Chapter Three: Compression Members

Chapter Three: Compression Members

3.1 Introduction

Compression members are perhaps the most common structural elements in

an ordinary structure and are variously termed as columns, posts, struts or
stanchions, etc. A structural member is considered to be a compression
member if it is designed primarily to resist axial compression, though some
bending may also be present and accounted for in the design. If the
bending action is quite significant, the member is termed as a beam-column
and designed in a different way as will be shown later in Chapter Five.

Structural action of columns, stanchions, struts and posts is identical; but due
to difference in their usage different names are used. Columns are ordinarily
used in buildings, are vertical and transmit some actual load or beam
reaction to another column or foundation. Stanchions are steel columns
made of rolled steel sections (usually built – up) and carry heavy loads. Struts
on the other hand are not necessarily vertical and are used as compression
members in roof trusses and bridge trusses. The term post is loosely used for a
column but the end member of a bridge truss is known as the end-post.
Similarly, the main compression members of a roof truss are known as “rafters”.

Under the general category of compression members could be included

columns, compression members in a trussed structure, and component parts
of frames such as compression flanges of beams or plate girders.

The two main differences between tension and compression members are:

A. Tension members are held

straight by means of tensile loads,
while in the case of compression
members, the compressive loads
tend to bend the member out of the
plane of loading.

B. For riveted or bolted connections,

the net area will govern the strength
of a tension member, while for
compression members the rivets are
assumed to fill the holes.

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Fig. 3.1a Simple compression members
 Chapter Three: Compression Members

This Chapter will present the assessment and design of structural members
that are acted upon by pure compression forces; i.e., direct loads with no
moments acting simultaneously.
The main kinds of compression members are as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1b Tapered members Fig. 3.1c Stepped columns

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

Fig.3.1e Built up members Fig. 3.1f Perforated plate columns

Compression members can fail by yielding, inelastic buckling, or elastic

buckling depending on the slenderness ratio of the members as well as in
local buckling that is usually influenced by the relative thickness of the
component elements that constitute the cross section. Members with low
slenderness ratios generally tend to fail by yielding, whereas members with
high slenderness ratios tend to fail by elastic buckling. Most compression
members used in construction have intermediate slenderness ratios, and so
the predominant mode of failure is inelastic buckling.

Member buckling can occur in one of three different modes: flexural,

torsional, and flexural-torsional.

• Flexural buckling occurs in members with doubly symmetric or doubly

anti-symmetric cross sections such as I and Z sections, and in members
with singly symmetric sections such as C, T, equal-legged L and double
L.

• Torsional buckling occurs in members with very thin walls.

• Flexural-torsional buckling occurs in members with singly symmetric

cross sections such as C, T, equal-legged L, double L.

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

Normally, torsional buckling of symmetric shapes and flexural-torsional

buckling of un symmetric shapes are not important in the design of hot-rolled
compression members; either they do not govern or their buckling strengths
do not differ significantly from the corresponding weak-axis flexural buckling
strengths. However, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling modes may
govern for sections that have relatively thin component plates.

In addition to slenderness ratio and cross-sectional shape, the behaviour of

compression members is affected by the relative thickness of the component
elements that constitute the cross section. The relative thickness of a
component element is qualified by the width-to-thickness ratio (b/t) of the
element. The width-to- thickness ratios of some selected steel shapes are
shown in Fig. 3.2. If the width-to-thickness ratio falls within a limiting value
stipulated by relevant codes and specifications, local buckling of the
component element will not occur. However, if the width-thickness ratio
exceeds these stipulated values, consideration of local buckling in the design
of the compression member is required.

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

3.2 Classification of Sections

Classification of sections of compression members depends on their failure

modes under load. Different standards and codes stipulate various
classification although they generally coverage to two main modes of
classification-either into four classes (as in, for example, the EBCS3 1995) or
into three classes (as in, for example, the AISC Standard).
The EBCS 3 1995 classifies sections into four categories. Accordingly, the
design strength of a cross-section subject to compression depends on its
classification as Class 1 (Plastic), Class 2 (Compact), Class 3 (Semi-compact),
or Class 4 (thin-walled) according to their capacity in the following manner.

Class 1 cross sections, also known as plastic sections can develop their plastic
moment resistance (fy times plastic modulus) with the rotation capacity
required for plastic analysis. Only cross sections falling in this class may only be
used for plastic design.

Class 2 cross sections can develop their plastic moment resistance but with
limited rotation capacity. Cross-sections falling in this group are also known as
compact sections.

Class 3 cross sections are those which can reach their “yield” moment (fy
times elastic modulus) but local buckling prevents the development of the
plastic moment resistance. In Class 3 sections, the stress in the extreme fibers
should be limited to the yield stress because local buckling prevents
development of the plastic moment capacity. Cross-sections falling in this
group are also known as semi-compact sections.

Table 3.1. Classification of Compression Sections According to EBCS 3 1995

(Modified to meet latest Euro code Standard).
(Refer to fig. 3.2 for the various parameters under ratio checked)
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Compression Elements (those exceeding
these limits are taken as Class 4 section)
Section Element Ratio Checked Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
General - None Assumed Class 3
Rectangular - None Assumed Class 2
d/tw (rolled)
Web 33ε 44ε 51ε
d/tw (welded)
I - shape
c/tf (rolled) 10ε 11ε 15ε
Flange
c/tf (welded) 9ε 10ε 15ε
Box Web d/tw 33ε 38ε 42ε
(b-3tf)/tf
Flange 42ε 42ε 42ε
(rolled)

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

b/tf (welded) 42ε 42ε 42ε

Web d/tw 33ε 38ε 42ε
Channel
Flange b/tf 10ε 11ε 15ε
Web h/tw 33ε 38ε 42ε
T-Shape b/2tf (rolled) 10ε 11ε 15ε
Flange
b/2tf (welded) 9ε 10ε 14ε
h/t 15.0ε
Angle - NA NA
(b+h)/(2t) 11.5ε
Round Bar - None Assumed Class 1
Pipe - d/t 50ε 2 70ε2 90ε2
Double h/t 15.0
- NA NA
Angle (b+h)/(2t) 11.5ε
NA = Not Applicable
Class 4 cross sections, also known as thin-walled cross-sections, are those in
which local buckling is liable to prevent the development of the “yield”
moment; i.e., premature buckling occurs before yield is reached.

According to EBCS 3 1995, the classification of sections depends on the

classification of flange and web elements. The classification also depends on
whether the compression elements are in pure compression, pure bending or
under the influence of combined axial force and bending. The latter two
conditions will be discusses in subsequent chapters. This Chapter presents
classification of compression elements for only pure compression according
to Table 3.1.

The section dimensions used in the tables are given in Fig. 3.2. If the section
dimensions satisfy the limits shown in the tables, the section is classified as
Class 1, Class2, or Class3 as applicable. A cross-section is classified by
reporting the highest (least favorable) class of its constituent compression
elements that are partially or wholly in compression. If a section fails to satisfy
the limits for class 3 sections, it is classified as Class 4.

One of the major factors in determining the limiting width-thickness ratio is the
parameter ε. This parameter is used to reflect the influence of yield stress on
the section classification.
Parameter Steel Grade
1/ 2
  Fe 360 Fe 430 Fe 510
ε =  235 f  (3.1) fy 235 275 355
 y 
ε 1 0.92 0.81

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

The properties of Class 4 cross-sections

may be established by calculation
using the effective widths of the
component elements in compression.
The later may be obtained from Table
3.2 both for internal and outstand
elements.

The effective widths of flange elements

may be based on the stress ratio ψ
determined for the gross cross-section.
The effective width of a web element
should be based on the stress ratio ψ
determined for a cross-section Fig. 3.3 Gross and effective cross sections of
class 4 section subjected to compression
comprising the effective area of the
compression flange but the gross area of the web and tension flange. In
Table 3.2, it is recommended to determine the reduction factor ρ as follows:

1 for λ p ≤ 0.673


ρ=
 λ p − 0.22 for λ p > 0.673
 λ2 p


λp Where is the element slenderness defined as:

fy b/t (3.2b)
λp = =
σ cr 28.4ε kσ
t = the relevant thickness
kσ = the buckling factor corresponding to the stress ratio ψ from Table 3.2.
−
b = the relevant width (see Fig 3.2) and given as follows:
−
Webs b= d
−
Internal flanges b= d
−
Box elements: b = b-3t
−
Outstand flanges b = c
−
Equal-legged angle: b = (b + h)/2
−
Unequal-legged angle: b = h or (b + h)/2

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

Table 3.2 Effective width of Class 4 cross-sections.

Generally, the neutral axis of the effective section will shift by a dimension ”e”
compared to the neutral axis of the gross section as shown in fig. 3.3. This
should be taken into account when calculating the properties of the
effective cross-section.

RADII OF GYRATION OF COMMON SECTIONS

Whatsoever the section may be for design purposes, its radii of gyration about
the principal axes are required so that the least radius of gyration may be
obtained and used to find slenderness ratio.

Table 3.3 Approximate radii of gyration for different sections.

