BIOLOGY-MDCAT-2024

LIFE PROCESSES IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

LIFE PROCESSES IN

ANIMALS & PLANTS

(NUTRITION/GASEOUS
EXCHANGE/TANSPORT)
• Carnivorous plants/parasitic nutrition (Pitcher plant, Venus-fly trap, Sundew)
• Water and mineral uptake by roots, xylem and phloem
• Osmotic pressure/potential
• Cardiovascular system (including human heart structure, blood vessels)
• Respiratory system
• Digestive system
• Immune system
• Lymphatic system
Learning Objectives
• Discuss the examples of carnivorous plants (Pitcher plant, Venus-fly trap, sundew)
• Describe osmotic pressure and its importance in life processes in animals and plants
• Describe water and minerals uptake by roots, xylem and phloem
• List general structure of human heart
• Define the phases of a cardiac cycle
• List the differences and functions of capillaries, arteries and veins
• Describe the lymphatic system (organs, nodules, vessels)
• Define and discuss the functions and importance of main components of immune system
• Discuss the functions of main parts of respiratory system
• Discuss the role of surfactant in gas exchange
• Discuss the process of gas exchange in human lungs
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• List the parts of human digestive system
• Explain the functions of the main parts of digestive system including associated structures and
glands

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CARNIVOROUS PLANTS/PARASITIC NUTRITION (PITCHER, VENUS FLY
TRAP AND SUNDEW)
• They trap and digest insects and small animals
• All of the insectivorous plants are true autotrophs
• When they trap insects, the growth of plants become rapid
• In some plants the trapped insects are decomposed by bacteria
• In plants, the trapped insects and are digested by enzymes secreted by the leaves
• These plants absorb the nitrogenous compounds thus formed

PITCHER PLANTS
• Sarracenia pupurea
• Have leaves modified into a sac or a pitcher, party filled with water
• The end of the leaf is modified to form a hood, which partly covers the mouth of the pitcher
• Small insects that fall into the pitcher are prevented from climbing out by numerous stiff hairs
• The proteins of trapped insects are decomposed by bacteria or enzymes and the products of this
decay are absorbed by the inner surface of the pitcher leaf

VENUS-FLY TRAP
• Dionaea muscipula
• The leaf is bilobed with midrib between them
• There is a row of long stiff bristles along the margins of each lobe

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• When insect touches small sensitive hairs on the surface of the leaf, the lobes quickly come
together with their bristles interlocked
• The trapped insect is then digested by the enzymes secreted from the glands on the leaf surface
and the products are then absorbed

SUNDEW
• Drosera intermedia
• The tiny leaves bear numerous hairs like tentacles, each with a gland at its tips
• The insects, attracted by the plant’s odour are entangled
• The proteins of insects are digested by enzymes and the products are absorbed

ASCENT OF SAP
• The water and dissolved minerals are carried or pulled upwards towards the leaves through
xylem tissues. This is called ascent of sap.
• It may involve the following
o Cohesion tension theory

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o Root pressure
o Imbibition

COHESION TENSION THEORY

• Is one of the most important theories proposed by Dixon
• This theory provides a reasonable explanation of flow of water and minerals upwards from the
roots to leaves of plants, in bulk flow or mass flow
• This depends on the following
i. Cohesion
• It is the attraction among water molecules which hold water together, forming a
solid chain like column within the xylem tubes
• The water molecules form hydrogen bonds between them
ii. Tension
• It is provided when this water chain is pulled up in the xylem
• Transpiration provides the necessary energy or force
• Tension is between the molecules of water by hydrogen bonds
• This xylem water tension is strong enough to pull water up to 200 meters (more
than 600 feet) in plants
iii. Adhesion
• It may be added that the water molecules also adhere to the cell walls of xylem cells,
so that the column of water in xylem tissue does not break
• The composition of cell wall provides necessary adhesion to water molecules that
helps water creep up
• The cellulose component of cell wall especially has great affinity for water
• It can imbibe water
iv. Strong xylem walls
• It is essential that the xylem walls should have high tensile strength if they are not to
buckle inwards
• The lignin and cellulose provide strength to cell wall of xylem vessels

By cohesion tension of water molecules, and the transpiration pull providing the necessary
energy, the sap (water and minerals) in xylem tissue is pulled upwards to the leaves. Large quantities of
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water are carried at relatively high speed, upto 8mh-1 being recorded in tall trees and commonly in other
plants at 1mh-1

The total water pulled in the leaves is transpired, except about 1 % which is used by plant
in various activities including photosynthesis

MECHANISM OF TRANSPIRATION PULL

• The evaporation of water from the ariel parts of the plant especially through stomata of leaves is a
process called transpiration
• As a leaf transpires the water potential of its mesophyll cells drops
• This drop causes water to move by osmosis from the xylem cells of leaf into dehydrating
mesophyll cells
• The water molecules leaving the xylem are attached to other water molecules in the same xylem
tube by hydrogen bonds (cohesion of water molecules)
• Therefore, when one water molecule moves up the xylem, the process continues all the wall to the
root-where water is pulled from the xylem cells (tracheids and vessels)
• This pull also causes water to move down its concentration gradient transversely from the root
epidermis (root hairs) to cortex by endosmosis and to pericycle

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• This pulling force or transpiration pull is so strong that it also reduces the water potential of root
epidermal cells
• Then water in the soil moves from its higher water potential to lower water potential of epidermis
of root by osmosis

ROOT PRESSURE
• Second force in the movement of water and dissolved minerals up in the xylem tissue is the root
pressure
• Root pressure is created by the active secretion of salts and other solutes from the other cells into
the xylem sap
• This lowers the water potential of xylem sap
• Water enters the xylem cells by osmosis, thus increasing the level of sap in the xylem cells
• Water entering the xylem cells, may take apoptosis, symplast or vacuolar pathway increasing the
hydrostatic pressure in cells, this pushes the water upwards
• As a result of root pressure, the sap in the xylem does not rise to enough height in most plants
• The root pressure is also least effective during the day, when transpiration pull is the active force
involved in pulling the sap in xylem cells upwards
• It has been estimated that a positive hydrostatic pressure of around 100 to 200 KPa (exceptionally
800 KPa) is generated by root pressure
• The pressure mentioned above is not enough to push water upwards to required height in most
plants
• But it is no double a contributing factor in plants which transpire slowly, and are smaller in size

GUTTATION or EXUDATION
• It is a loss of liquid water through water secreting glands or hydathodes
• The dew drops that can be seen on the tips of grass leaves or strawberry leaves are actually
guttation droplets exuded from hydathodes

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• Guttation is more notable when transpiration is suppressed, and the relative humidity is high as at
night
• The guttation is in fact due to positive pressure-the root pressure, developed in xylem tissue of
roots

IMBIBITION
• Another important force in the ascent of sap is imbibition
• Sacks in 1874 suggested that the water molecules move along the cell walls of xylem vessels due
to imbibition
• The cell wall components especially cellulose, pectin and lignin can take up water and as a result
increase in volume, but the composition do not dissolve in water, this is called imbibition
• The amount of attraction and increase of dry cell walls of plant cells, and of protoplasm for water
is often very great and considerable imbibition forces may be developed in plant body
• The root cell walls imbibe water from the soil, and this water moves by apoptosis pathway

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• Imbibition is a reversible process and when water is lost the original volume of cell wall and of
protoplasm is restored
• The uptake of water by imbibition is especially important in germinating seeds
• The volume of dry seed may increase up to 200 times by imbibition, as a result the seed coat
ruptures and make the germination of seed effective

