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How music affects our physiological responses
Leire Arrieta Acevedo
Markel González Herrera
Leire Laguardia Aldama
Jaione Larrazabal Tabuyo
Paula Ureña Lozares
Group 4
Biological Basis of Behaviour III
Psychology Degree
07/05/2024
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How music affects our physiological responses
Neuroscience started paying attention not so long ago to how music could trigger
emotions. Huge achievements have occurred in this area in the past years and its evolution is
continuous; for instance, music has become a new tool that sometimes is used in
psychotherapy (Zhou & Lian, 2023). Using music as therapy has several benefits but
normally it aims to regulate emotions, which leads to higher psychological well-being and
reduces psychological stress symptoms (Cheng et al., 2023).
One consistent conclusion in various studies is that music that elicits more intense
emotions tends to produce higher levels of physiological arousal than less emotionally
impactful music (Rickard, 2004). Furthermore, it was shown that music accompanied by
relaxation techniques significantly decreased physiological arousal activation (Dillman
Carpentier & Potter, 2007). Nevertheless, it had to be taken into account that the amount of
decrease varied by age, personality traits, musical expertise and mood state (Gerstgrasser et
al., 2023).
Another study’s results showed that there is a connection between music and both
emotional and identity functions. On the one hand, there is a more simple interaction that
influences the mood of the person due to the happy rhythm in upbeat music. On the other
hand, there is a more complex one, that is characterized by emotion regulation and personal
experiences that are elicited thanks to the content or the melody of the music (Loureiro et al.,
2024). Emotional regulation has been observed to be changed while music is being listened
to. The efficiency in terms of work can be increased, and the ones that decrease are boredom,
frustration and anxiety because of the calming and striking effect (Peretti & Swenson, 1974).
According to the emotions related to stress, another study presented their hypothesis
that hard rock music has a high effect on the components which conform to the cognitive
processes of stress. Despite the fact that rock music affects regulating emotions, the findings
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of the study conducted by Burns et al. (2002) show that individuals who had to listen to this
type of music did not present any significant change between before and after hearing rock
music; the feeling of relaxing or less anxious didn’t happen.
Moreover, electroencephalography (EEG) has been broadly used when analysing the
impact of music on human brain activity and, more concretely, human emotion. This study
found that pleasurable music is highly associated with enhanced EEG theta power, whereas
unpleasant music can dramatically reduce heart rate (Zhou & Lian, 2023).
Based on the data collected from the skin conductance level (SCL), one study showed
that music with a faster rhythm causes greater activation. However, they also showed that
simply with the presence of any music, no matter if it was slow or fast-paced, it increased the
excitement in the sympathetic nervous system. This is due to the familiarity that the
participants have with the musical genre (Dillman Carpentier & Potter, 2007).
Finally, another study concluded that chills elicit an increment in galvanic response
and tears reduce respiratory rate during heartbeat acceleration, even though both of them
produce pleasure and breathing relaxation. Moreover, it was considered that a chill-producing
song was happy and sad whereas a tear-producing song was considered sad and calmer (Mori
& Iwanaga, 2017). Current studies suggest that music can elicit chills, which can be divided
into two types, vigilant chills, which are related to expectancy, and social chills, which are
linked to empathy and being moved (Bannister & Eerola, 2023). In conclusion, it was found,
regarding the physiological arousal, that music elicits chill and shivers in the listeners (Grewe
et al., 2007).
Taking into account the previous literature and noticing that there is a lack of
polygraph use as a recording technique, our investigation aims to observe whether the
participant has different physiological responses due to the melody. Based on the articles we
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have revised and our objective, our hypothesis is that the participant's physiological responses
will increase while listening to a faster tempo.
Method
Participant
Our participant was selected conveniently among our classmates. He was male, 20
years old and did not have any type of hearing condition that could affect the reliability and
validity of the experiment. It is important to mention that if we were to add participants to our
study the age range would be between 18-60. Moreover, participants needed not to have any
hearing conditions or brain damage so that they could perform well the activity.
