Wind

Lecture 6 in the course „Introduction

to Meteorology and Climatolgy“

1
General Introduction

• Wind is a manifestation of air in motion, from

light breezes by sea to powerful jet streams in
the upper troposphere
• But what causes wind?
• Motion is always initiated by forces, and wind is
no exception.
• We will now explore how pressure differences
result in forces that set air in motion, how
additional factors come into play at different
scales of motion, and how a given pressure
distribution generates specific wind patterns.

2
Content
• Atmospheric pressure
• Force and Acceleration
• Pressure Gradient Force
• Sea Breeze and Land Breeze
• Coriolis Force
• Geostrophic Wind
• Gradient Wind
• Surface Winds
• Friction
• Topography

3
 Atmospheric Pressure
Vertical change in pressure >> horizontal changes
(≈ 10 hPa for every 100 m near the Earth’s surface for standard lapse rate of 6.5°C per 1 km;
larger in cold air and smaller in warm air)

 Barometer readings must be corrected for altitude

http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter8/ 4
From station pressure to sea-level pressure
• Station pressure
= barometer reading
at a particular
location and
elevation (including
corrections for temperature,
gravity, and instrument error)

• Sea level pressure

= pressure adjusted
to an altitude of 0
meters (mean sea level MSL)
Surface (weather)
map (constant height chart)
Isobars (connect points of
equal pressure)
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter8/pres_reduce.html
5
Tropopause Height
• Tropopause height:
proportional to mean
tropospheric T
• Higher near equator
 warm troposphere
• Lower at poles
 cold troposphere

6
Constant height chart for z = 5 km http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter8/
 Surface and upper level air-
pressure charts (I)
• Constant height charts may be drawn
for any level in the atmosphere
 horizontal variation in pressure
 not much used in meteorology
• Constant pressure (isobaric) charts
(e.g., 500 hPa)
 show height variations
along an equal pressure
surface
 plot isopleths of the
height of the surface
 used extensively in
meteorology
7
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter8/
Surface and upper level air-pressure charts (II)
Association
between
wind speed
and distance
between
isobars

thicker arrows represent relatively faster winds

http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7n.html

8
Ahrens (2000) Meteorology Today
Example for 500 ha chart
500 hPa isobaric chart
 Colours show the altitude of the 500 hPa  Colours show the wind speed in knots
surface (in decametre)  White solid contours with arrows show
 White solid contours show the surface wind direction
pressure
 Grey doted contours show the temperature

http://www.wetterzentrale.de/topkarten/fsavneur.html 9
Ridges and troughs
Contour lines of altitude
associated with a specific
pressure bend and turn
 Ridges aloft are associated
with Highs at the surface
(elongated highs)

 Troughs/depressions aloft
are associated with Lows at
the surface (elongated lows) Ahrens (2000) Meteorology Today

Value of upper-level charts:

• Show wind flow patterns that are extremely important in forecasting the weather
• Used to determine the movement of weather systems
• Used to predict the behavior of surface pressure areas

10
Introduction
• In trying to understand the formation of Wind, we must return to the
fundamental laws of physics, and particular the law of conservation of
momentum, in form of Newton‘s law of motion.
• These will allow us to have both a diagnostic approach (i.e.,
describing the current state of the atmosphere) am a prognostic
approach (i.e. predicting the future state of the atmosphere s lecture
weather forecast).