BLEEDING
• Sometimes it so happens those certain plants, when cut, pruned, tapped or otherwise wounded,
show a flow of sap from the cut ends or surfaces quite often with the considerable force. This
phenomenon is commonly called bleeding
• It is often seen in many land plants in the spring, particularly grape wine, some palms, sugar
maple etc.
• Although the flow of sap is ordinarily slow, a considerable quantity of the sap within a period of 24
hours comes out of the plant
• In some palms when tapped, there may be a flow of sap to the extent of 10-15 litres per day
• The sap in such plants contains sugars and water in addition to organic and inorganic substances
(e.g., salts)
• There are two main factors responsible for bleeding
o The hydrostatic pressure in xylem and phloem elements
o The root pressure which is exerted by the xylem tissues of the roots

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OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA
• The guard cells function as multisensory hydraulic valves.
• Environmental factors, such as light intensity and quality, temperature, relative humidity, and
intracellular carbon dioxide concentration are sensed by guard cells and these signals are
integrated into well-defined stomatal responses

• There are two hypothesis which may explain the opening and closing of stomata

STARCH SUGAR HYPOTHESIS

• The German botanist H. Van Mohl proposed that the guard cells are the only photosynthesizing
cells of epidermis of leaf and sugars are produced in them during day time when light is available.
• When sugar level rises i.e., solute concentration increases or water potential decreases-and the
guard cells become turgid due to entry of water and they separate from one another, and stoma or
pores open

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• During night there is no photosynthesis the sugars are either converted into insoluble starch or
are used in respiration, this decreases free sugars in cell
• So, the osmotic pressure of guard cells is lowered, and water leaves the guard cells, which become
flaccid and stoma or pore between them closes

• But these processes are not fast enough to account for the rapid rise in turgor, of guard cells

INFLUX OF K+ IONS
• Potassium concentration in guard cells increases several folds, depending upon plant species
• Stomata open due to active transport of potassium ions (K+) into the guard cells from the
surrounding epidermis
• The accumulation of K+ decreases the water potential of guard cells
• Water enters the guard cells by osmosis, which become more turgid and stretched and stomata
are opened
• The stoma closes by reverse process; involving passive diffusion of K+ from guard cells followed by
water moving out by osmosis
• Level of carbon dioxide in the spaces inside the leaf and light, controls the movement of K + into or
out of guard cells
• A low level of carbon dioxide favors opening of the stomata, thus allowing an increased carbon
dioxide level and increased rate of photosynthesis
• Exposure to blue light, which is also effective in photosynthesis has been shown to acidify the
environment of guard cells (i.e., pumps out protons) which enable he guard cells to take up K +
followed by water uptake resulting in increased turgidity of guard cells
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• So, in general stoma are open during day and closed at night
• This prevents needless loss of water by the plant when it is too dark for photosynthesis
• The plants open their stomata by actively pumping potassium in guard cells causing water to
follow by osmosis
• Guard cells become turgid and stoma or pore opens
• When potassium levels the guard cells (during night) water leaves the guard cells by exosmosis
and guard cells become flaccid and stoma or pores between guard cells closes.

THE MECHANISM OF PHLOEM TRANSLOCATION/TRANSPORT

• The theory called. Pressure-Flow theory, is the most acceptable theory for the transport in the
phloem of angiosperm
• We have considerable evidence to support this theory
• There are two main categories of theories to account for movement of sap in phloem
• The active theories involving the use of energy for the movement of materials in phloem, and the
phloem, and the passive theories in which no use of energy was involved
• The active theories have all been abandoned as there is not much evidence to support these
theories
• Noe we are left with passive theories of transport/translocation
• These includes

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i. Diffusion
ii. Pressure flow theory

DIFFUSION
• Diffusion is far too slow, to account for the velocities of sugar movement in phloem, which on the
average is 1 metre per hour, while the rate of diffusion is 1 metre per eight years
• So, we are left with pressure flow theory

PRESSURE FLOW THEORY

• A hypothesis was first proposed by Ernst Munch in 1930
• It states that the flow of solution in the sieve elements is driven by an osmotically generated
pressure gradient between source and sink

• Now this hypothesis has been status of a theory

• Following steps explain pressure flow theory
1. The glucose formed in the photosynthesizing cells, is used within the cells (for respiration etc.)
and the rest is concerted into non-reducing sugar i.e., sucrose
2. This sucrose is actively transported through the bundle sheath cells to the companion cell of the
smallest vein in leaf, a short distance transport (involving 2-3 cells). Thus, sucrose diffuses

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through plasmodesmata to sieve tube cell or sieve element, raising the concentration of sucrose in
it. The pathway taken by sucrose is symplast in most cases; but in some, apoplast pathway do
takes place. The sucrose is actively transported to the sieve elements
3. The water moves by osmosis from the nearby xylem in the leaf vein. This increases the hydrostatic
pressure of the sieve tube element
4. Hydrostatic pressure moves the sucrose and other substance in the sieve tube cells, and moves to
sinks, e.g., fruits and roots. In the storage sinks, such as sugar beet root and sugarcane stem,
sucrose is removed into apoplast prior to entering symplast of the sink
5. Water moves out of sieve tube cells by osmosis, lowering the hydrostatic pressure.
6. In symplast pathway sucrose (or sugars) move through plasmodesmata to the receiver cell. Thus,
according to pressure flow theory, the pressure gradient is established as a consequence of entry
of sugars in the sieve elements at the source; and removal of sugars (sucrose) at the sink. The
energy driven entry of sugars in sieve tube elements, generate high osmotic pressure in the sieve
tube elements of the source causing a steep drop in the water potential
7. The presence of sieve plates greatly increases the resistance along the pathway and results in the
generation and maintenance of substantial pressure gradient in the sieve elements between
source and sink

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i. The sieve elements contents are physically pushed along the transportation pathway by bulk flow,
much like water flowing through a garden hose
ii. The pressure flow theory accounts for the mass flow of molecules within phloem.
iii. It may be noted that the transportation of photosynthate or carbohydrates from the mesophyll
cells to phloem tissue involves diffusion and active transport (carrier mediated transport)
iv. Then in phloem tissue (sieve tubes) the movement of material is according to pressure flow
theory
v. Again, in the sink cells when the sugar and the carbohydrates are passed from the phloem tissue,
diffusion and carrier mediated transport, either passive or active, takes place.

Companion cells provide to the sieve tube elements

i. ATP
ii. Proteins

OSMOTIC PRESSURE/POTENTIAL
Water Potential Ψw

• Water molecules possess K.E which means that in liquid or gaseous form, they move about rapidly
and randomly from one place to another
• So, greater the concentration of the water molecules in a system the greater is the K.E of water
molecules, this is called water potential (Ψw)
• In plant cells two factors determine water potential
o Solute concentration (osmotic or solute potential=Ψs)
o Pressure generated when water enters and inflates plant cells (pressure potential= Ψp)
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• Pure water has maximum water potential which by definition is zero
• Water moves from a region of high Ψw to lower Ψw
• All solutions have lower Ψw than pure water and so have negative value of Ψw (at atmospheric
pressure and at a defined temperature)

Osmotic (solute) potential=Ψs

• The osmotic (solute) potential Ψs is a measure of the change in water potential Ψw of the system
due to the presence of solute molecules
• Ψs is always negative
• More solute molecules present, lower (more negative) is the Ψs

Pressure potential=Ψp

• If pressure greater than atmospheric pressure is applied to pure water or a solution, its water
potential increases
• It is equivalent to pumping water from one place to another
• When water enters plant cells by osmosis pressure may be built up inside the cell making the cell
turgid and increasing the pressure potential
• The total water potential is sum of Ψs and Ψp
• The steeper the potential gradient the faster is the flow of water along it
• kPa = 1000 Pascals, which is the pressure exerted by a vertical force of one Newton on an area of
1 metre square