Instruments
To conduct our experiment we asked the participant just to listen to 20 sound stimuli
from a preselection of 10 different music genres. For each music genre, two songs were
selected. The criteria for selection was done using a metronome (see annexes), depending on
the tempo (bpm) obtained, the melodies were classified into slow or fast tempo. Each of the
melodies lasted 15 seconds with a 5-second silence in between each of them. After all, the
audio which was used during the experiment was made up of every melody previously
chosen. The order used in the audio was selected randomly; (1) Country 139 BPM, (2) Tango
106 BPM, (3) Heavy Metal 91 BPM, (4) Disco 105 BPM, (5) Blues 90 BPM, (6) Disco 125
BPM, (7) Rock 120 BPM, (8) Country 125 BPM, (9) Tango 77 BPM, (10) Techno 120 BPM,
(11) Classical 82 BPM, (12) Pop 124 BPM, (13) Classical 89 BPM, (14) Bachata 128 BPM,
(15) Techno 124 BPM, (16) Rock 85 BPM, (17) Pop 68 BPM, (18) Metal 107 BPM, (19)
Blues 100 BPM and (20) Bachata 69 BPM.
Furthermore, the polygraph was used during the study, specifically, a modulator and
an amplifier MP36, which has an electrical source and a USB connector at its back to connect
it with a computer and on the other side, 4 channels to connect different electrodes. The
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computer also counts with a software app called BSL Lessons 3.7. to record data. Disposable
electrodes were used to assess the participant’s physiological responses, more precisely, two
types of them. Firstly, two electrodes were placed in the 2nd and 3rd fingers of the left hand
to record the galvanic response. Secondly, three electrodes were used to measure heart rate,
one was placed on the right wrist and the other two were pasted on the inner parts of the
ankles. Lastly, the breathing response was recorded by an elastic band with a transducer that
measures the pressure of the chest while breathing. For each of the responses the mean,
maximum and minimum values were taken into consideration for the analysis.
Procedure
On the day of the experiment, we went to Deustopsych. This place has a specialised
room completely shielded to avoid interferences and it was already prepared to start right
away. Right before starting, we gave the participant an informed consent (see annexes) where
we specified his rights and what the experiment was about. After he signed, a member of our
group proceeded to explain that he would just need to listen to 20 sound stimuli of 10
different genres and from each, two melodies with a different tempo, while he was connected
to the polygraph. During this explanation other group members were noting down his
behaviour, preparing the computer with the software to measure his physiological responses
and plugging the corresponding cables into the polygraph. Furthermore, before putting the
electrodes on we conducted a sound check to see if he could hear the audio correctly from the
laptop’s speakers. As there was no problem, we proceeded to put the electrodes in the
corresponding places and hook the cables to the electrodes; the breathing response did not
need any electrode so first the band was adjusted to the participant’s body and then the cable
was connected to the polygraph. After finishing the placement of electrodes, one of our
colleagues conducted a calibration to see if the three physiological responses would be
well-read. After doing so, the participant was told to prepare and relax as the experiment was
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going to start first with a 40-second silence to have our baseline then, the melodies. While
listening to the melodies two of the group members annotated his physical reactions while
another member was marking in the registering file the moment of each stimulus. During the
process, the participant was seated on a chair in front of the computer that was reproducing
the audio and giving the back to the colleagues that were noting his behaviour and the
polygraph. When the audio finished electrodes were removed from the participant and we
thanked him for his participation. As a whole, the experiment lasted 10 minutes.
Data Analysis
To compare the two groups of our study, physiological response to a slower tempo
and a faster tempo, we used an independent sample T-test in Jamovi to assess if there was any
significant difference between the two conditions’ means. We established a 95% confidence
interval.
Results
Before starting with any analysis we need to clarify that the breathing response was
not recorded due to problems with the instrument and the clothing of the participant. Firstly, a
normality test was conducted leading to the conclusion that instead of two specific variables,
heart rate mean in the slow tempo and the galvanic maximum in the fast tempo, all of them
were found to follow a normal distribution. Consequently, even if the absence of normal
distribution occurs in just two conditions, it means that the variable as a whole does not
follow it. Hence, to conduct our data analysis we used T-test to compare the variables that
follow normality and Mann-Whitney U to make the analysis of the variables that are
considered to not follow a normal distribution in both slow and fast tempo.
In addition, to be able to choose the correct data in the T-test analysis, we conducted
Levene’s homogeneity test, which allows the detection of equal variances. All the variables’
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results, except one, were above .05, therefore, we can conclude that most of the variables
followed equal variances.
When comparing the results obtained in both faster and slower tempos to the baseline
it can be glimpsed that there are some changes among them (HRmean = 82.19, HRmax = 90.9,
HRmin = 75, Gmean = -0.22, Gmax = -0.19, Gmin = -0.14), meaning that the absence and the
presence of stimuli did have an impact.