11
Force and
Acceleration

• Newton‘s first law states that

• An object at rest remains at rest, and an
object in motion moves in a straight line at
constant speed unless acted upon by a force.
• Newton‘s second law states that
• The acceleration experienced by an object is
equal to the force exerted on that object
divided by its mass.
• This is captured by the famous expression F =ma,
or a = F/m, where an object of mass m experiences • In describing air motion, it is useful to differentiate vertical from
an acceleration a when a force F is applied to it. horizontal motion.
(bold letters indicate that the quantities are • Vertical motion is very much constrained by gravity and is
vectors, with both direction and magnitude).
described by buoyancy and stability (last lecture).
• Because more than one force may act upon an • Horizontal motion is free of gravity and is determined by a set of
object, Newton’s second law always refers to the
net, or total, force that result. horizontal forces: pressure gradient force, Coriolis force,
centrifugal force, and friction.
12
Pressure gradient force
• Consider the following thought experiment, in which a glass of
water has been flipped over on a table.
• There exist a pressure difference between the interior and the
exterior of the water column.
• In dealing with wind, we prefer to use the term pressure
gradient, since it is a vector has both magnitude and direction.
• We call this force the pressure gradient force (PGF) and note
that is always directed from high toward low pressure.
• Pressure gradient = ∆P / distance
= (PHigh – PLow) / distance
• Pressure gradient magnitude can be assessed by noting isobar
spacing

Thought experiment, in which water spreads out over

a table as it fall from an inverted glass. (H&P, 2022)
13
 http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter8/

• The pressure gradient force (PGF) is the force

that cause the wind to blow.
• Because of this effect, closely spaced isobars on a
weather map indicate steep pressure gradients,
strong forces, and high winds. Distribution of pressure gradient force (PGF)
• On the other hand, widely spaced isobars around a high pressure Region (a) and a low
pressure center (b). (H&P, 2022)
indicate gentle pressure gradients, weak forces,
and light winds.

14
Sea Breeze and Land Breeze
• Imagine a sunny day at the coast where we can observe the coastline.
• As explained in lecture 3, land warms and cools much more and much faster
than water (uneven heating).
• The lower part of the land air column is warmer than the lower part of the
ocean air column.
• Recall that warm expands, the land air column expands to greater heights
than the ocean air column.
• Let us draw some pressure levels and observe how they change due this
uneven expansion (figure (a).
• Pressure surface are raised higher over the land than over the ocean, due to
thermal expansion, which makes them tilt as shown in figure (b).
• Point A is about 910 hPa, Point B is about 895 hPa.
• The pressure difference (or gradient) will cause the wind to blow aloft from
the land to the sea.
• Air column over land is depleted of air, while air accumulates in the air
column over the sea.
• Redistribution of mass increases surface pressure over the sea (C) and
decreases it over land (D).
• This surface pressure gradient causes the wind blowing from the sea to the
land (figure (c)).
• Because this wind is usually quite mild, we call it a breeze, and because it Formation of a sea breeze on a sunny day. (H&P, 2022)
blows from the sea, we call it sea breeze. 15
• We note important points from the last slide.
• First, the exchange of mass between the two air columns is usually
accompanied by rising motion over the land and subsidence over the sea
• This closes the loop and constitutes what we call a sea breeze circulation.
• It is driven by the temperature contrast between land and water, and it
occurs in response to the corresponding energy imbalance:
• It redistributes energy from the warm region to the cold region to bring
the system back to a more balanced state.
• Second, the rising air over land can lead to the formation of cumulus
clouds, while subsidence over the water inhibits cloud formation.
• Clouds near the coastline over land, and cloud free over the sea.
• What happens when the sun sets? Formation of a land breeze
• The land loses energy much faster than the water, and whole circulation at night. (H&P, 2022)
is reversed to give offshore flow, called a land breeze (cf. figure).
• If cloud forms, there will also be up along the coast, but over water.
• An important message is that a temperature contrast induce a horizontal
pressure contrast, and the resulting pressure gradient causes wind to
blow.
• The stronger the temperature gradient, the stronger the pressure
gradient, and therefore the stronger wind.

16
Coriolis force
• Apparent motion of a ball thrown from a merry-go-
round spinning counterclockwise.
• (a) If the merry-go-round is still, the ball (in red)
goes in a straight line.
• (b) If the merry-go-round is spinning, the thrower
and catcher rotate with, but the ball follows the
original straight line (dashed) as soon as it leaves
the hand of the thrower.
• (c) – (e) As the merry-go-round continues to spin,
the ball is further to the right of the thrower, rather
than in front of her.
• (f) If we position ourselves on the rotating frame of
reference and rotate with the thrower and catcher,
it appears as if the merry-go-round is not moving
and the ball follows a curved trajectory to the right.
(H&P, 2022)

17
 Coriolis force II
• If the pressure gradient force were the only force acting
on the air, winds would blow from high to low pressure.
• Observations of weather maps show that the wind does
not blow across the isobars (perpendicularly) from high to
low pressure, as suggested above, but along the isobars
(parallel). Why?