Cell A Cell B
Ψw = -1200 kPa Ψw = -800 kPa
Ψp = 800 kPa Ψp = 600 kPa
Ψs = -2000 kPa Ψs = -1400 kPa
• Cell B has the maximum water potential
• Water moves from high concentration (cell B) to low concentration (cell A)
• At equilibrium
o Water potential will be -1000 kPa
o Pressure potential will be 700 kPa

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o Solute potential will be -1700 kPa

BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- STRUCTURE OF HUMAN HEART

Location

• The heart is located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs

• The heart, trachea, esophagus and associated structures from a middle portion called
mediastinum
• The heart lies deep and obliquely in the mediastinum and slightly to the left of the sternum

Pericardium

• Is a closed sac that surrounds the heart

• It consists of two parts
o Outer part consists of inelastic white fibrous tissue
o Inner part is made up of two membranes
▪ The inner membrane is attached to the heart
▪ The outer membrane is attached to the fibrous tissues
o Pericardial fluid is secreted between these two membranes
• Pericardium protects the heart, prevents it from over extension

Anatomy of the Heart

• It consists of four chambers

o Two atria (meaning entrance)
o Two ventricles (meaning belly)

Walls of the Heart

• It has three layers of tissues

o Epicardium- is a thin serous membrane comprising of the smooth outer surface of
the heart
o Myocardium- is the thick middle layer, composed of cardiac muscle cells

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o Endocardium- The smoother inner surface, consist of simple squamous epithelium
over a layer of connective tissue
• The heart valves are formed by a fold of the endocardium, making a double layer of
endocardium with connective tissue in between

Heart chambers and Valves

• Right atrium receives three veins

o Superior vena cava
o Inferior vena cava
o Coronary sinus
• Left atrium receives the four
o Pulmonary veins
• Atria is separated by interatrial septum
• Ventricles are separated by interventricular septum
• The atria open into the ventricles through atrioventricular canals
• The right ventricle opens into the pulmonary trunk
• The left ventricle opens into the aorta

Atrioventricular valves

• Are composed of cusps or flaps

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• Prevent blood from flowing back into the atria
• Tricuspid valves (three cusps) between right atrium and right ventricle
• Bicuspid or mitral valves (two cusps) between left atrium and left ventricle

• Each ventricle contains cone-shaped muscular pillars called papillary muscles

• Papillary muscles are attached by thin, strong connective tissue strings called chordae tendinea to
the atrioventricular valves
• The word chordae tendinea means heart strings

Semilunar valves

• The aorta and pulmonary trunk possess aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves
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• The word semilunar means half-moon shaped
• Each valve consists of three pocket like semilunar cusps, the free inner borders of which meet in
the centre of the artery to block blood flow

Passage of blood through heart

• These muscles contain myofibrils, and myofilaments of myosin and actin

• Their arrangement is similar to those in skeletal muscle fibres, and their mechanism of
contraction is essentially the same, except that they are branched cells, in which the successive
cells are separated by junctions called intercalated discs
• The heart contracts automatically with rhythmicity, under the control of the autonomic nervous
system of the body
• Human heart functions as a double pump, and is responsible for pulmonary and systemic
circulations.
• Complete separation of deoxygenated blood (right side) and oxygenated blood (left side) in the
heart is maintained
• When the left ventricle contracts, it pushes the blood through aorta to all parts of the body (except
lungs)
• At the base of aorta semilunar valves are also present.
• The valves of the heart control the direction of the flow of the blood
• The wall of the left ventricle is thicker (about 3 times) than that of the right ventricle
• At the base of aorta, first pair of arteries, the coronary arteries, arise, and supply blood to the heart

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• The aorta forms an arch, and before descending down gives three branches supplying blood to
o Head
o Arms
o Shoulders
• The aorta descends down in the chest cavity
• It gives many small branches to the chest wall and then passes down to the abdominal region
• Here, it gives branches, which supply blood to different parts of alimentary canal, kidneys and the
lower abdomen.
• The aorta bifurcates into iliac arteries each of which leads to supply blood to each leg
• The blood from the upper parts of the body is collected by different veins, which join to form
superior vena cava; which pass its blood to the right atrium
• Two iliac veins are formed veins which collect blood from legs, and unite to form inferior vena
cava
• It receives renal vein from each kidney; and hepatic vein from the liver, before it enters the right
atrium
• Mesenteric vessels are associated with digestive tract
• Splenic vessels are associated with spleen

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• The liver receives hepatic portal veins which is formed by many veins collecting deoxygenated
blood with absorbed food from different parts of alimentary canal
• Jugular veins (also subclavian veins from arms)
• Carotid artery (also subclavian artery to arms)

BLOOD
Blood consists of dissolved
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i. Nutrients
ii. Gases
iii. Hormones
iv. Wastes
Blood is made up of two main components

i. Plasma
ii. Cells or cell-like bodies
a. RBC’s
b. WBC’s
c. Platelets
The weight of the blood in our body is about 1/12th of our body

Blood Plasma
A blood consists of
i. 55 % by volume of plasma
ii. 45 % by volume of cells or cell like bodies
Plasma consists of

i. 90 % water
ii. 10 % dissolved substances
These dissolved substances include;

i. Inorganic ions or mineral ions

• The total percentage of dissolved ions and salts is 0.9 % of the plasma of humans, by weight more
than two thirds of this amount is sodium chloride the ordinary table salt.
• Even if the total concentration of dissolved substances remains the same, shifts in the
concentration of particular ion can create serious disturbances.
• The normal pH of human blood is 7.4 and it is maintained between narrow limits, because the
change in pH would affect the chemical reactions of the body.
ii. The plasma proteins
• It constitutes 7-9 % by weight of the plasma.
• Most of these proteins are synthesized in the liver. Some of the globulins, called immunoglobulins
or antibodies are produced in response to antigens, by lymphocytes; and then are passed to
plasma, and lymph.
• The proteins like prothrombin acts as a catalyst in blood clotting process.
• Fibrinogen takes part in the blood clotting process.
• Immunoglobulins plays important role in body’s defense against disease.
iii. Organic nutrients in the blood
• It includes
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o Glucose
o Fats
o Phospholipids
o Amino acids
o Lactic acids
• Some of them enter the blood from the intestine (absorption).
• Lactic acid is produced in muscles as a result of glycolysis, and is transported by blood to liver.
• Cholesterol is an important constituent, it is metabolized to some extent, but also serve as
precursor of steroid hormones.
iv. Nitrogenous waste products
• These are formed as a result of cellular metabolism.
• These products are carried from the liver where they are produced, to the organs where they are
removed i.e., kidneys.
• Urea and small amounts of uric acid are present in plasma
v. Hormones
• These are carried by blood
vi. Gases
• It includes carbon dioxide and oxygen

TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS

RBC’S (ERYTHROCYTES)
• These are most numerous of the cells in the blood
• A cubic millimeter contains 5-5 ½ million of them in males, and 4-4 ½ million in females
• Nucleus us found in erythrocytes, but when they become mature (RBC’s) they lose nucleus