Finally, by comparing the means of the Galvanic and Heart rate responses, we can see
how the participant scored a little higher on those tempos considered to be fast. None of the
differences are significant, even for those who had to be assessed via Mann-Whitey U (see
Figure 1).
Table 1
Descriptives and results of T-test and Mann-Whitney U for the two conditions
Tempo Faster Slower t(18)/U p
M SD M SD
Galvanic Mean -0.03 0.05 -0.06 0.06 1.275 .218
Galvanic Max 0.01 0.09 -0.02 0.09 46** .791**
Galvanic Min -0.07 0.06 -0.09 0.07 0.498 .624
Heart rate Mean 75.96 3.31 75.47 3.11 43** .631**
Heart rate Max 84.19 3.9 84.2 2.25 -0.007 .994
Heart rate Min 68.41 3.4 68 3.26 0.272 .789
Note. * Low scores (p < .05), suggest a violation of normal distribution. **Mann-Whitey U
results.
Discussion
Our study aimed to compare physiological responses with music tempos. Taking into
consideration all the results, we can see how there are no differences in the physiological
response of our participant depending on the tempo of the music. On the contrary, other
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researchers have concluded that the tempo of music had influences on physiological
responses, specifically faster tempos (Dillman Carpentier & Potter, 2007). However, there
was also previous evidence that showed how just the presence of any music elicited higher
physiological responses which may have been why our results were not significant (Dillman
Carpentier & Potter, 2007). Hence, our hypothesis cannot be confirmed as there is not a
statistically significant higher activation when listening to faster tempos.
Limitations emerged throughout the study, which could be another reason why the
results were not found to be significant. On the day that the experiment was carried out, the
participant wore his hoodie during the collection of the physiological data, which may have
been why the breathing elastic band was not well adjusted to the participant’s chest.
Therefore, the collection of the breathing data was affected and not recorded, even if the
calibration process worked perfectly. The fact that we could not collect the breathing data
may have interfered with the analysis of the results and the confirmation of the hypothesis,
thus, future research should be careful and monitor what type of clothes are the participants
wearing. Besides, we believe the participant may have been nervous before the trial or might
have come running since the baseline heart rate is higher than during the faster tempos, which
could be solved by leaving more time for the participant to relax and habituate to the
situation. Another limitation might have been that all group members and the teacher were
watching the participant during the study, which could have made him uncomfortable.
Nevertheless, he showed relaxed behaviour during all the processes. When signing the
informed consent he was prepared to do everything that was needed, helped with the
electrode placement and while hearing the different stimuli he stayed in the same position
looking to the front only moving his head to follow the beat of the music on various
occasions. Finally, only recording the data from just a participant could have been influential
since there might be strange variables that we could not detect. Thus, further research should
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be done in which new variables should be considered, such as age, favourite music, mood at
the time of the experiment, and the sample should have more participants to make a variety of
comparisons.
In conclusion, even if there was no significant relationship between physiological
responses and music, we believe our study could contribute to boosting future research on the
topic and future researchers could benefit from the limitations listed to avoid them in their
studies and continue enriching this field of psychophysiology.
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References
Bannister, S. & Eerola, T. (2023). Supplemental material for vigilance and social chills with
music: Evidence for two types of musical chills. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity,
and the Arts, 17(2), 242–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000421.supp (Impact factor:
3.6)
Burns, J. L., Labbé, E., Arke, B., Capeless, K., Cooksey, B., Steadman, A., & Gonzales, C.
(2002). The effects of different types of music on perceived and physiological
measures of stress. Journal of music therapy, 39(2), 101-116.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jmt/39.2.101 (Impact factor: 0.4)
Cheng, W. L. S., Tang, A. C. Y., Tsang, M. C. M., Wong, L. L. K., & Körlin, D. (2023).
Effect of music breathing, a program based on mindful breathing and music listening
therapy for promoting sense of coherence in young people: Study protocol for a
randomized controlled trial. Trials, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-023-07645-x
(Impact factor: 2.7)
Dillman Carpentier, F. R., & Potter, R. F. (2007). Effects of music on physiological arousal:
Explorations into tempo and genre. Media Psychology, 10(3), 339-363.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15213260701533045 (Impact factor: 1.41)
Gerstgrasser, S., Vigl, J. & Zentner, M. (2023). Supplemental material for the role of listener
features in musical emotion induction: The contributions of musical expertise,
personality dispositions, and mood state. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the
Arts, 17(2), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000468.supp (Impact factor: 3.6)
Grewe, O., Nagel, F., Kopiez, R., & Altenmüller, E. (2007). Emotions over time:
Synchronicity and development of subjective, physiological, and facial affective
reactions to music. Emotion, 7(4), 774–788.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.4.774 (Impact factor: 3.088)
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Loureiro, C., Van Der Meulen, K., & Del Barrio, C. (2024). Why I listen to music: Emotion
regulation and identity construction through music in mid-adolescence. EMPIRIA.