• Coriolis force is an apparent force.

• It acts only on a rotating system.
• The fact that earth is rotating is fundamentally important
to the development of weather.
• In practice, meteorologist establish basic rules of
atmospheric motion that incorporate the Coriolis force
(Box 8.1)
• Coriolis force interacts with the pressure gradient force to
create specific wind patterns.
18
Geostrophic Wind
• At (a), the PGF acts immediately upon the air parcel, accelerating it
northward toward lower pressure.
• However, the instant the air begins to move, the Coriolis force deflects the
air to its right, curving its path.
• As the parcel of air increases in speed (b, c), the magnitude of the Coriolis
force increases (as shown by the longer arrows), bending the wind more
and more to its right.
• Eventually, the wind speed increases to appoint where the force just
balance the PGF.
• At this point (d), the wind not longer accelerates because the net force is
zero.
• Here the wind flows in a straight path, parallel to the isobars at a constant
speed.
• This flow of air is called a geostrophic wind.
Adjustment of an air parcel to geostrophic balance between the pressure gradient force (PGF) and
19
the Coriolis force (COR). 500 hPa height contours are labeled in decameters. (H&P, 2022)
 • What will happens, if the balance of forces
changes?
• If the pressure gradient force increase or
decrease?
• Let us consider the situation in the left figure
(a), in which the air parcel enters a region
where the pressure gradient increases.
• Since the pressure gradient force increase,
the air parcel should be deflected northward
(b).
• However, since there is now a net positive
force pushing the air parcel northward, the
parcel is also accelerated in that direction
and its speed increases.
• The Coriolis force, being proportional to the
wind speed, also increases and pulls the air
parcel southward (c).
• Eventually a new equilibrium is reached
where the PGF and the COR are both In curved flow, we can make a
stronger and balanced, and the wind speed geostrophic balance approximation
has increased (d). and assume that the wind is blowing
along the tangents (dashed blue lines)
• Two new rules of motion (Box 8.2).
to the isobars. 500 hPa height
contours are labeled in decameters.
Adjustment of geostrophic balance to a stronger pressure gradient. 20
(H&P, 2022)
500 hPa height contours are labeled in decameters. (H&P, 2022)
 • Given a pressure map, then, and assuming geostrophic
motion, we shall follow the steps summarized in Box 8.3, at
whatever point we need to estimate wind speed (in a relative
sense) and wind direction.
• Using this simple methodology, we will obtain approximate
wind such a shown in the figure.
• Note how, in this particular ensemble, high pressures (and
heights) are to the south and low pressures are to the north,
and how the pressure gradient force always points from high
to low pressure, and is perpendicular to the isobars.
• The Coriolis force is pointing in the opposite to the pressure
gradient force, and the wind is blowing around a ridge of high
pressure (point A), and the around a trough of low pressure
(point C).

Determining the pressure gradient force (PGF), Coriolis Force

(COR), wind speed, and wind direction from a height contour
map assuming geostrophic balance. 500 hPa height contours 21
are labeled in decameters. (H&P, 2022)
Gradient Wind
• How good is the geostrophic approximation?
• It is quite good outside of the tropics when the flow is straight.
• When the flow is curved, however, the air is subject to an additional
„apparent“ force: the centrifugal force.
• Around a low, the centrifugal force pulls the air in the same direction
as the Coriolis force, and it is the sum of booth that balance the
pressure gradient force (cf. figure).
• Therefore, a smaller Coriolis force is required, which correspond to a
lower wind speed.
• As a result, the wind speed is less than geostrophic balance would Balance of forces around a low when taking into
suggest: the wind is said to be subgeostrophic. account the centrifugal force (CENT): the wind
speed is reduced, the wind is subgeostrophic. 500
hPa height contours are labeled in decamters.
(H&P, 2022)