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• A red blood cell consists of
o 95 % of the cytoplasm of red blood cells is of haemoglobin (red pigment)
o 5 % of the enzymes, salts and other proteins
• Once red cells mature, they do not divide
• In embryonic stage, red blood cells are formed in liver and spleen
• RBCs are formed principally in the red bone marrow of short bones such as
o Sternum
o Ribs
o Vertebrae
• The average life span of RBC is about four months after which it breaks down and
disintegrates in the liver and spleen-partly phagocytes by phagocytosis
WBC’S (LEUCOCYTES)
• The blood cells are colorless, as they do not contain pigments
• One cubic millimeter of blood contains 7000 to 8000 of them
• They are much larger than the red blood cells
• They can be classified on the basis of the shape of nucleus and density of granules in the
cytoplasm as;
o Agranulocytes
▪ Are formed in lymphoid tissues such as those of the lymph nodes, spleen,
tonsils, adenoids and the thymus
▪ It includes
• Monocytes
• Lymphocytes B
• Lymphocytes T
o Granulocytes
▪ Are formed in the red bone marrow
▪ It includes
• Neutrophils
• Eosinophils
• Basophils
• Monocytes stay from 10-20 hours in the blood and enter tissues and become tissue
macrophages, performing phagocytic function
• Lymphocytes have life spans of months or even years, but this depends on the body’s need
for these cells.
• Leucocytes protect the body against foreign invaders, and use circulatory system to travel
to the site of invasion.
• Monocytes and neutrophils travel through capillaries and reach the site of the wound
where bacteria have gained entry
• Macrophages and neutrophils feed on bacterial invaders or other foreign cells including
cancer cells. They typically die in the process and their dead bodies accumulate and
contribute to the white substance called pus seen at infection site.

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• Basophils produce heparin-a substance that inhibits blood clotting. These also produces
chemicals, such as histamine, that participate in allergic reactions and in response to tissue
damage and microbial invasion
• Lymphocytes help to provide immunity against the disease
Cell Type Diagram Description Average Major function
number
present
RBC’s Biconcave disc 5,000,000 per Transport
(Erythrocytes) without nucleus, mm3 oxygen and a
Approx. 8 µm in small amount of
diameter carbon dioxide

WBC’s 7500 per mm3

(Leucocytes)
i. Neutrophils About twice the 62 % of WBC’s Destroy small
size of RBC, particle by
Nucleus two to phagocytosis
five lobed

ii. Eosinophils About twice the 2 % of WBC’s Inactivated

size of RBC, inflammation-
Nucleus bilobed producing
substances;
attacks parasites

iii. Basophils About twice the Less than 1 % of Releases heparin

size of RBC, WBC’s to prevent blood
Nucleus bilobed clots and
histamines,
which causes
inflammation

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iv. Monocytes Two to three 3 % of WBC’s Give rise to
times larger than macrophage,
RBC, Nuclear which destroy
shaped from larger particle by
round to lobed phagocytosis

v. Lymphocytes Slightly larger 32 % of WBC’s Functions in the

than RBC, immune
Nucleus nearly response by
fills cell producing
antibodies
PLATELETS Membrane 250,000 per Involved in blood
(Thrombocytes) bounded mm3 clotting
cytoplasmic
fragment of cells
in bone marrow
called
megakaryocytes

PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)
• These are not cells, but are fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes
• There is no nucleus in them
• There is no pigment in them
• Platelets help in conversion of fibrinogen (a soluble protein) into insoluble fibrin
• The fibrin threads enmesh red blood cells and other platelets in the area of damaged tissue,
ultimately forming a blood clot
• The clot serves a temporary seal to prevent bleeding until the damaged tissue can be
repaired.

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
The overall functions of blood in humans can be listed as follows
i. The plasma proteins maintain colloid osmotic pressure of the blood
a. 75 % by albumins
b. 25 % by globulins
c. Almost none by fibrinogen
ii. Blood helps to transport materials, in the body including
a. Nutrients
b. Water
c. Salts
d. Waste products
e. Hormones
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f. Gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen
iii. Blood helps in the defense against disease neutrophils and monocytes engulf and destroy
invading microorganisms e.g., bacteria
iv. Blood provides immunity by lymphocytes
v. Blood produces interferon, and antitoxins which are proteins, and protects our body from
nucleic acids and toxins of invading organisms
vi. Blood acts as a buffer to maintain the acid-base balance i.e., concentration of H+ and OH-
ions of the body
vii. Blood helps in maintaining the body temperature, concentration of water and salts, thus
helps in homeostasis
viii. Wall of blood helps in the exchange of materials between blood and body tissue through
blood capillaries via interstitial fluid
ix. Blood helps the body in maintaining the internal environment, by producing heparin,
histamines and also maintaining the amounts of chemicals including water and salts, in the
body and maintains body temperature to a constant or nearly constant levels
x. Blood helps in blood clotting process and seals the wounds, that stop entry of pathogens
into the body

BLOOD VESSELS
ARTERIES
i. These transport blood away from the heart to the various parts of the body through
capillaries
ii. All arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary arteries
iii. There are no valves in them except at the base of the pulmonary trunk and aorta
iv. Have high blood pressure
v. Wave of blood pressure or pulse due to heartbeat can be detected
vi. Blood flow rapid. 400-500mm per second in aorta and decreasing in arteries and arterioles
vii. Have smaller bore and thick wall
viii. Thick muscle layer and elastic fibres present. The elasticity helps changing the pulsating
flow of blood
ix. No exchange of materials
• Arteries are made up of three layers
a. Outer (made of connective tissues and elastic fibres)
b. Middle (made of thick muscular tissues and elastic fibres)
c. Inner (endothelium)

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VEINS
i. These collect blood from body through capillaries and transport it towards heart
ii. All veins carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins
iii. Valves are present. These prevent the backflow of the blood
iv. Have low blood pressure
v. No pulse
vi. Rate of blood flow increases from smaller to larger veins
vii. Have larger bore and thick walls
viii. Thin muscle layer and less elastic fibres. So, they are less elastic
ix. No exchange of materials

CAPILLARIES
i. These link arteries with veins
ii. These have mixed oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
iii. There are no valves
iv. Falling pressure in these
v. No pulse
vi. Blood flow slowest less than 1mm per second
vii. Larger bore; wall one cell in thickness
viii. No muscles or elastic fibres
ix. Responsible for exchange of materials
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• The exchange occurs in three ways
i. Active transport and diffusion through the cells lining the capillary wall into the
interstitial or extracellular fluid, and then to the body cells and vice versa
ii. Through the intercellular spaces of endothelial lining of wall of capillary to end from
the extracellular fluid
iii. Materials from the cavity of capillaries are also taken up by endocytosis, and then
passed to the other side by exocytosis. Same is true for some materials entering
from the intercellular spaces (extracellular fluid) into the blood.

CARDIAC CYCLE
• It is the sequence of events which takes place during the completion of one heart beat
• One heart beat takes 0.8 seconds
• Heat beat involves three distinct stages

RELAXATION PHASE-DIASTOLE
• The deoxygenated blood enters right atrium through vena cava, and oxygenated blood enters left
atrium through pulmonary veins.
• The walls of the atria and that of ventricles are relaxed
• As the atria are filled with blood, they become distended and have more pressure than the
ventricles
• This relaxed period of heart chambers is called diastole
• It takes 0.4 seconds

ATRIA CONTRACT-ATRIAL SYSTOLE

• The muscles of atria simultaneously contract, when the atria are filled and distended with blood,
this is called atrial systole
• The blood passes through tricuspid and bicuspid valves, into the two ventricles which are relaxed
• It takes 0.1 second

VENTRICLE’S CONTRACT-VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE

• When the ventricles receive blood from atria, both ventricles contract simultaneously and the
blood is pumped to pulmonary arteries and aorta
• The tricuspid and bicuspid valves close and ‘lubb’ sound is made

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• Ventricular systole ends, and ventricles relax at the same time semilunar valves at the base of
pulmonary artery and aorta close simultaneously, and ‘dubb’ sound is made
• It takes 0.3 seconds

• (Lubb, dubb can be heard with the help of a stethoscope)

• One complete heart beat consists of one systole and one diastole, and lasts for about 0.8 seconds.
In one’s life, heart contracts about 2.5 billion times, without stopping.

Systole Diastole
i. It measures the amount of pressure i. It is the pressure that is exerted
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that blood exerts on arteries when when the heart is relaxed
the heart is contracted
ii. Its normal range is 60-80 mmHg ii. Its normal range is 90-120 mmHg
iii. It represents the maximum pressure iii. It represents minimum pressure in
exerted on the arteries the arteries

MECHANISM OF HEART EXCITATION AND CONTRACTION

• The heart beat cycle starts when the sino-atrial node (pace maker) at the upper end of right
atrium sends out electrical impulses to the atrial muscles and causing both atria to contract
• The sino-atrial node consists of a small number of diffusely oriented cardiac fibres,
possesses few myofibrils; and few nerve endings from the autonomic nervous system
• Impulses from the node travel to the musculature of the atrium and to an atrioventricular
node
• From it an atrioventricular bundle of muscle fibres propagates the regulatory impulses via
excitable fibres in interventricular septum, to the myocardium of the ventricles
• There is a delay of approximately 0.15 second in conductance from the S-A node to A-V
node, permitting atrial systole to be completed before ventricular systole begins

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ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
• As the cardiac impulse passes through the heart, electrical currents spread into the tissues
surrounding the heart, and a small proportion of these spreads all the way on the surface of
the body
• Its electrodes are placed on the skin on opposite sides of the heart, electrical potentials
generated by these currents can be recorded.
• This recording is known as electro cardiogram which is taken by electrocardiograph (E.C.G)
machine
• It helps to diagnose the abnormalities in the rhythmicity and conduction system of the
heart which may be corrected by the use of artificial pacemaker.

ARTIFICIAL PACEMAKER
• Pacemaker is responsible for initiating the impulses which trigger the heart beat rate
• If there is some block in the flow of the electrical impulses or if the impulses initiated by S.A
node are weak; it may lead to the death of the individual.
• So, an artificial pacemaker, which is battery operated producing electrical stimulus is used
• For example, if A-V pathway is blocked, the electrodes of artificial pacemaker are attached
to the ventricles
• Then this pacemaker provides continued rhythmic impulses that take over the control of
the ventricles

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-AIR PASSAGEWAYS

• Consists of nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and
alveolar ducts which ultimately lead into the alveolar sac
• Upper respiratory tract consists of
o Nasal cavity
o Pharynx (throat)
o Larynx
o Trachea
• Lower respiratory tract consists of
o Bronchi
o Lungs
1. Nose
• Nose is only externally visible part of the respiratory system
• External openings of nose are called nostrils and the inner hollow spaces are called nasal
cavities
• There are two nasal cavities which are partitioned by means of nasal septum
o Anterior contain hairs
o Posterior are lined by ciliated membranes
2. Pharynx
• It is also known as throat

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• A cone shaped passage way leading from the oral and nasal cavities to the esophagus
and larynx
• Is digestive and respiratory part
• Has three sections
o Nasopharynx
o Oropharynx
o Laryngopharynx
3. Larynx
• Found at the top of trachea and below of pharynx
• Is composed of primarily of muscles and cartilages, one of the cartilages is the epiglottis
• Epiglottis partially covers the opening into the larynx and helps to prevent food and
liquids from entering the air passages
• The opening of the larynx is glottis
• Lined with mucous membrane
• Inside the larynx there are two vocal cords which are responsible for vocalization
4. Trachea
• Also known as windpipe
• 15-20 cm long
• C shaped
• Cartilaginous
5. Bronchi
• The trachea divides to form two smaller tubes called primary bronchi
• They primary bronchi divide into secondary bronchi
• There are two secondary bronchi in the left lung
• There are three secondary bronchi in the right lung
• The secondary bronchi give rises to tertiary bronchi
6. Bronchioles
• A bronchi with less than 1mm in diameter
• The bronchioles are of smooth tissues
• Are subdivided several times to become even smaller bronchioles

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7. Air sacs
• Functional unit of the lungs
• Consists of several microscopic single layered structures called alveoli

Lungs

• Bronchioles along with air sacs are termed as lungs

• Spongy in nature
• Placed in the chest cavity
• Covered with double layered thin membranous sacs called pleura

Diaphragm

• The flood of the chest is called diaphragm

• A sheet of skeletal muscle

INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
1. The act of drawing air into the lungs 1. The act of releasing air from lungs through
the nose or mouth
2. An active process 2. A passive process
3. The diaphragm moves down by contracting 3. The diaphragm moves up by relaxing and
and becoming flat becoming dome-shaped
4. The size of the chest cavity increases 4. The size of chest cavity decreases
5. Air moves into the lungs 5. Air moves out of the lungs

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TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN IN BLOOD
• Approximately 97 % of oxygen is carried by RBCs as oxyhaemoglobin
• 3 % is transported as dissolved oxygen in plasma
• The binding of oxygen and haemoglobin occurs in lungs in the presence of carbonic anhydrase
• Haemoglobin is purple red in color
• Oxyhaemoglobin is bright red in color
• The maximum amount of oxygen which normal human blood absorbs and carries at the sea level
is about 20ml/100ml of blood
• Under normal conditions, blood of alveoli of the lungs is not completely oxygenated
• At 115mm of Hg haemoglobin is 98 percent saturated therefore, contains 19.6 ml of oxygen per
100 ml of blood
• At 100 mm of Hg oxygen binds with haemoglobin
• At 60 mm of Hg oxygen leaves the haemoglobin
• High level of carbon dioxide, decreases the oxygen binding ability of haemoglobin
• Rise in temperature, causes a decrease in the oxygen binding ability of haemoglobin
• Decline in pH of the blood, decreases the oxygen binding ability of haemoglobin

TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN BLOOD

• Carbon dioxide is more soluble than oxygen
• It is transported in different ways
o About 23 % carried as carboxyhaemoglobin
o 70 % as bicarbonate ions combined with sodium in the plasma
o 7 % by plasma proteins
o Small amount is carried by corpuscles combined with potassium

RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS
• Colored molecules
• Act as oxygen carriers by binding reversibly to oxygen
• All known respiratory pigments contain a colored non-protein portion e.g., haem in the
haemoglobin

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Haemoglobin Myoglobin
1. It transports oxygen 1. It stores oxygen
2. It consists of four polypeptide chains 2. It consists of one polypeptide chain
3. Each molecule possesses four iron 3. Each molecule possesses one iron
containing haem groups containing haem group
4. Four oxygen molecules can bind to each 4. One oxygen molecule can bind to each
haemoglobin molecule myoglobin molecule
5. It is found in RBC’s 5. It is found in muscles
6. Is has less affinity with oxygen 6. It has more affinity with oxygen

RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME (RDS)

• It is common in premature infants, especially for infant with a gestation age of less than 7 months
• This occurs because enough surfactants are not produced to reduce the tendency of the lungs to
collapse
• Surfactants (mixture of lipoprotein molecules produced by the secretary cells of the alveolar
epithelium which forms a layer over the surface of the fluid within the alveoli to reduce the
surface tension)

LUNG CAPACITY
Fully Inflated lungs 5 litres
Exchange air in lungs during rest ½ litre
Exchange air in lungs during exercise 3.5 litre
Residual or stale air in lungs 1.5 litre
• Normally at rest we inhale and exhale 15-20 times per minute
• During exercise the breathing rate may rise to 30 times per minute
Inhaled % Exhaled %
Oxygen 21 16
Carbon Dioxide 0.04 4
Water vapors Variable Saturated
Nitrogen 79 79

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Organ/Structure Meaning Length

GIT 9 meters (30 feet)
Esophagus Passageway
Small Intestine 6-7 meter long, 2-4 cm diameter
Duodenum Twelve fingers breadth in length 20-25 cm long
Jejunum Empty 2.4 meter in length
Ileum Twisted 4 meter long
Vili 0.5-1.5 mm
Caecum Blind 9 cm long
Colon 1.5 meter long
Vermiform appendix Worm like 18 cm
Rectum Straight 15 cm long

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Anal canal 4 cm long
Pancreas Sweet bread
Gall Bladder 8 cm long, 4 cm diameter

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
• It extends from mouth to anus
• It is a continuous tube
• It is a locally differentiated structure
• It passes across the thoracic cavity and enters the abdominal cavity at the level of diaphragm
• The digestive tube consists of four major layers
o Internal mucosa
o Submucosa
o Muscularis
o External serosa
• These four layers are present in all areas of the digestive tract from the esophagus to the anus

Digestive organs

i. Oral cavity
ii. Pharynx
iii. Esophagus
iv. Stomach
v. Small intestine
vi. Large intestine

Accessory digestive organs

i. Teeth
ii. Tongue
iii. Salivary glands
iv. Liver
v. Gall bladder
vi. Pancreas

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ORAL CAVITY
• The mouth is surrounded by the lips, cheeks, tongue and a palate and includes a chamber between
the palate and tongue called oral cavity
• The tongue nearly fills the oral cavity when the mouth is closed

Components of Oral cavity

i. Palate
• It form the roof of the oral cavity
a. Soft palate posterior non-bony part consists of skeletal muscles and connective tissues
b. Hard palate anterior bony part
ii. Tongue
iii. Teeth
iv. Cheeks

Functions of oral cavity

• There are several functions of the oral cavity, the most obvious being the
i. Selection of food
ii. Grinding or mastication
iii. Lubrication
iv. Digestion
i. Selection of food
• When food enters the oral cavity (the cavity bounded by palate, tongue, teeth and cheeks) it is
tasted, smelled and felt.
• If the taste or smell is unpleasant or if hard objects like bone or dirt are present in the food, it is
rejected.
• Oral cavity is aided in selection by the senses of
o Smell
o Taste
o Sight
• Tongue being sensory and muscular organ plays the most important role in selection of food
through its taste buds.
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ii. Grinding or mastication
• After selection, the food is ground by means of molar teeth into smaller pieces.
• This is useful because:
a) The esophagus allows relatively small pieces to pass through and
b) Small pieces have much more surface for the enzyme to attack.
iii. Lubrication and digestion
• These are the main functions of the oral cavity accomplished by saliva.
• Saliva is secreted by three pairs of salivary glands namely
o Sublingual glands situated below the tongue
o Submaxillary glands behind the jaws
o Parotid glands in front of the ears.

• Saliva produced by these glands contains three important ingredients.

a) Water and mucus
• Water and mucus together make a slimy liquid which serves to moisten and lubricate the food so
that it can be chewed efficiently and passed through the esophagus smoothly.
b) Sodium bicarbonate and some other salts
• Sodium bicarbonate and some other salts are slightly antiseptic but their main function is to
stabilizes the pH of food.
• Fresh saliva is alkaline with a pH nearly 8, quickly loses carbon dioxide and gets to pH 6.
c) Carbohydrate digesting enzymes, amylase or ptyalin.
• Ptyalin is a carbohydrate - digesting enzyme, which digests starch and glycogen to maltose.
iv. Swallowing
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• As a result of mastication, the softened, partly digested, slimy food mass is rolled into small oval
lump called bolus, which is then pushed to the back of the mouth by the action of tongue and
muscles of pharynx which ensure that the food does not enter the windpipe.
• Following are the events which occur during swallowing:
a) The tongue moves upwards and backwards against the roof of the mouth, forcing the
bolus to the back of the mouth cavity.
b) The backward movement of the tongue pushes the soft palate up and closes the nasal
opening at the back. At the same time the tongue forces the epiglottis (a lap of cartilage)
into more or less horizontal position thus closing the opening of the windpipe (the
glottis)

Swallowing in man

c) The larynx, cartilage round the top of the windpipe moves upward under the back of
the tongue.
d) The glottis is partly closed by the contraction of a ring of muscle.
e) The food does not enter the partly open glottis, because the epiglottis diverts the food
mass to one side of the opening and safely down the esophagus.
• The beginning of the swallowing action is voluntary, but once the food reaches the back of the
mouth, swallowing becomes automatic.
• The food is then forced down the esophagus by peristalsis

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SALIVARY Function Secretion

GLANDS
Parotid glands Secretion of saliva through ducts to posterior portions of Saliva with amylase
oraI cavity
Submandibular Secretion of saliva in floor of oral cavity. Saliva, with amylase
glands mucus
Sublingual glands Secretion of saliva in floor of oral cavity Saliva with mucus only

ORAL CAVITY Function Secretion

Teeth Mastication (cutting and grinding of food), None
communication
Lips and Cheeks Manipulation of food; hold food in position between the Saliva from buccal
teeth; communication. glands (mucus only).
Tongue Manipulation of food; holds food in position between the Some mucus; small
teeth; cleansing teeth; taste amount of serous fluid.

Role of gravity

• Gravity assists the movement of material through the esophagus, especially when liquids are
swallowed.
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• However, the peristaltic contractions that move materials through the esophagus are sufficiently
forceful to allow a person to swallow, even while doing a headstand.

PHARYNX Function Secretion

Swallowing Some mucus

ESOPHAGUS Function Secretion

Movement of the food by peristalsis from pharynx to Mucus
stomach

HUNGER PANG
• Hunger contractions are peristaltic contractions which are increased by low glucose level and are
sufficiently strong to create and uncomfortable sensation often called a hunger pang
• It occurs usually 12-24 hour after previous meal’

PHARYNX
• It is also known as ‘throat’
• Consist of three parts
o Nasopharynx
o Oropharynx
o Laryngopharynx

ESOPHAGUS
• It is about 25 cm long
• The upper esophageal sphincter and a lower esophageal sphincter are present at the upper and
lower ends of the esophagus respectively

STOMACH
• It is typically J-shaped when empty

Cardiac Sphincter

• At the junction between esophagus and the stomach there is a special ring of muscles called
cardiac sphincter.
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• When the sphincter muscles contract, the entrance to the stomach closes and thus prevents the
contents of the stomach from moving back into the esophagus
• It opens when a wave of peristalsis coming down the esophagus reaches it.

Site of stomach

• The stomach is situated below the diaphragm on the left side of the abdominal cavity.

Primary role of stomach

• It is an elastic muscular bag that stores food from meals for some time, making discontinuous
feeding possible.

Secondary role of stomach

• It also partly digests the food.

Sagittal section of human stomach showing internal ridges and sphincters

Components of stomach

• The stomach wall is composed of three principal layers

o An outer layer of connective tissue
o Middle layer of smooth muscles
o Inner layer (mucosa) of connective tissue with many glands.
• The middle layer of muscles consists of
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o Outer longitudinal muscles
o Inner circular muscles
• These muscular layers help in churning and mixing the food with the stomach secretions.

Gastric glands

• The mucosa of the stomach possesses numerous tubular gastric glands, which are composed of
three kinds of cells
i. Mucous or goblet cells, that secrete mucus
ii. Parietal or oxyntic cells or delomorphic cells secrete hydrochloric acid
iii. Zymogen or chief or principal cells, which secrete pepsinogen

Section through stomach wall (on left side)

Detail of gastric gland in the stomach wall (on right side)
Gastric juice

• The secretion of all these cells is collectively called gastric juice.