Revista de metodología de ciencias sociales, 60, 145–168.
https://doi.org/10.5944/empiria.60.2024.39285
Mori, K., & Iwanaga, M. (2017). Two types of peak emotional responses to music: The
psychophysiology of chills and tears. Scientific Reports, 7(46063).
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46063 (Impact factor: 4.122)
Peretti, P. O., & Swenson, K. (1974). Effects of music on anxiety as determined by
physiological skin responses. Journal of Research in Music Education, 22(4),
278-283. https://doi.org/10.2307/3344765 (Impact factor: 0.895)
Rickard, N. S. (2004). Intense emotional responses to music: A test of the physiological
arousal hypothesis. Psychology of Music, 32(4), 371-388.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735604046096 (Impact factor: 1.182)
Zhou, Y., & Lian, J. (2023). Identification of emotions evoked by music via spatial-temporal
transformer in multi-channel EEG signals. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 17.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2023.1188696 (Impact factor: 4.3)
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Annexes
Online metronome: https://vocalremover.org/es/key-bpm-finder
Melodies:
● Rock:
○ Slow tempo (85 BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kGo3-Sx6Juo&list=PL-xVUW9dZgbcaN
_ZmfinemsU7QdACG2fv
○ Fast tempo (120 BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wjhxTWdqZVQ&list=PL-xVUW9dZgbca
N_ZmfinemsU7QdACG2fv&index=2
● Pop:
○ Slow tempo (68BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bWkoTTe8ZAU&list=PLo3rXxvVR8ZZ2
hyNlnjdOCrzTv_vl8XdK&index=8
○ Fast tempo (124 BPM): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=32RYSxtVToA /
● Techno:
○ Slow tempo (120 BPM): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GE6zXADYy3A
○ Fast tempo (124 BPM): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PLrVdrW4DIs
● Classical:
○ Slow tempo (82 BPM): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Diu2N8TGKA
○ Fast tempo (89 BPM):https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8QorZ9fcg3o
● Disco:
○ Slow tempo (105 BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IrqwevLQFsk&list=PL-xVUW9dZgbfGZ
asvSPz5fTyZ0S23isov&index=4
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○ Fast tempo (125 BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdvDJJHVXMU&list=PL-xVUW9dZgbf
GZasvSPz5fTyZ0S23isov
● Bachata:
○ Slow tempo (69 BPM): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C_nHF6iRLk4
○ Fast tempo (128 BPM): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q9XNe1kN7n0
● Tango:
○ Slow tempo (77 BPM):https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Myfe-e5lSs
○ Fast tempo (106 BPM): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bvhjmKkxPQ0
● Heavy metal:
○ Slow tempo (91 BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mvkWCfwppnw&list=PLLEnbi5KRv6Z8
CMUtLiA81-wQCLVUOKYs&index=4
○ Fast tempo (107 BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=58PCM-x7jlg&list=PLLEnbi5KRv6Z8C
MUtLiA81-wQCLVUOKYs
● Blues:
○ Slow tempo (90 BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XXSQbJIHVEA&list=PLShndUBoSSaLn
2gxNIxnLDfuBDRhu_Vy3&index=
○ Fast tempo (100 BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eHPZeYJD0KY&list=PLShndUBoSSaLn
2gxNIxnLDfuBDRhu_Vy3&index=3
● Country:
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○ Slow tempo (125 BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=USnylYpm5BE&list=PL7pkSK1xbGD6y
BWjHrqtBqRJgKLLPoWau
○ Fast tempo (139 BPM):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fNoKN-tc6jc&list=PL7pkSK1xbGD6yB
WjHrqtBqRJgKLLPoWau&index=5
Soundcheck: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MSf5d_3u-SQ
Silence between the melodies: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TgCGBwCJCrw
Final Melody Mix:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/12bzQFVrJti1U27zAfBHVir0hLQk0oZTt/view?usp=sharing
The app we used to create the mix: Super Sound
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.tianxingjian.supersound&pli=1
Polygraph software: BSL lessons 3.7 (Lesson 9: Polygraph)
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Informed Consent:
