0.03 = 0.06 n=
14
Simplest 0.03 0.06 n=3
ratio 0.03 0.03 Molecular formula = (CH2)3
=1 =2 = C 3 H6

(j) A compound CxHyOz contains 40% carbon and 53.3% oxygen. If the relative molecular mass of
the compound is 180, find its
(a) empirical formula
(b) molecular formula
[RAM : H = 1; C = 12; O = 16]
Element C H O (a) Empirical formula = CH2O
Mass(g) 40 100 – 40 – 53.3 53.3 (b) Molecular formula = (CH2O)n
= 6.7 n [12 + 2(1) + 16] = 180
Number 40 6.7 53.3 n (30) = 180
of mole 180
12 1 16 n=
= 3.33 = 6.7 = 3.33 30

3.33 6.7 3.33 n=6

Simplest
Molecular formula = (CH2O)6
ratio 3.33 3.33 3.33 = C6H12O6
=1 =2 =1

MAU12
Activity: To determine empirical formula of copper(II) oxide
Materials : Water, copper(II) oxide powder, zinc granules, 1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid,
wooden splinter and cotton buds
Apparatus : Boiling tube, rubber stoppers, rubber tube, 12 cm glass tube, 10 cm glass tube,
spirit lamp, retort stand with clamp, wooden block, electronic balance and spatula
Procedure :

1. Weigh the mass of 12 cm glass tube using an electronic balance and record its mass.
2. Put some copper(II) oxide powder into the glass tube. Use the wooden splinter to move
copper(II) oxide powder to the middle of the glass tube. Weigh and record the mass of the
glass tube with its contents.
3. Fill 2/3 of the boiling tube with water.
4. Close the boiling tube with a rubber stopper that has a 12 cm glass tube. Clamp the boiling
tube onto the retort stand.
5. Insert a few zinc granules into another boiling tube. Add 1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid into
the boiling tube until it is 1/3 full.
6. Close the boiling tube with a rubber stopper that has a 10 cm glass tube. Clamp the boiling
tube onto the other retort stand.
7. Connect the glass tube that contains copper(II) oxide powder with boiling tubes.
8. Let the hydrogen gas flow for 10 seconds by allowing the air bubbles to be released in the
water before starting the heating process.
9. Heat copper(II) oxide using a spirit lamp with a continuous flow of hydrogen gas through
the glass tube.
10. Stop the heating when the black colour of copper(II) oxide turns brown completely.
11. Keep a continuous flow of hydrogen gas until the glass tube is cooled back to room
temperature.
12. Remove the glass tube that contains brown powder. Eliminate water drops at the end of the
glass tube with a cotton bud.
13. Weigh and record the mass of the glass tube with its contents again.
14. Repeat the process of heating, cooling and weighing until a constant mass is obtained.
Record the constant mass obtained.
Observation :
Observation Inference
1. Copper(II) oxide glows. The reaction occurs between copper(II) oxide
and hydrogen gas.
2. The colour of copper(II) oxide changes The copper metal is formed.
from black to brown.
3. Colourless liquid droplets are formed at the Water is formed.
end of the tube.

MAU13
Results:
Description Mass(g)
Glass tube x (26.69)
Glass tube + copper(II) oxide y (28.69)
Glass tube + copper z (28.29)
Copper z – x (28.29 – 26.69 = 1.60)
Oxygen y – z (28.69 – 28.29 = 0.40)

Calculation:
[Relative atomic mass: O = 16; Cu = 64]
Element Copper, Cu Oxygen, O
Mass (g) z – x (1.60) y – z (0.40)
Number of moles 𝑧 − 𝑥 1.60 𝑦 − 𝑧 0.40
( = 0.025) ( = 0.025)
64 64 16 16
Simplest ratio 0.025 0.025
r ( = 1) s( = 1)
0.025 0.025

Therefore, the empirical formula of copper(II) oxide is CurOs. (CuO)

Discussion:
1. (a) What is the purpose of using zinc granules and hydrochloric acid in this activity?
To produce hydrogen gas.
(b) Write the chemical equation for the reaction that occurs.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
2. Why does the hydrogen gas need to flow continuously for a while before starting the
heating process?
To remove all the air in the glass tube.
3. Why the air in the glass tube must be totally removed?
A mixture of hydrogen gas and air can cause an explosion when ignited
4. Why the hydrogen gas is allowed to flow until the product of heating is cooled to room
temperature?
To prevent air from entering the apparatus and cause the hot copper is oxidised back to
copper(II) oxide.
5. Why the process of heating, cooling and weighing are repeated until a constant mass is
obtained?
To ensure that all copper(II) oxide completely changed to copper.
6. State one other precautionary step while carrying out this activity.
All connections must be tight
7. What is the empirical formula of copper(II) oxide?
CuO
8. Write a chemical equation for the reaction between copper(II) oxide and hydrogen gas.
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
9. The empirical formula of copper(II) oxide cannot be determined by heating copper with air.
Why?
Copper is less reactive metal
10. State the name of another metal oxide whose empirical formula can be determined using the
same method. Explain why.
Silver oxide/lead(II) oxide/tin(II) oxide. Silver/Lead/Tin is less reactive metal.