Radii of gyration of single sections can be found generally with less

computational effort. These properties are also given along with
manufacturers’ manuals for standard sections. But for built up sections made
of two or more components with or without the cover plates, the calculation
work for radii of gyration becomes very tedious. The design of compression
members is a a process of a trail and error which means that if first trial is not
satisfactory, the next trails will have to be made. In every trail the radii of
gyration are to be necessarily calculated. It becomes customary for a des
a) Internal compression element

Figure to have an idea of approximate radii of gyration of various commonly

used sections so that much of the calculation work is reduced. The radii of
gyration of commonly used sections are given in Table 3.3

Generally, the neutral axis of the effective section will shift by a dimension ”e”
compared to the neutral axis of the gross section as shown in fig. 3.3. This
should be taken into account when calculating the properties of the
effective cross-section.
Radii of Gyration of Common Sections

Whatsoever the section may be for design purposes, its radii of gyration about
the principal axes are required so that the least radius of gyration may be
obtained and used to find slenderness ratio.

Radii of gyration of single sections can be found generally with less

computational effort. These properties are also given along with
manufacturers’ manuals for standard sections. But for built up sections made
of two or more components with or without the cover plates, the calculation

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

work for radii of gyration becomes very tedious. The design of compression
members is a process of a trail and error which means that if first trial is not
satisfactory, the next trails will have to be made. In every trail the radii of
gyration are to be necessarily calculated. It becomes customary for a
designer to have an idea of approximate radii of gyration of various
commonly used sections so that much of the calculation work is reduced. The
radii of gyration of commonly used sections can be obtained from any
standard books.

Effective Length Factor

The effective length factor K is a factor which, when multiplied by the actual
unbraced length L of an end-restrained compression member, will yield an
equivalent pinned-ended member whose buckling strength is the same as
that of the original end-restrained member. For a prismatic member, the
effective length factor can be determined from Fig. 3.4 or Fig. 3.5

Fig. 3.4 K factor table

Figure 3.4 is used when the support conditions of the compression members
can be closely represented by those shown in the figure. On the other hand,
Fig. 3.5 is used for members that are parts of a framework.

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

The effect of end restraint is quantified by the two end restraint factors GA
and GB where the subscripts A and B refer to the joints at the two ends of the
member being considered and G is defined as:

sum of flexural stiffness of all columns meeting at the jo int

G =
sum of flexural stiffness of all beams meeting at the join

=
∑ ( EI / L) columns

∑ ( EI / L) beams
(3.3)

Fig. 3.5 K factor alignment

Note that if the end of the member is fixed, the theoretical value of G is 0, but
a G value of 1 is recommended for use. On the other hand, if the end of the
member is pinned, the theoretical value of G is infinity, but a G value of 10 is
recommended for use. The rational behind the foregoing recommendations
is that no support in reality can be truly fixed or pinned.

Once the G factors are calculated, the effective length factor can be
obtained from the appropriate alignment chart. The chart for sideways-

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

inhibited frames applies to frames that are braced in such a way that relative
displacement between two ends of the member is negligible. The chart for
sidesway-inhibited frames applies to frames in which relative displacement
between member ends is not negligible. Although the charts were developed
assuming elastic behaviour for all members, inelasticity in the columns can be
accounted for by multiply the end-restrained factors by the quantity Et/ E,
where Et is the tangent modulus.

The alignment charts shown in Fig 3.5 where developed based on a number
of simplifying assumptions; as a result, they do not always give accurate
results, especially for L (P EI ) members in frames for which the
parameter varies significantly from column to column in a given
story. The alignment charts also fail to give accurate results for frames that
contain leaner columns.

Limiting Slenderness Ratio

The governing slenderness ratio (KL/r) of compression members preferably

should not exceed 200.

3.3 Design Criteria for Compression Members

A number of design checks are required for compression members. In all

cases, it is recommended that the forces and moments in the members are
derived from an elastic global analysis.

In addition to cross-sectional resistance, consideration should be given to

overall buckling of members. Members in compression are susceptible to a
number of buckling modes including local buckling (Class 4 or thin sections
only), flexural buckling torsional buckling and flexural-torsional buckling. The
last three modes are overall buckling modes involving the whole member.
Although all modes should be considered, point-symmetric open sections (
such as Z-shapes) are usually more prone to torsional buckling while single-
symmetric open sections to flexural-torsional buckling. Local buckling while
single-symmetric open section to introducing certain modification pertinent to
specific code implementation.

