Introduction:

A person, who needs to convey a thought, an idea or a doubt, can do so by voice communication.
The following illustration shows two individuals communicating with each other. Here, communication takes
place through sound waves. However, if two people want to communicate who are at longer distances, then
we have to convert these sound waves into electromagnetic waves. The device, which converts the required
information signal into electromagnetic waves, is known as an Antenna.

What is an Antenna?

An Antenna is a transducer, which converts electrical power into electromagnetic waves and vice versa.
An Antenna can be used either as a transmitting antenna or a receiving antenna.
 A transmitting antenna is one, which converts electrical signals into electromagnetic waves and
radiates them.
 A receiving antenna is one, which converts electromagnetic waves from the received beam into
electrical signals.
 In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for both transmission and reception.
Antenna can also be termed as an Aerial. Plural of it is,antennae or antennas. Now-adays, antennas have
undergone many changes, in accordance with their size and shape. There are many types of antennas
depending upon their wide variety of applications.
Following pictures are examples of different types of Antennas.

Need of Antenna

In the field of communication systems, whenever the need for wireless communication arises, there occurs the
necessity of an antenna.Antenna has the capability of sending or receiving the electromagnetic waves for the
sake of communication, where you cannot expect to lay down a wiring system. The following scenario
explains this.
Scenario

In order to contact a remote area, the wiring has to be laid down throughout the whole route along the valleys,
the mountains, the tedious paths, the tunnels etc., to reach the remote location. The evolution of wireless
technology has made this whole process very simple. Antenna is the key element of this wireless technology.

In the above image, the antennas help the communication to be established in the whole area, including the
valleys and mountains. This process would obviously be easier than laying a wiring system throughout the
area.

Radiation Mechanism

The sole functionality of an antenna is power radiation or reception. Antenna (whether it transmits or receives
or does both) can be connected to the circuitry at the station through a transmission line. The functioning of an
antenna depends upon the radiation mechanism of a transmission line.
A conductor, which is designed to carry current over large distances with minimum losses, is termed as a
transmission line. For example, a wire, which is connected to an antenna? A transmission line conducting
current with uniform velocity, and the line being a straight one with infinite extent, radiates no power.
For a transmission line, to become a waveguide or to radiate power, has to be processed as such.
 If the power has to be radiated, though the current conduction is with uniform velocity, the wire or
transmission line should be bent, truncated or terminated.
 If this transmission line has current, which accelerates or decelerates with a timevarying constant, then
it radiates the power even though the wire is straight.
 The device or tube, if bent or terminated to radiate energy, then it is called as waveguide. These are
especially used for the microwave transmission or reception.
This can be well understood by observing the following diagram −

The above diagram represents a waveguide, which acts as an antenna. The power from the transmission line
travels through the waveguide which has an aperture, to radiate the energy.
Basic Types of Antennas

Antennas may be divided into various types depending upon −

 The physical structure of the antenna.
 The frequency ranges of operation.
 The mode of applications etc.

Physical structure

Following are the types of antennas according to the physical structure. You will learn about these antennas in
later chapters.

 Wire antennas
 Aperture antennas
 Reflector antennas
 Lens antennas
 Micro strip antennas
 Array antennas

Frequency of operation

Following are the types of antennas according to the frequency of operation.

 Very Low Frequency (VLF)

 Low Frequency (LF)
 Medium Frequency (MF)
 High Frequency (HF)
 Very High Frequency (VHF)
 Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
 Super High Frequency (SHF)
 Micro wave
 Radio wave

Mode of Applications

Following are the types of antennas according to the modes of applications −

 Point-to-point communications
 Broadcasting applications
 Radar communications
 Satellite communications
The basic communication parameters are discussed in this chapter to have a better idea about the wireless
communication using antennas. The wireless communication is done in the form of waves. Hence, we need to
have a look at the properties of waves in the communications.
Antenna parameters:

 Frequency
 Wavelength
 Impedance matching
 VSWR & reflected power
 Bandwidth
 Percentage bandwidth
 Radiation intensity
 Directivity
 Efficiency
 Gain
 Radiation Pattern

Frequency:

According to the standard definition, “The rate of repetition of a wave over a particular period of time, is called
as frequency.”
Simply, frequency refers to the process of how often an event occurs. A periodic wave repeats itself after
every ‘T’ seconds (time period). Frequency of periodic wave is nothing but the reciprocal of time period (T).