MAU14
Activity: To determine empirical formula of magnesium oxide
Aim : To determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide
Materials : 10 cm magnesium ribbon and sandpaper
Apparatus : Crucible with lid, tongs, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, pipe-clay triangle
Procedure :

1. Weigh and record the mass of a crucible with its lid.

2. Rub the 10 cm magnesium ribbon with sandpaper until shiny. Coil the magnesium ribbon
and put it in the crucible.
3. Weigh and recod the mass of the crucible with its lid and its contents.
4. Heat the crucible with a strong flame without its lid.
5. When the magnesium ribbon starts to burn, close the crucible with its lid.
6. Use a pair tongs to lift the lid slightly from time to time and quickly place it back.
7. When the burning is complete, remove the lid and heat the crucible strongly for 1 to 2
minutes.
8. Put back the lid of the crucible and allow it to cool down to room temperature.
9. Weigh and record the mass of the crucible with its lid and its contents again.
10. Repeat the process of heating, cooling and weighing until a constant mass is obtained.
Record the constant mass obtained.
Observation:
Observation Inference
1. White fume is released. 1. Magnesium oxide is formed.
2. White solid is formed when cooled
3. The mass of crucible and its content increases. 2. Magnesium reacts with oxygen.
Results:
Description Mass (g)
Crucible + lid x (26.48)
Crucible + lid + magnesium y (26.84)
Crucible + lid + magnesium oxide z (27.08)
Magnesium y – x (26.84 – 26.48 = 0.36)
Oxygen z – y (27.08 – 26.84 = 0.24)

Calculation:
[Relative atomic mass: O = 16; Mg =24]
Element Magnesium, Mg Oxygen, O
Mass (g) y – x (0.36) z – y (0.24)
Number of moles 𝑦 − 𝑥 0.36 𝑧 − 𝑦 0.24
( = 0.015) ( = 0.015)
24 24 16 16
Simplest ratio 0.015 0.015
r ( = 1) s ( = 1)
0.015 0.015

Therefore, the empirical formula of magnesium oxide is MgrOs. (MgO)

MAU15
Discussion:
1. Why was the magnesium ribbon cleaned with sandpaper before it is heated?
To remove the oxide layer on magnesium ribbon.
2. Why was the crucible covered with the lid as soon as the magnesium started burning?
To prevent the loss of white fumes / To prevent the white fumes from escaping.
3. Why was the lid lifted slightly from time to time during the heating?
To allow oxygen enter the crucible and reacts with magnesium.
4. When the magnesium ribbon is no longer burning, the lid is removed and the crucible is heated
strongly for 1 to 2 minutes. Why?
To ensure all magnesium ribbon completely reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
5. Why the process of heating, cooling and weighing are repeated until a constant mass is
obtained?
To ensure all magnesium ribbon completely reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
6. Give two reasons to explain why the empirical formula of magnesium oxide determined in this
activity does not agree with the expected formula (if any).
(i) The burning of magnesium is incomplete.
(ii) Part of the white fume of magnesium oxide has escaped to the surroundings.
7. What is the empirical formula of magnesium oxide?
MgO
8. Write a chemical equation for the reaction between magnesium and oxygen.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
9. The empirical formula of magnesium oxide cannot be determined by using hydrogen gas. Why?
Magnesium is more reactive than hydrogen.
10. State the name of another metal oxide whose empirical formula can be determined using the
same method. Explain why.
Aluminium oxide/zinc oxide. Aluminium/Zinc is more reactive than hydrogen.