22
 Gradient wind II
• In contrast, around a high, the
centrifugal force points in the
same direction as the pressure
gradient force (left figure).
• Therefore a stronger Coriolis
force is required to balance the
sum of both pressure gradient
and centrifugal forces.
• As a result, the wind speed is
greater than the geostrophic
Balance of forces around a high when balance would suggest:
taking into account the centrifugal Determining wind speed and direction from a
force: in the wind speed is height contour map wind balance . 500 hPa • The wind is said to be
supergeostrophic. 500 hPa height contours are labeled in decameters. (H&P, supergeostrophic.
contours are labeled in decameters. 2022)
(H&P, 2022)

23
Surface winds
• Gradient wind approximation is a relatively good
approximation aloft (850 hPa and above).
• As we approach the surface, however, yet another factor
comes into play: surface friction.
• Which has more significant impact on the wind pattern
than the centrifugal force.
• We will start our discussion by returning to the
geostrophic approximation.
• Figure (a) shows an example of a surface pressure amp
featuring a high pressure center (a “high”) and a low
pressure center (a “low”).
• A general pattern emerge.
• Because winds blow parallel to the isobars with higher
pressures on the right, they tend to blow clockwise
around high pressure regions and counterclockwise
around low pressure centers (in the northern (a) Balance of forces and wind pattern at the surface assuming geostrophic
balance. (b) Cyclonic circulation around a low vs. anticyclonic circulation
hemisphere) summarized in Box 8.5 and figure (b).
around a high (northern hemisphere). (H&P, 2022) 24
Surface winds II
• Rotation around a low is called cyclonic; around a high
is said to be anticyclonic.
• A simple look at surface weather map will reveal that
the wind rarely blows exactly along the isobars.
• More often, it crosses the isobars at an angle that can
be 45° or sometimes more.
• The deflection is due to friction between air and
Earth’s surface.
• The frictional effect has very important consequences
at the surface, as illustrated in figure (c).
• Since surface winds tend to be deflected toward low
pressures values, the will tend to be deflected away
from high pressure centers and toward low pressure
centers.
• In other word, winds tend to diverge away from highs,
and to converge into lows (figure (d).

cont. (c) Balance of forces and wind pattern at the surface when taking
friction(Fr) into account. (d) Convergent circulation around a low vs.
divergent anticyclonic motion around a high. (H&P, 2022) 25
Friction
• When moving objects rubs against a surface, it experiences
resistance in the direction of moving.
• This resistance, friction, is a force acting upon the object in the
direction opposite the direction of motion, which slows the speed of
the object. Comparison of the geostrophic
approximation (left) and the new
• Similarly, surface friction acts to slow down air in motion close to the force balance including friction (Fr)
surface. close to the surface (right). Isobars
are labeled in hectopascal. (H&P,
• When surface friction acts on wind, the wind speed is reduced. 2022)

• Therefore, the Coriolis force is also reduced, since it is proportional

to wind speed.
• In this case the pressure gradient force is balanced by the sum of the
friction and Coriolis forces, so that the wind must blow at an angle to
the isobars, as shown in the figure.
• The lower layer of the troposphere where surface friction alters the
force balance is called planetary boundary layer.
• Rules of motion for surface winds are summarized in Box 8.6.
26
Topography
• The greatest influence on wind, after Earth‘s
rotation, curvature, and friction, is that of
topography.
• Orographic lifting -> Chinook, Foehn.
Blocking and channelling of westerly winds by the Olympic Mountains,
• Mountain Barriers such as the Andes, the upstream of Seattle. Isobars are labeled in hectopascal. (H&P, 2022)
Himalaya, and the Rocky Mountains can effectively
force the air upward, or channel it at a completely
different angle from that suggested by geostrophic
balance.
• An example is given in the figure.