Compression members are to be designed in such a way that both the cross-
sections resistance to applied loads be established and member capacity

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

verified against possible buckling failures. These will be presented for EBCS 3
1995 Specification as follow.

3.4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995

Resistance of Cross section

Compression

According to the EBCS 3 specification, axially loaded compression members

designed to resist a factored axial force of Nc.sd, calculated using appropriate
load combinations, must satisfy the condition:

Nc.sd, ≤ Nc.Rd (3.4)

Where Nc.Rd = design compression resistance of the cross-section, taken as a

smaller of either the design plastic resistance Npl, RD of the gross section or the
design local buckling resistance N0,Rd of the gross section where, again, Npl,Rd
and N0,Rd are determined as in the following expressions:

Ag x f y
 p1, Rd = for Class 1, 2 or 3 cross − sec tions (3.4a)
γ MO

Aeff x f u
 O , Rd = for Class 4 cross − sec tions (3.4b)
γ M1

The partial safety factors are γMO = 1.1 and γM1 = 1.1.

Note that Class 4 sections which are not doubly symmetric should be assessed
to account for the additional bending caused by shift in the neutral axis
discussed earlier.

Flexural Buckling

Axially loaded compression members designed to resist a factored axial force

of Nc.sd, calculated using appropriate load combinations must satisfy the
condition:

Nc.Sd ≤ Nb, Rd (3.5a)

Where Nb, Rd = design flexural buckling resistance of the cross-section to be

determined from:
A fy
 b, Rd = χβ A
γ M1
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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

(3.5b)
Where:
βA = 1 for Class 1,2,3 cross-sections
= Aeff/ A for Class 4 cross-sections
Where Aeff is the effective cross-section for Class 4 cross-sections
A = gross area
χ = a reduction factor accounting for buckling
= 1.0 for χ ≤ 0.2
1
= but χ ≤ 1 for 0.2 ≤ λ ≤ 3.0
φ + φ −λ ( 2
)
2 0.5

In which:

[ (
φ = 0.5 1 + α λ − 0.2 + λ 2 ) ]
Leff 1 fy βA λ 0.5 π
λ= = β A Af y /  er = β A ; λ1 = = 93.9ε ; ε = 235
r π E λ1 (E / f y )5 fy

Leff = effective length of member

Ner = the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode
r = radius of gyration of the gross section
α = an imperfection factor as in the following tables:
Buckling a b c d
curve
α 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

Values of the reduction factor χ can easily be obtained for the appropriate
non-dimensional slenderness ̅λ from Table 3.5 while for flexural buckling, the
approximate curve shall be determined from Table 3.4

Torsional and Flexural-torsional buckling

The resistance to these buckling modes may be determined as in for the

flexural buckling discussed above by introducing a substitution for ̅λ by the
greater ̅λT or ̅λFT and taking α = 0.34
Where:

fy βA
λT =
σT

(3.6)
fy βA
λ =
σ FT
FT
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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

In which:
βA = 1 for Class 1,2,3 cross-sections
= Aeff/A for Class 4 cross-sections
Where Aeff is the effective cross-section for Class 4 cross-sections

1  π 2 EI w 
σT = 1
 t
G + 
Ar 2 0  L2 et 

σ FT =
1 
(σ Ey + σ T )− (σ + σ T ) − 4 β σ Ey σ T 
2

2 β  
Ey

π 2E
σ Ey =
(L ey / ry )
2
A = cross-sectional area of gross section
E = Modulus of elasticity
G = Shear modulus
Table 3.4 Selection of buckling curve for a cross section

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

NOTE:
Fyb; the bsic tensile yield strength of the basic metal out of which the
member is made by cold-forming
Fya: the average yield strength of a member after cold-forming and
shall not exceed fu or 1.2fyb.
β = 1 – (y0/r0)2
Yo = distance from shear centre to centroid of gross cross-section along
the y-axis.
Ry = radius of gyration of the gross cross-section about the y-axis.
Rx = radius of gyration of the gross cross-section about the z-axis.
It = torsional constant
Iw = Warping constant
Let = effective length
Ley = effective length corresponding to buckling over the y – axis.