Chemical formulae of ionic compounds

MAU16
State the Chemical Formulae of ionic compound
(1) sodium chloride (25) barium nitrate (49) sodium manganate(VII)
Na+ Cl- : NaCl Ba2+ NO3- : Ba(NO3)2 Na+ MnO4- : NaMnO4
(2) zinc bromide (26) sodium hydroxide (50) magnesium manganate(VII)
Zn2+ Br- : ZnBr2 Na+ OH- : NaOH Mg2+ MnO4- : Mg(MnO4)2
(3) aluminium bromide (27) sodium carbonate (51) potassium dichromate(VI)
Al3+ Br- : AlBr3 Na+ CO3- : Na2CO3 K+ Cr2O72- : K2Cr2O7
(4) copper(II) iodide (28) barium hydroxide (52) copper(II) hydroxide
Cu2+ I- : CuI2 Ba2+ OH- : Ba(OH)2 Cu2+ OH- : Cu(OH)2
(5) silver iodide (29) ammonium chloride (53) magnesium nitrate
Ag+ I- : AgI NH4+ Cl- : NH4Cl Mg2+ NO3- : Mg(NO3)2
(6) silver sulphate (30) sodium phosphate (54) magnesium hydroxide
Ag+ SO42- : (Ag)2SO4 Na+ PO43- : (Na)3PO4 Mg2+ OH- : Mg(OH)2
(7) potassium hydroxide (31) calcium chloride (55) ammonium thiosulpahte
K+ OH- : KOH Ca2+ Cl- : CaCl2 NH4+ S2O32- : (NH4)2S2O3
(8) ammonium nitrate (32) aluminium phosphate (56) iron(II) hydroxide
NH4+ NO3- : NH4NO3 Al3+ PO43- : AlPO4 Fe2+ OH- : Fe(OH)2
(9) calcium oxide (33) ammonium bromide (57) lead(IV) hydroxide
Ca2+ O2- : CaO NH4+ Br- : NH4Br Pb4+ OH- : Pb(OH)4
(10) magnesium carbonate (34) aluminium chloride (58) lead(IV) thiosulphate
Mg2+ CO3- : MgCO3 Al3+ Cl- : AlCl3 Pb4+ S2O32- : Pb(S2O3)2
(11) zinc sulphate (35) aluminium nitrate (59) ammonium manganate(VII)
Zn2+ SO42- : ZnSO4 Al3+ NO3- : Al(NO3)3 NH4+ MnO4- : NH4MnO4
(12) barium chromate(VI) (36) aluminium sulphate (60) lead(IV) nitrate
Ba2+ CrO42- : BaCrO4 Al3+ SO42- : Al2(SO4)3 Pb4+ NO3- : Pb(NO3)4
(13) iron(II) thiosulphate (37) mercury(II) chloride (61) lead(IV) carbonate
Fe2+ S2O32- : FeS2O3 Hg2+ Cl- : HgCl2 Pb4+ CO32- : Pb(CO3)2
(14) barium carbonate (38) aluminium carbonate (62) iron(II) carbonate
Ba2+ CO32- : BaCO3 Al3+ CO32- : Al2(CO3)3 Fe2+ CO32- : FeCO3
(15) lead(II) chloride (39) copper(II) thiosulphate (63) iron(III) thiosulphate
Pb2+ Cl- : PbCl2 Cu2+ S2O32- : CuS2O3 Fe3+ S2O32- : Fe2(S2O3)3
(16) lead(IV) chloride (40) copper(II) sulphate (64) aluminium thiosulphate
Pb4+ Cl- : PbCl4 Cu2+ SO42- : CuSO4 Al3+ S2O32- : Al2(S2O3)3
(17) tin(II) oxide (41) copper(II) phosphate (65) iron(III) carbonate
Sn2+ O2- : SnO Cu2+ PO43- : Cu3(PO4)2 Fe3+ CO32- : Fe2(CO3)3
(18) tin(IV) oxide (42) copper(II) chloride (66) potassium carbonate
Sn4+ O2- : SnO2 Cu2+ Cl- : CuCl2 K+ CO32- : K2CO3
(19) aluminium oxide (43) magnesium phosphate (67) silver manganate(VII)
Al3+ O2- : Al2O3 Mg2+ PO43- : Mg3(PO4)2 Ag+ MnO4- : AgMnO4
(20) chromium(III) iodide (44) barium sulphate (68) potassium thiosulphate
Cr3+ I- : CrI3 Ba2+ SO42- : BaSO4 K+ S2O32- : K2S2O3
(21) lead(II) sulphate (45) copper(II) carbonate (69) iron(II) ethanoate
Pb2+ SO42- : PbSO4 Cu2+ CO32- : CuCO3 Fe2+ CH3COO- : (CH3COO)2Fe
(22) sodium sulphate (46) magnesium sulphate (70) iron(III) ethanoate
Na+ SO42- : Na2SO4 Mg2+ SO42- : MgSO4 Fe3+ CH3COO- : (CH3COO)3Fe
(23) sodium thiosulphate (47) magnesium chloride (71) zinc ethanoate
Na+ S2O32- : Na2S2O3 Mg2+ Cl- : MgCl2 Zn2+ CH3COO- : (CH3COO)2Zn
(24) zinc carbonate (48) magnesium bromide (72) aluminium ethanoate
Zn2+ CO32- : ZnCO3 Mg2+ Br- : MgBr2 Al3+ CH3COO- : (CH3COO)3Al