• The secretion of the gastric juice is regulated by smell, sight and quality of food.
i. Role of mucus
• Mucus is a thick secretion that covers the inside of the stomach.
• It prevents the underlying walls from being digested.
ii. Role of HCl
• Hydrochloric acid is secreted in concentrated form.
• It adjusts the pH of stomach contents ranging from 2-3 for the pepsin to act on proteins.

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• It also softens the food and kills many microorganisms taken in along with the food.
iii. Role of Pepsinogen
• Pepsin is an enzyme secreted in an inactive form called pepsinogen.
• Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin when exposed to the acidic medium or to some already activated
pepsin.
• Pepsin hydrolyzes protein to yield peptones and polypeptides.

Chyme

• The muscles of stomach wall thoroughly mix up the food with gastric juice and eventually convert
it to semi-solid mass called chyme.

Pyloric sphincter

• Gradually the stomach empties into the duodenum through the relaxed pyloric sphincter

Gastrin hormone

• If more protein is present in the food, it stimulates the production of gastrin hormone from the
gastric endocrine lining, which is carried by blood to the gastric glands and stimulates them to
produce more gastric juice.
• Thus, more proteins more gastrin and more gastric juice for digestion.

STOMACH Function Secretion

Mechanical mixing of food; enzymatic digestion; storage;
absorption.
Mucous cells Protection of stomach wall by mucus production Mucus
Parietal cells Decrease in stomach pH HCl
Zymogen cells Protein digestion Pepsinogen
Endocrine cells Regulation of secretion and motility Gastrin

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• Endocrine cells secret the hormone gastrin into the blood

• In addition to these products the gastrin mucosa (parietal cells) secretes intrinsic factors
• Intrinsic factor is a glycoprotein that bonds with vitamin B12 and makes the vitamin more readily
absorbed in the ileum

HEART BURN OR PYROSIS

• It is a painful burning sensation in the chest usually associated with the back flush of acidic chyme
into the esophagus
• This is due to
o overeating,
o eating fatty food,
o lying down immediately after a meal,
o consuming too much alcohol, caffeine or
o smoking

SECRETIN
• These secretions are also stimulated by a hormone called secretin, which is produced by the
intestinal mucosa on the entry of acidic food from stomach

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• The acidity stimulates secretin production in duodenum and secretin is carried by blood to
pancreas which is stimulated to produce pancreatic juice
• Secretin also inhibits gastric secretion

SMALL INTESTINE
• Small intestine in man consists of
o Duodenum
o Jejunum
o Ileum

DUODENUM

• Duodenum is about 20-25 cm long, which leads into jejunum and then ileum.
• When chyme passes from stomach into duodenum, its acidity stimulates the release of secretions
from pancreas, liver and duodenal cells.
i. Role of Pancreas
• Pancreas is a large gland whose exocrine tissue secretes a juice that flows through pancreatic duct
into the duodenum.
• Included in this juice are enzymes that digest all principal components of food i.e., carbohydrates,
fats and proteins.
• Carbohydrate-digesting enzyme is pancreatic amylase also called amylopsin, which digests starch
into maltose.
• Fat digesting enzyme is lipase, that hydrolyzes a small percentage of fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.
• Like pepsin, trypsin is also secreted as inactive trypsinogen, which is activated by enterokinase, an
enzyme secreted by the lining of the duodenum.
• Trypsin splits proteins into peptones and polypeptides.
• Pancreatic juice also contains sodium bicarbonate, which partly neutralizes the chyme coming
from the stomach.
• This is necessary because enzymes of the pancreas do not work well in acid conditions.
ii. Role of liver

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• Liver secretes bile, which may be temporarily stored in the gall bladder and released into the
duodenum through the bile duct.
• The bile is green, watery fluid.
• It contains no enzymes, but its green colour is due to the bile pigments, which are formed from the
breakdown of hemoglobin in the liver.
• The bile also contains bile salts, which act on fats, and emulsifies them.
• It means that they break them up into small globules, which are then easily digested by water-
soluble lipase.
Jaundice
• If bile pigments are prevented from leaving digestive tract, they may accumulate in blood, causing
a condition known as jaundice.
Gall stones
• Cholesterol, secreted by the liver, may precipitate in the gall bladder to produce gall stones, which
may block release of bile

Laceration

• The liver is easily ruptured because it is large, fixed in position, and fragile or it may lacerate by a
broken rib.
• Liver rupture or laceration may result in severe internal bleeding.

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• The liver may become enlarged as a result of heart malfunctioning, hepatic cancer or may be
damaged due to hepatitis or being alcoholic

Secretins

• Hepatic and Pancreatic secretions are also stimulated by a hormone called secretin, which is
produced by the intestinal mucosa on the entry of acidic food from stomach.
• The acidity stimulates secretin production in duodenum and secretin is carried by blood to
pancreas which is stimulated to produce pancreatic juice.
• Secretin also inhibits gastric secretion.

ACCESSORY Function Secretion

GLANDS
Liver Secretion of bile into duodenum Bile
Gallbladder Bile storage; absorbs water and electrolytes to No secretions of its
concentrate bile. own, stores and
concentrates bile
Pancreas Secretion of several digestive enzymes and bicarbonate Trypsin, chymotrypsin,
ions into duodenum pancreatic amylase,
pancreatic lipase,
bicarbonate ions.
JEJUNUM

• It is the second portion of the small intestine extending from the duodenum to the ileum.
• It is about 2.4 meter in length comprising about two fifth of the small intestine.
• Lower three fifth of the small intestine from jejunum is the ileum.
• The food, which escapes undigested from the duodenum, is completely digested in the jejunum
and ileum by a group of enzymes contained in the intestinal juice.
• The overall picture of enzymes in the human digestive system, their substrates and final products
is as follows.

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SMALL Function Secretion

INTESTINE
Duodenal glands Protection Mucus
Goblet cells Protection Mucus
Absorptive cells Secretion of digestive enzymes and absorption of digested Enterokinase, amylase,
materials. peptidases, sucrase,
maltase, lactase, lipase
Endocrine cells Regulation of secretion and motility Gastrin, secretin
ILEUM

• Nearly all absorption of the products of digestion takes place in the ileum.
• The internal surface of ileum has many folds, which exhibit velvety appearance due to the
presence of numerous finger-like outgrowths called villi.
• Each villus is richly supplied with blood capillaries and a vessel called lacteal of lymphatic system
with a covering of epithelial cells.
• Electron microscope reveals that these cells have countless, closely packed cylindrical processes,
microvilli

Function of Ileum

• The total area of absorption becomes incredibly large due to the enfolding, villi and microvilli.
• Simple sugars and amino acids are absorbed by diffusion or active transport into the blood
capillaries through the microvilli.
• Some of the fatty acids and glycerol are also absorbed into blood stream.
• However, a large proportion of fatty acids and glycerol enter the epithelial cells of villi, where they
recombine into fats.
• These fats then enter the lacteals.

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• Proteins present in lymph vessels combine with fat molecules to form lipoprotein droplets.
• These pass into blood stream via thoracic lymphatic duct.
• The lipoproteins are subsequently hydrolysed by blood plasma enzyme and enter body cells,
where they may be used in respiration or stored as fat in the liver, muscle of under the skin

(a) Part of wall of small intestine showing glands and villi

(b) Detail of villus structure
• The intestinal contents are pushed along the alimentary canal by normal peristaltic activity.
• At the end of ileum, there is an ileocolic sphincter that opens and closes time to time to allow a
small amount of residue from the ileum to enter the large intestine.