27
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter9/
Chinook / Foehn winds
• Descending,
warm, dry winds
on the lee side of
mountain ranges
• Chinooks (local
name) are
common east of http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter9/
the Rockies
• Observed in the
Alps  called the
foehn

28
Mountain breeze and Valley breeze
• Mountains and valley can also induce local wind circulations
through differential heating and buoyancy.
• During the day, the mountain slopes that form the “walls” of
valley heat faster than the air over the valley at same altitude.
• Thus, the air parcels closest to the slopes are heated by
conduction and are warmer than the environment.
• They are upwardly buoyant and tend to rise (figure (a)).
• Relatively colder air sinks down into the valley and replaced
the rising air along the slope.
• This causes a local circulation by which air tends to rise up the
valley and flow along the mountain slopes, creating a valley
breeze (blowing from the valley) that is compensated by
subsidence down into the valley (figure (b)).
• Such a valley breeze is quite mild, but it can lead to the
formation of cumulus clouds above the top of the mountains
and sometimes showers and afternoon thunderstorms. Development of a valley breeze during daytime. (H&P, 2022)
29
• The reverse circulation takes place after sunset.
• Emission of infrared radiation by the mountain
cools the valley walls, which in turn cool the
adjacent air.
• Becoming colder than air at the same elevation
over the valley, the air is negative buoyant and sinks
down the mountain slopes into the valley.
• Being denser than the warm air above, the cold air
flows down the valley -> Mountain breeze.
Cooling by emission of infrared radiation (IR), downslope flow of cold air at
• In place where the valley floor is relatively flat, cold
night, and formation of fog in the valley when the temperature drops below
air can accumulate, cooling even further as the the dew point. (H&P, 2022)
night progresses.
• If the dew point is reached, condensation takes
place and valley fog forms, trapped in the valley by
temperature inversion (cf. figure).
• Valley fog is very common in autumn, and can be
easily observed in visible satellite imagery, as it
follows the valleys and meanders of the topography
(cf. satellite photo).
Valley fog in the Central Valley of
• It typically dissipates during the day, as the sun California. (H&P, 2022)
warms the cloud layer and convection mixes the air 30
close to the surface.
Up-valley and down-valley wind
• As a result of this diurnal cycle of heating,
in the base of the valley, it is common to
observe a breeze blowing up-valley (a) in
the afternoon and down-valley (b) at
night (cf. figure)

Daytime up-valley flow (a) vs. nighttime

down-valley flow (b). (H&P, 2022)

31
Timing of mountain and valley breezes

In narrowing terrain, mountain winds can accelerate in speed because

of the Venturi effect
32
Katabatic winds
• When very cold and dense air flows down especially high
topography, it can give rise to some of the strongest and persistent
winds on Earth‘s surface.
• This is the case in Greenland, and especially Antarctica, where cold
air drains off an elevated continental mass covered with ice and
snow.
• The combination of extremely low temperatures, due to radiational
cooling and the absence of sunlight in winter, results in the
development of cold high pressure systems.
• Air flows away from these high pressure systems, diverging and
accelerating away from the continent, in very strong winds called Schematic representation of very cold air
katabatic winds. accelerating downslope over Antarctica to
produce strong katabatic winds at the
• The air flows downslope toward the edge of the ice-covered coastline. (The proportions have been
continental mass because its very dense and therefore negatively greatly exaggerated.) (H&P, 2022)
buoyant, accelerating under the effect of gravity to reach a
maximum wind speed at the coastline (cf. figure).

33
Katabatic (fall) winds

• Descend from mountain slopes

• May reach hurricane speed
Optimal conditions:
• Snow-covered elevated plateau
surrounded by mountains
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter9/
• Generates horizontal PG
Examples:
• Bora (along the northern
Adriatic coast in the
former Yugoslavia)
yacht.de
• Mistral (accelerates when it
passes through the valleys
of the Rhone and the
Durance Rivers to the coast
of the Mediterranean around
the Camargue region)
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Bora_Hydraulic
.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ge
34 bogene_Korkeiche.jpg
Take Home Message – Atm. Dynamics
Surface and
upper level
pressure and
weather charts

Thermal circulation creates

different local wind systems

Forces that create wind

 Geostrophic and gradient wind
Air masses and fronts  Connection to the upper level and surface air
 typical weather? flow around high and low pressure areas 35