Mathematical Expression

Mathematically, it is written as shown below.

F = 1/T
Where
 f is the frequency of periodic wave.
 T is the time period at which the wave repeats.

Units

The unit of frequency is Hertz, abbreviated as Hz.

The figure given above represents a sine wave, which is plotted here for Voltage in milli volts against time in
milliseconds. This wave repeats after every 2t milliseconds. So, time period, T=2t milliseconds and
frequency, f=1/2T KHz
Wavelength:

According to the standard definition, “The distance between two consecutive maximum points (crests) or
between two consecutive minimum points (troughs) is known as the wavelength.”
Simply, the distance between two immediate positive peaks or two immediate negative peaks is nothing but the
length of that wave. It can be termed as the Wavelength.
The following figure shows a periodic waveform. The wavelength (λ) and amplitude are denoted in the figure.
The higher the frequency, the lesser will be the wavelength and vice versa.

Mathematical Expression

The formula for wavelength is,

λ=c/f
Where
 λ is the wavelength
 c is the speed of light (3∗108 meters/second)
 f is the frequency

Units

The wavelength λ is expressed in the units of length such as meters, feet or inches. The commonly used term
is meters.

Impedance Matching:

According to the standard definition, “The approximate value of impedance of a transmitter, when equals the
approximate value of the impedance of a receiver, or vice versa, it is termed as Impedance matching.”
Impedance matching is necessary between the antenna and the circuitry. The impedance of the antenna, the
transmission line, and the circuitry should match so that maximum power transfer takes place between the
antenna and the receiver or the transmitter.

Necessity of Matching

A resonant device is one, which gives better output at certain narrow band of frequencies. Antennas are
such resonant devices whose impedance if matched, delivers a better output.
  The power radiated by an antenna, will be effectively radiated, if the antenna impedance matches the
free space impedance.
 For a receiver antenna, antenna’s output impedance should match with the input impedance of the
receiver amplifier circuit.
 For a transmitter antenna, antenna’s input impedance should match with transmitter amplifier’s output
impedance, along with the transmission line impedance.

Units

The unit of impedance (Z) is Ohms.

VSWR & Reflected Power:

According to the standard definition, “The ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum voltage in a standing
wave is known as Voltage Standing Wave Ratio.”
If the impedance of the antenna, the transmission line and the circuitry do not match with each other, then the
power will not be radiated effectively. Instead, some of the power is reflected back.
The key features are −
 The term, which indicates the impedance mismatch, is VSWR.
 VSWR stands for Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. It is also called as SWR.
 The higher the impedance mismatch, the higher will be the value of VSWR.
 The ideal value of VSWR should be 1:1 for effective radiation.
 Reflected power is the power wasted out of the forward power. Both reflected power and VSWR
indicate the same thing.

Bandwidth:

According to the standard definition, “A band of frequencies in a wavelength, specified for the particular
communication, is known as bandwidth.”
The signal when transmitted or received is done over a range of frequencies. This particular range of
frequencies is allotted to a particular signal, so that other signals may not interfere in its transmission.
 Bandwidth is the band of frequencies between the higher and lower frequencies over which a signal is
transmitted.
 The bandwidth once allotted, cannot be used by others.
 The whole spectrum is divided into bandwidths to allot to different transmitters.
The bandwidth, which we just discussed, can also be called as Absolute Bandwidth.

Percentage Bandwidth:

According to the standard definition, “The ratio of absolute bandwidth to the center frequency of that
bandwidth can be termed as percentage bandwidth.”
The particular frequency within a frequency band, at which the signal strength is maximum, is called
as resonant frequency. It is also called as center frequency (fC) of the band.
  The higher and lower frequencies are denoted as fH and fL respectively.
 The absolute bandwidth is given by- fH - fL.
 To know how wider the bandwidth is, either fractional bandwidth or percentage bandwidth has to be
calculated.

Mathematical Expression

The Percentage bandwidth is calculated to know how much frequency variation either a component or a
system can handle.
Percentage bandwidth=absolute bandwidth / center frequency = fH − fL / fc
Where
 fH is higher frequency
 fL is lower frequency
 fc is center frequency
The higher the percentage bandwidth, the wider will be the bandwidth of the channel.

Radiation Intensity:

“Radiation intensity is defined as the power per unit solid angle”

Radiation emitted from an antenna which is more intense in a particular direction, indicates the maximum
intensity of that antenna. The emission of radiation to a maximum possible extent is nothing but the radiation
intensity.

Mathematical Expression

Radiation Intensity is obtained by multiplying the power radiated with the square of the radial distance.
U = r2 × Wrad
Where
 U is the radiation intensity
 r is the radial distance
 Wrad is the power radiated.
The above equation denotes the radiation intensity of an antenna. The function of radial distance is also
indicated as Φ.

Units

The unit of radiation intensity is Watts/steradian or Watts/radian2.

Radiation intensity of an antenna is closely related to the direction of the beam focused and the efficiency of
the beam towards that direction. In this chapter, let us have a look at the terms that deal with these topics.

Directivity:
According to the standard definition, “The ratio of maximum radiation intensity of the subject antenna to the
radiation intensity of an isotropic or reference antenna, radiating the same total power is called
the directivity.”
An Antenna radiates power, but the direction in which it radiates matters much. The antenna, whose
performance is being observed, is termed as subject antenna.
Its radiation intensity is focused in a particular direction, while it is transmitting or receiving. Hence, the
antenna is said to have its directivity in that particular direction.
 The ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction from an antenna to the radiation intensity averaged
over all directions is termed as directivity.
 If that particular direction is not specified, then the direction in which maximum intensity is observed,
can be taken as the directivity of that antenna.
 The directivity of a non-isotropic antenna is equal to the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction to the radiation intensity of the isotropic source.

Mathematical Expression

The radiated power is a function of the angular position and the radial distance from the circuit. Hence, it is
expressed by considering both the terms θ and Ø.
Directivity = Maximum radiation intensity of subject antenna / Radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna
D = ϕ (θ,ϕ)max (from subject antenna) / ϕ0 (from an isotropic antenna)
Where
 ϕ (θ,ϕ)max is the maximum radiation intensity of subject antenna.
 ϕ0 is the radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna (antenna with zero losses).

Aperture Efficiency:

According to the standard definition, “Aperture efficiency of an antenna, is the ratio of the effective radiating
area (or effective area) to the physical area of the aperture.”
An antenna has an aperture through which the power is radiated. This radiation should be effective with
minimum losses. The physical area of the aperture should also be taken into consideration, as the effectiveness
of the radiation depends upon the area of the aperture, physically on the antenna.

Mathematical Expression

The mathematical expression for aperture efficiency is as follows −

εA = Aeff /Ap
where
 εA is Aperture Efficiency.
 Aeff is effective area.
 Ap is physical area.

Antenna Efficiency:

According to the standard definition, “Antenna Efficiency is the ratio of the radiated power of the antenna to
the input power accepted by the antenna.”
Simply, an Antenna is meant to radiate power given at its input, with minimum losses. The efficiency of an
antenna explains how much an antenna is able to deliver its output effectively with minimum losses in the
transmission line.
This is otherwise called as Radiation Efficiency Factor of the antenna.

Mathematical Expression

The mathematical expression for antenna efficiency is given below −

ηe = Prad / Pinput
Where
 ηe is the antenna efficiency.
 Prad is the power radiated.
 Pinput is the input power for the antenna.

Gain:

According to the standard definition, “Gain of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated
isotropically.”
Simply, gain of an antenna takes the directivity of antenna into account along with its effective performance. If
the power accepted by the antenna was radiated isotropically (that means in all directions), then the radiation
intensity we get can be taken as a referential.
 The term antenna gain describes how much power is transmitted in the direction of peak radiation to
that of an isotropic source.
 Gain is usually measured in dB.
 Unlike directivity, antenna gain takes the losses that occur also into account and hence focuses on the
efficiency.

Mathematical Expression

The equation of gain, G is as shown below.

G = ηe D
Where
 G is gain of the antenna.
 ηe is the antenna’s efficiency.
 D is the directivity of the antenna.

Units

The unit of gain is decibels or simply dB.

Radiation Pattern:

The energy radiated by an antenna is represented by the Radiation pattern of the antenna. Radiation Patterns
are diagrammatical representations of the distribution of radiated energy into space, as a function of direction.
Let us look at the pattern of energy radiation.

The figure given above shows radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. The energy being radiated is represented
by the patterns drawn in a particular direction. The arrows represent directions of radiation.
The radiation patterns can be field patterns or power patterns.
 The field patterns are plotted as a function of electric and magnetic fields. They are plotted on
logarithmic scale.
 The power patterns are plotted as a function of square of the magnitude of electric and magnetic fields.
They are plotted on logarithmic or commonly on dB scale.

Radiation Pattern in 3D:

The radiation pattern is a three-dimensional figure and represented in spherical coordinates (r, θ, Φ) assuming
its origin at the center of spherical coordinate system. It looks like the following figure −

The given figure is a three dimensional radiation pattern for an Omni directional pattern. This clearly
indicates the three co-ordinates (x, y, z).

Radiation Pattern in 2D:

Two-dimensional pattern can be obtained from three-dimensional pattern by dividing it into horizontal and
vertical planes. These resultant patterns are known as Horizontal pattern and Vertical pattern respectively.
The figures show the Omni directional radiation pattern in H and V planes as explained above. H-plane
represents the Horizontal pattern, whereas V-plane represents the Vertical pattern.

Lobe Formation:

In the representation of radiation pattern, we often come across different shapes, which indicate the major and
minor radiation areas, by which the radiation efficiency of the antenna is known.
To have a better understanding, consider the following figure, which represents the radiation pattern of a dipole
antenna.

Here, the radiation pattern has main lobe, side lobes and back lobe.
 The major part of the radiated field, which covers a larger area, is the main lobe or major lobe. This is
the portion where maximum radiated energy exists. The direction of this lobe indicates the directivity
of the antenna.
 The other parts of the pattern where the radiation is distributed side wards are known as side
lobes or minor lobes. These are the areas where the power is wasted.
 There is other lobe, which is exactly opposite to the direction of main lobe. It is known as back lobe,
which is also a minor lobe. A considerable amount of energy is wasted even here.

Electromagnetic Horn Antenna:

To improve the radiation efficiency and directivity of the beam, the wave guide should be provided with an
extended aperture to make the abrupt discontinuity of the wave into a gradual transformation. So that all the
energy in the forward direction gets radiated. This can be termed as Flaring. Now, this can be done using a
horn antenna.

Frequency Range

The operational frequency range of a horn antenna is around 300MHz to 30GHz. This antenna works in UHF
and SHF frequency ranges.

Construction & Working of Horn Antenna

The energy of the beam when slowly transform into radiation, the losses are reduced and the focussing of the
beam improves. A Horn antenna may be considered as a flared out wave guide, by which the directivity is
improved and the diffraction is reduced.

The above image shows the model of a horn antenna. The flaring of the horn is clearly shown. There are
several horn configurations out of which, three configurations are most commonly used.

Sectoral horn

This type of horn antenna flares out in only one direction. Flaring in the direction of Electric vector produces
the sectorial E-plane horn. Similarly, flaring in the direction of Magnetic vector, produces the sectorial H-
plane horn.

Pyramidal horn

This type of horn antenna has flaring on both sides. If flaring is done on both the E & H walls of a rectangular
waveguide, then pyramidal horn antenna is produced. This antenna has the shape of a truncated pyramid.

Conical horn

When the walls of a circular wave guide are flared, it is known as a conical horn. This is a logical termination
of a circular wave guide.
The above figures show the types of horn configurations, which were discussed earlier.
Flaring helps to match the antenna impedance with the free space impedance for better radiation. It avoids
standing wave ratio and provides greater directivity and narrower beam width. The flared wave guide can be
technically termed as Electromagnetic Horn Radiator.
Flare angle, Φ of the horn antenna is an important factor to be considered. If this is too small, then the resulting
wave will be spherical instead of plane and the radiated beam will not be directive. Hence, the flare angle
should have an optimum value and is closely related to its length.

Combinations

Horn antennas, may also be combined with parabolic reflector antennas to form special type of horn antennas.
These are −
 Cass-horn antenna
 Hog-horn or triply folded horn reflector
In Cass-horn antenna, radio waves are collected by the large bottom surface, which is parabolically curved
and reflected upward at 45° angle. After hitting top surface, they are reflected to the focal point. The gain and
beam width of these are just like parabolic reflectors.
In hog-horn antenna, a parabolic cylinder is joined to pyramidal horn, where the beam reaches apex of the
horn. It forms a low-noise microwave antenna. The main advantage of hog-horn antenna is that its receiving
point does not move, though the antenna is rotated about its axis.

Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern of a horn antenna is a Spherical Wave front. The following figure shows the radiation
pattern of horn antenna. The wave radiates from the aperture, minimizing the diffraction of waves. The flaring
keeps the beam focused. The radiated beam has high directivity.
Advantages

The following are the advantages of Horn antenna −

 Small minor lobes are formed

 Impedance matching is good
 Greater directivity
 Narrower beam width
 Standing waves are avoided

Disadvantages

The following are the disadvantages of Horn antenna −

 Designing of flare angle, decides the directivity

 Flare angle and length of the flare should not be very small

Applications

The following are the applications of Horn antenna −

 Used for astronomical studies

 Used in microwave applications

Microstrip Patch Antenna:

Micro strip antennas are low-profile antennas. A metal patch mounted at a ground level with a di-electric
material in-between constitutes a Micro strip or Patch Antenna. These are very low size antennas having low
radiation.

Frequency Range

The patch antennas are popular for low profile applications at frequencies above 100MHz.

Construction & Working of Micro strip Antennas

Micro strip antenna consists of a very thin metallic strip placed on a ground plane with a di-electric material
in-between. The radiating element and feed lines are placed by the process of photo-etching on the di-electric
material. Usually, the patch or micro-strip is chosen to be square, circular or rectangular in shape for the ease
of analysis and fabrication. The following image shows a micro-strip or patch antenna.

The patch antenna, microstrip transmission line and ground plane are made of high conductivity metal
(typically copper). The patch is of length L, width W, and sitting on top of a substrate (some dielectric circuit

board) of thickness h with permittivity . The thickness of the ground plane or of the microstrip is not
critically important. Typically the height h is much smaller than the wavelength of operation, but should not be
much smaller than 0.025 of a wavelength (1/40th of a wavelength) or the antenna efficiency will be degraded.
The length of the metal patch is λ/2. When the antenna is excited, the waves generated within the di-electric
undergo reflections and the energyis radiated from the edges of the metal patch, which is very low.

Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern of microstrip or patch antenna is broad. It has low radiation power and narrow frequency
bandwidth.
The radiation pattern of a microstrip or patch antenna is shown above. It has lesser directivity. To have a
greater directivity, an array can be formed by using these patch antennas.

Advantages

The following are the advantages of Micro strip antenna −

 Light weight
 Low cost
 Ease of installation

Disadvantages

The following are the disadvantages of Micro strip antenna −

 Inefficient radiation
 Narrow frequency bandwidth

Applications

The following are the applications of Micro strip antenna −

 Used in Space craft applications

 Used in Air craft applications
 Used in Low profile antenna applications

Antenna Array:
An antenna, when individually can radiate an amount of energy, in a particular direction, resulting in better
transmission, how it would be if few more elements are added it, to produce more efficient output. It is exactly
this idea, which led to the invention of Antenna arrays.
An antenna array can be better understood by observing the following images. Observe how the antenna arrays
are connected.

An antenna array is a radiating system, which consists of individual radiators and elements. Each of these
radiators, while functioning has its own induction field. The elements are placed so closely that each one lies in
the neighboring one’s induction field. Therefore, the radiation pattern produced by them would be the vector
sum of the individual ones. The following image shows another example of an antenna array.

We know that an antenna array is a single system formed by arranging various antennas in an appropriate
manner. Basically, proper spacing and proper phase must be provided to the antennas when configured as an
array.

Whenever antennas transmit a signal to longer distance then it is necessary that they must possess high
directive gain because most of the time the signal distorts while propagating from an end to another.
A single antenna despite having good directivity somewhat fails to transmit the signal to the receiver without
losses. This is the reason the antenna array is used.
The antennas radiate individually and while in array, the radiation of all the elements sum up, to form the
radiation beam, which has high gain, high directivity and better performance, with minimum losses.

Advantages

The following are the advantages of using antenna arrays −

 The signal strength increases

 High directivity is obtained
 Minor lobes are reduced much
 High Signal-to-noise ratio is achieved
 High gain is obtained
 Power wastage is reduced
  Better performance is obtained

Disadvantages

The following are the disadvantages of array antennas −

 Resistive losses are increased

 Mounting and maintenance is difficult
 Huge external space is required

Applications

The following are the applications of array antennas −

 Used in satellite communications

 Used in wireless communications
 Used in military radar communications
 Used in the astronomical study
Types of Antenna Arrays

1. Broadside Antenna Array

2. End-Fire Antenna Array
3. Collinear Antenna Array
4. Parasitic Antenna Array
Broadside Antenna Array:

A type of arrangement of multiple identical elements that are placed parallelly along the line normal to the
antenna axes forms a broadside antenna array. It is known to be a practical antenna array configuration which is
most widely used.

The figure below represents the broadside arrangement of antenna array:

In this type of arrangement, the elements are present horizontally at equal distance from each other and each
element is fed with the current of same magnitude and phase.
In this arrangement when the elements are excited then maximal radiation emission occurs from the broadside
(i.e., the direction normal to the array axis) while the little amount of radiation is emitted from the other
directions. Thereby providing a bidirectional radiation pattern.
The reason for its bidirectional radiation pattern is that it radiates in both direction along the broadside.

Thus, we can say, a broadside arrangement is the one whose principal direction of radiation is normal to the
array axis as well as the plane of element placement.

The figure below represents the radiation pattern of the broadside antenna arrangement:

This means for horizontal alignment of the elements there will be a vertical radiation pattern.

If we want to convert the bidirectional radiation pattern into the unidirectional radiation pattern then this can be
done by placing a similar array at a distance of about λ/4 behind this array and exciting the replica array with a
current having phase lead of 90°.

Generally, the number of elements in the arrangement shows dependency on space available along with the
need of beam width and cost. While the length of the array is taken between 2 to 10 λ.
Sometimes a reflector antenna is used in conjunction with the broadside array as this reflector helps to reflect
the back transmitted wave thereby adding the minor lobe to the major lobe.

This improves the gain and directivity of this type of antenna and provides a unidirectional radiation pattern.

These generally find applications in overseas broadcasting systems.

End-Fire Antenna Array:

An end-fire array has a similar arrangement of elements as the broadside arrangement but the crucial difference
between the two configurations lies on the way of excitation. In end-fire array, the elements are fed out of phase
generally 180°, while in case of broadside each element is fed with the current of the same phase.

It is such an arrangement whose maximum radiation is obtained along the array axis.

The front view of the physical arrangement of elements in the end-fire array is shown below:
Basically, this whole arrangement of the identical elements is excited with the current of equal magnitude but
there is a continuous variation in the phase along the line in order to have a unidirectional radiation pattern.

More simply, it can be stated in a way that, the difference in phase must vary progressively similar to the
distance between the elements.

Thus, we can say that an end-fire array offers a unidirectional radiation pattern where the maximal radiation is
achieved along the direction of the axis of the array. The radiation pattern is shown below:

Radiation Pattern of End Fire Array

In this arrangement, the distance between the elements is generally taken as λ/4 or 3λ/4.
These arrays suit low, medium and high-frequency ranges and majorly used in case of point to point
communication.

Collinear Antenna Array:

The name itself is indicating that it is an arrangement that allows the placement of various antenna elements in a
single line from an end to another. This means that here the various elements are stacked one behind the other in
a single line.

This arrangement can be either of vertical or horizontal orientation. The figure below shows the collinear array
with a horizontal arrangement:
Here also the excitation is provided with currents of the same magnitude and phase to all the elements. Like
broadside array, this also offers radiation in the direction normal to the axis of the array. Hence its radiation
pattern is somewhat similar to the broadside array.

However, this array offers circular symmetry across the major lobe and thus facilitates omnidirectional radiation
from itself.

This arrangement offers maximum gain when the elements are spaced at a distance of about 0.3 to 0.5λ, but this
leads to cause constructional and feeding problems in the array. Therefore, the elements are placed closer to
each other.
The radiation pattern of the collinear array:

It is to be noted here that with an increase in the length of the array the directivity also increases.

Generally, 2 elements collinear array is mostly used as it supports multi-band operation.

Sometimes some applications use a combination of broadside, end-fire and collinear arrays as this increases
the gain and directivity to a very high range.

Parasitic Array:

Parasitic arrays are the multi-element arrays that provide high directive gain without even feeding each element
of the array. This antenna array helps to deal with the problem of feedline by not providing direct excitation to
each and every element of the array.

Its basis of operation is feeding some elements of the antenna array parasitically. The figure below shows the
parasitic arrangement of antennas:
We have seen that in all the above-discussed types of antenna array excitation to each element is directly
provided. But in the parasitic array, the arrangement supports exciting only the driven element directly while the
other elements are excited parasitically.

The elements which are not fed directly are known as parasitic elements and these derive power from the
radiation emitted by the driven element present near to it.

This means parasitic elements are excited through electromagnetic coupling because the driven element is
present near to it.
This simply means that parasitic elements of the antenna array are not excited directly and indirectly uses the
excitation provided to the driven element.

It is to be noted here that the induced current in the parasitic element due to the driven element relies on the
distance between these two elements along with their tuning.

Generally, a separation distance of about λ/4 and a phase difference of 90° between the driven and parasitic
elements provides a unidirectional radiation pattern.
The radiation pattern of this array is the result of reflector behind the driven element that adds the back-reflected
waves to the forward wave.

The best example of a parasitic array is Yagi-Uda Antenna.

These antenna arrays operate in the frequency range between 100 MHz to 1000 MHz. It exhibits unidirectional
radiation pattern in the direction from driven to parasitic element and possesses high directive gain.