MAU17
Naming of chemical compounds
Ionic compounds:
the name of the cation is written first followed by the name of the anion.
Example:
Formula Cation Anion Name
NaBr Sodium ion Bromide ion Sodium bromide
FeCl2 Iron(II) ion Chloride ion Iron(II) chloride
Mg(NO3)2 Magnesium ion Nitrate ion Magnesium nitrate

Molecular compounds:
The more electropositive element is named first followed by the name of the more electronegative
element. The name of the first element remains the same while the second element ends with
‘ide’. Greek prefixes are used to represent the number of atoms of each element in simple
molecular compounds.

Example:
Formula Name Greek prefixes:
CO Carbon monoxide mono – 1 tetra – 4
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide di – 2 pent – 5
SO3 Sulphur trioxide tri – 3 hex – 6

Exercises:
1. Name the ionic compounds with the following formulae:
(a) CaCl2 (b) Na2SO4
Calcium chloride Sodium sulphate
(c) KBr (d) CuCO3
Potassium bromide Copper(II) carbonate

2. Name the molecular compounds with the following formulae:

(a) NO (b) BF3
Nitrogen monoxide Boron trifluoride
(c) CCl4 (d) CS2
Carbon tetrachloride Carbon disulphide

MAU18
3.4 Chemical Equation

What is chemical equation?

A representation of a chemical reaction between reactant and their product.

Interpreting Chemical Equation Qualitatively and Quantitatively

Qualitative Type of reactants and products involved in the chemical equation and the
aspect their physical states.
Quantitative Number of moles of reactants and products involved in the chemical
aspect reaction that is the coefficients in a balanced equation of the formulae of
reactants and products.

Example 1:
Solid carbon reacts with oxygen gas to give carbon dioxide gas.
Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
Word equation
Reactant Product
Chemical equation C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Interpret the equation 1 mol of carbon solid reacts with 1 mol of oxygen gas
qualitative and to produce 1 mole of carbon dioxide gas
quantitative

Example 2:
Magnesium ribbon is added into hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium chloride solution and
hydrogen gas.
Word equation Magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Chemical equation Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Interpret the equation 1 mol of magnesium solid reacts with 2 mol of hydrochloric acid
qualitative and to produce 1 mole of magnesium chloride solution and 1 mol of
quantitative hydrogen gas

Exercises:
1. Balance the following equations:
(a) CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

(b) 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)

(c) Mg(s) + 2 HNO3(aq) → Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2(g)

(d) Cl2(g) + 2 NaBr(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + Br2(l)

(e) 3 CuO(s) + 2 Al(s) → Al2O3(s) + 3 Cu(s)

3
(f) 2 Na(s) + ½ O2(g) → Na2O(s)

(g) C2H6(g) + 7/2 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(l)

(h) Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbO(s) + 2 NO2(g) + ½ O2(g)

MAU19
/
2. Write a balance chemical equation of the following reactions:
a) Butene, C4H8, is heated in air to produce carbon dioxide and water.
C4H8 + 6O2 → 4CO2 + 4H2O
b) Ammonia gas, NH3 reacts with copper(II) oxide to produce copper, nitrogen and water.
2NH3 + 3CuO → 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O
c) Aluminum reacts with iron(III) oxide to give iron and aluminum oxide.
2Al + Fe2O3 → 2Fe + Al2O3
d) Magnesium carbonate produces magnesium nitrate, carbon dioxide and water
when dilute nitric acid is added to it.
MgCO3 + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
e) Barium chloride and potassium sulphate react to give barium sulphate (a precipitate)
and potassium chloride solution.
BaCl2 + K2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2KCl
f) Hydrochloric acid reacts with lithium hydroxide to produce lithium chloride and water.
HCl + LiOH→ LiCl + H2O
g) Sulphuric acid reacts with potassium hydroxide to produce potassium sulphate and water.
H2SO4+ 2KOH → K2SO4 + 2H2O
h) Solid carbon reacts with oxygen gas to produce carbon monoxide.
C + ½ O2 → CO / 2C + O2 → 2CO
i) When zinc nitrate is heated, it decomposes into zinc oxide, nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen
gas.
Zn(NO3)2 → ZnO + 2NO2 + ½ O2
j) Carbon is heated with tin(II) oxide to produce carbon dioxide and tin.
C + 2SnO → CO2 + 2Sn
k) Lithium added into water to produce lithium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
2Li + 2H2O → 2LiOH + H2
l) Iron reacts with chlorine gas to produce iron(III) chloride.
2Fe + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3
m) Chlorine gas reacts with potassium bromide to produce potassium chloride and bromine
liquid.
Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2
n) Nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to produce ammonia gas.
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
o) Calcium carbonate reacts with sulphuric acid to produce calcium sulphate, carbon dioxide
and water.
CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O