Table 3.5 Reduction factors χ

Reduction factor

Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d

0,2 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000

0,3 0,9775 0,9641 0,9491 0,9235
0,4 0,9528 0,9261 0,8973 0,8504
0,5 0,9243 0,8842 0,8430 0,7793
0,6 0,8900 0,8371 0,7854 0,7100
0,7 0,8477 0,7837 0,7247 0,6431
0,8 0,7957 0,7245 0,6622 0,5797
0,9 0,7339 0,6612 0,5998 0,5208
1,0 0,6656 0,5970 0,5399 0,4671
1,1 0,5960 0,5352 0,4842 0,4189
1,2 0,5300 0,4781 0,4338 0,3762
1,3 0,4703 0,4269 0,3888 0,3385
1,4 0,4179 0,3817 0,3492 0,3055
1,5 0,3724 0,3422 0,3145 0,2766
1,6 0,3332 0,3079 0,2842 0,2512
1,7 0,2994 0,2781 0,2577 0,2289
1,8 0,2702 0,2521 0,2345 0,2093
1,9 0,2449 0,2294 0,2141 0,1920
2,0 0,2229 0,2095 0,1962 0,1766
2,1 0,2036 0,1920 0,1803 0,1630
2,2 0,1867 0,1765 0,1662 0,1508
2,3 0,1717 0,1628 0,1537 0,1399

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

2,4 0,1585 0,1506 0,1425 0,1302

2,5 0,1467 0,1397 0,1325 0,1214
2,6 0,1362 0,1299 0,1234 0,1134
2,7 0,1267 0,1211 0,1153 0,1062
2,8 0,1182 0,1132 0,1079 0,0997
2,9 0,1105 0,1060 0,1012 0,0937
3,0 0,1036 0,0994 0,0951 0,0882

For angles, they y and z axes should be taken as the u and v axes,
respectively. For mono-symmetric sections, the y axis should be taken as the
axis of symmetry. For point-symmetric sections, the y axis should be taken as
the major principal axis. For double-symmetric sections, the y axis should be
taken as the minor principal axis.

3.5 Built-up Compression Members

Built-up members are members made by bolting or welding together two or

more standard structural shapes. For a built-up member to fully effective (i.e.,
if all component structural shapes are to act as one unit rather than as
individual units), the following conditions must be satisfied.

1. The ends of the built-up member must be prevented from

slippage during buckling.
2. Adequate fasteners must be provided along the length of the
member.
3. The fasteners must be able to provided sufficient gripping force
on all the component shapes being connected.

Condition 1 is satisfied if continuous welds are used throughout the length of

the built-up compression member all component shapes in contract at the
ends of the member are connected by a weld having a length not less than
the maximum width of the member, or by fully tightened bolts spaced
longitudinally not more than four diameters apart for a distance equal to 1 ½
times the maximum width of the member.

Condition 2 is satisfied if continuous welds are used throughout the length of

the built-up compression member.

Condition 3 is satisfied if either welds or fully tightened bolts are used as the
fasteners.

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

While condition 1 is mandatory, conditions 2 and 3 can be violated in design.

If condition 2 or condition 3 is violated, the built-up member is not fully
effective, and slight slippage among component shapes may occur. To
account for the decrease in capacity due to slippage, a modified
slenderness ratio is used for the computation of the design compressive
strength when buckling of the built-up member is about an axis coincident
with or parallel to at least one plane of contact for the component shapes.
The modified slenderness ratio (KL/r)m is given as follows:

Condition 2 Violated. If intermittent welds or fully tightened bolts are used:

(h / 2rib )2
2 2
 KL   KL  a
  =   + 0.82   (3.7a)
1 + (h / 2rib )  ri 
2 
0
 r m  r 

Condition 3 Violated. If snug-tight bolts are used,

2 2
 KL   KL  a
  =   0 +   (3.7b)
 r m  r   ri 

Where:

(KL/r)0 = (KL/r)x if the buckling axis is the x axis and at least one plane
of contact between component shapes is parallel to that axis.
(Kl/r)0 = (KL/r)y if the buckling axis is the y axis and at least one plane
of contact between component shapes is parallel to that axis
a = the distance between fasteners measured along the longitudinal
axis of the member
ri = the minimum radius of gyration of the component element
rib = the radius of gyration of the component element relative to its
centroidal axis parallel to the member axis of buckling.
h = the distance between centroids of component elements
perpendicular to the member buckling axis.

No modification to (KL/r) is necessary if the buckling axis is perpendicular to

the planes of contact of the component shapes. Modifications to both (KL/r)x
and (KL/r)y are required if the built-up member is so constructed that planes of
contact exist in both the x and y directions of the cross section.

Once the slenderness ratio is computed, the design compression strength is to

be calculated from the expressions developed for simple compression
members depending on the cross section geometry and component element
width-thickness ratio of the built up shapes.

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members

An additional requirement for the design of built-up members is that a/ri does
not exceed ¼ of the governing slenderness ratio of the built-up member. This
provision is provided to prevent component shapes buckling from occurring
between adjacent fasteners before the built-up member buckling overall.

Page 18 of 18