MAU20
Calculation involving chemical equations

1. 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

If 2.5g of sodium is burnt in chlorine gas, calculate
(a) the mass of product produced and
(b) the volume of chlorine gas used at room conditions.
[RAM: Na = 23; Cl = 35.5; 1 mole gas occupies 24 dm3 at room conditions]

(a) 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl (b) 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

2.5g mass = ? 2.5g volume = ?
n=? n=? n=? n=?

n = 0.11 mol
mass 2.5
n of Na = = = 0.11 mol mol ratio of Na ∶ Cl2 = 2 ∶ 1
molar mass 23 0.11
mol ratio of Na ∶ NaCl = 1 ∶ 1 n of Cl2 = = 0.055 mol
2

n of NaCl = 0.11 mol V of Cl2 = n × molar volume

mass of NaCl = n × molar mass = 0.055 × 24
= 0.11 × [23 + 35.5] = 1.32 dm3
= 6.435 g

2. When copper(II) nitrate is heated, it decomposes to produce copper(II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide
gas and oxygen gas.
If 8g of copper(II) oxide is produced from the heating of copper(II) nitrate, calculate
(a) the amount of the reactant used and
(b) the volume of nitrogen dioxide obtained from the reaction at room conditions.
[RAM: Cu = 64; N = 14; O = 16; 1 mole gas occupies 24 dm3 at room conditions]

(a) Cu(NO3)2 → CuO + 2NO2 + ½ O2 (b) Cu(NO3)2 → CuO + 2NO2 + ½ O2

mass =? 8g n = ? volume = ?
n=? n=? n=?

mass 8 n of CuO = 0.1 mol

n of CuO = = = 0.1 mol
molar mass 64 + 16 mol ratio of CuO ∶ NO2 = 1 ∶ 2
mol ratio of CuO ∶ Cu(NO3 )2 = 1 ∶ 1 n of NO2 = 0.1 × 2 = 0.2 mol
n of Cu(NO3 )2 = 0.1 mol V of NO2 = n × molar volume
mass of Cu(NO3 )2 = n × molar mass = 0.2 × 24
= 0.1 × [64 + 2(14) + 6(16)] = 4.8 dm3
= 18.8 g

MAU21
3. The following equation shows the reaction between copper(II) carbonate and hydrochloric acid.
CuCO3 + 2HCl → CuCl2 + CO2 + H2O
7.0g copper(II) carbonate is added into 0.05 mol of hydrochloric acid. What is the mass of
copper(II) carbonate left at the end of the reaction?
[RAM: Cu = 64; C = 12; O = 16]
CuCO3 + 2HCl → CuCl2 + CO2 + H2O
7.0 g 0.05 mol
mass left = ?
mass used = ?
n=?
n of HCl = 0.05 mol
mol ratio of HCl ∶ CuCO3 = 2 ∶ 1
0.05
n of CuCO3 = = 0.025 mol
2
mass used = n × molar mass
= 0.025 × [64 + 12 + 3(16)]
= 3.1 g
mass left = 7.0 − 3.1
= 3.9 g
4. Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 occurs according to the following equation:
2H2O2(l) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Calculate the volume of oxygen produced at STP from the decomposition of 30.6 g of hydrogen
peroxide, H2O2.
[RAM: H=1; O=16; 1 mole gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at STP]

2H2O2(l) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

30.6 g V=?
n=? n=?

mass 30.6
n of H2 O2 = = = 0.9 mol
molar mass 2(1) + 16(2)
mol ratio of H2 O2 ∶ O2 = 2 ∶ 1
0.9
n of O2 = = 0.45 mol
2
V of O2 = n × molar volume
= 0.45 × 22.4
= 10.08 dm3

MAU22