Disturbance in ileum

• Many humans develop intestinal gas and diarrhea from consuming milk product, because they
lack the enzymes for digesting lactose in milk.
• The epithelial cells of villi are constantly shed into intestine.
• These cells are replaced by the new cells moving up due to rapid cell division in crypts

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LARGE INTESTINE
• The large intestine is composed of a
o Caecum
o Colon
o Rectum

Caecum

• Caecum is a blind sac that projects from the large intestine between ileum and colon.
• From the blind end of the caecum there arises a finger like process called appendix.
• The appendix, sometimes gets inflamed due to entrapping and then purification of food causing
appendicitis, which has to be removed surgically in many instances.

Colon

• The material that passes from the small intestine to the large intestine contains
o A large amount of water
o Dissolved salts
o Undigested material
• Water and salts are absorbed into blood, while undigested material is rejected as feces.

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• The fecal matter contains
o A large number of bacteria
o Plant fibers
o Slugged of mucosal cells
o Mucus
o Cholesterol
o Bile pigments
o Water
Symbiotic association
• Large intestine also harbors a large population of useful bacteria that synthesize some vitamins
especially vitamin K, which are absorbed in blood.
Diarrhea
• If the absorption of water and salts does not take place due to infection, drug action or emotional
disturbance, a condition known as diarrhea occurs.
• If this condition is unchecked, dehydration develops that may prove to be fatal.
Constipation
• The other extreme condition is constipation, which is caused by the excessive absorption of water

Rectum

• Rectum is the last part of large intestine, where feces are temporarily stored and ejected through
anus, at intervals.
• Anus is surrounded by two sphincters, the internal is of smooth and outer of striped muscles.
• Under normal conditions, as the rectum is filled up with feces, it gives rise to defecation reflex.
• This reflex can be consciously inhibited in individuals other than infants.
• Gradually the child learns to bring this reflex under control.

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LARGE Function Secretion

INTESTINE
Goblet cells Absorption, storage, and food movement. Protection Mucus

IMMUNE SYSTEM
• In 1796 an English country doctor Edward Jenner hypothesized that cowpox somehow conferred
protection against small pox
• The term immune is derived from Latin word immunis meaning ‘safe’ or free of burden
• The body’s response to foreign molecules, such as the production of antibodies directed against a
specific antigen is called immune response
• Immunology is the study of immunity and the defence mechanism of the body
• The human body has three lines of defence against microbial attack
o The external barriers
▪ Mucous
▪ Skin
o Non-specific internal defence (innate immunity)
▪ Phagocytes
▪ Natural killer cells
▪ Inflammation
▪ Fever

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o Specific (adaptive immunity) or immune system
▪ Cell mediated immunity
▪ Humoral immunity

Immunity

• The capacity to recognize the intrusion of any material foreign to the body and to mobilize cells
and cell products to help remove the particular sort of foreign material with greater speed and
effectiveness is called immunity
• It is the ability of resist damage from foreign substances such as microorganisms and harmful
chemicals e.g., toxins released by microorganisms

Immune system

• In animals in addition to physical barriers (skin and mucous membrane), and phagocytes, there is
a third mechanism, so defend their bodies against the foreign invaders; this is the immune system

Components of immune system

• In includes
o B Lymphocytes
o T Lymphocytes
o Antibodies
• These antibodies are immunoglobulins which are synthesized by vertebrates, in response to
antigen; and immobilize it, or sets in motion events that ultimately cause its destruction
• Antigens or immunogen is a foreign substance, often a protein which stimulates the formation of
antibodies.
• Antibodies are specific i.e., cause the destruction of the antigen, which stimulated their production
• Antibodies are manufactured in B lymphocytes, then secreted into the lymph and blood where
they circulate freely

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Types of response

o Cell mediated response

• T-cells recognize antigen, then combat microorganisms and/ or effect the rejection of foreign
tissues (in case of tissue transplant). This is called cell mediated response
• It was discovered that blood transferred from an immune animal could be responsible for
immunity and this process was called cell mediated immunity
o Humoral immune response
• B-cells recognize antigen and form plasma cell clone.
• These plasma cells synthesize and liberate antibodies into the blood plasma and tissue fluid.
• Here antibodies attach to the surfaces of bacteria and speed up their phagocytosis or combine
with and neutralize toxins produced by microorganisms, by producing antitoxins.
• This is called humoral immune response
• Because the process involved body fluids (humors) it is called humoral immunity
• It was also known that immunity results from the activities of lymphocytes called B and T cells
give rise to cells that produce proteins called antibodies, which are found in the plasma.
• Because antibodies are responsible, humoral immunity is now called antibody mediated immunity

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• When we get vaccination, against a specific disease (antigen), we become immune to that infection
or disease.
• If we get vaccination against, polio, smallpox, measles, mumps etc., once in our life time, we are
protected or become immune to that infection in our future life

Monocytes

• They are transferred from bone marrow or lymphoid tissues (10 to 20 hours transit time) through
capillaries into tissues
• Macrophages (swollen larger size tissue) secrete about 100 different compounds including
interferons and enzymes that destroy bacteria
• Macrophages releases interleukins when they are in contact with bacteria which activates B and
helper T cells to kill bacteria

T cells

• Originate from stem cells in the bone marrow

• Early stages they are transferred to thymus gland for processing
• The thymus makes T cells immunocompetent that is capable of immunological response
• Two main categories of T cells have identified
i. CD8

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▪ Cytotoxin T cells (Killer T cells)- recognize and destroy cells with foreign antigens
on their surface
▪ Releases cytokines and enzymes
▪ Suppressor T cells
▪ Releases cytokines that inhibit the activity of other T cells and B cells
ii. CD4 or Helper T cells
▪ Secrete substances that activate or enhance the immune response

B cells

• Are differentiated in bone marrow

• Each B cells carries receptors needed to bind with a specific type of antigen
• After binding with specific type of antigen the B cells develop into plasma cells, the cells that are
specialized to secrete antibodies
• A plasma cell can produce more than 10 million molecules of antibody per hour

Main components of innate and acquired immunity

Immunity Humoral Immunity Cell mediated Immunity
Innate Complement, Neutrophils Macrophages, Natural killer cells
Acquired B cells, Plasma cells Helper T cells, Cytotoxic T cells
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
Active immunity

• The use of vaccines, which stimulate the production of antibodies in the body and making a person
immune against the disease or infection is called active immunity
• There are two types of active immunity

1. Artificially induced immunity

• This active immunity has been achieved by artificially introducing antigens in the body, so it is
called artificially induced immunity or active response

2. Naturally induced immunity

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• But when a person is exposed to an infection (antigen) becomes ill and in most cases survives then
this immunity developed against that disease is called naturally induced immunity or auto
immune response;

Passive immunity

• Antigens are introduced to stimulate the production of antibodies, by artificial or natural method;
antibodies are injected in the form of antisera, to make a person immune against a disease. This is
called passive immunity
• In body, antigen-antibody complexes are formed which are taken up by phagocytosis and
destroyed.
• The patient is spared the complications (or possibly death) caused by infection or venom.
• Passive immunity response is immediate, but not long lashing.
• Because no time is taken for the production of sufficient level of antibodies, (as antibodies are
being injected) and after the level of antibodies is reduced or they are used up-no more antibodies
production is there.
• The method of passive immunization is used to combat active infections of tetanus, infectious
hepatitis, rabies, snake bite venom passive immunity is produced by the antitoxins-so the serum is
called antivenom serum

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
• A system which is responsible for the transport and returning materials from the tissues of the
body to the blood is known as lymphatic system
• This system comprises of
i. Lymph
ii. Lymph capillaries
iii. Lymph vessels
iv. Lymphoid masses
v. Lymph nodes
i. Lymph
• The fluid which flows in the system
• The activity of lymph is maintained by

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o Activity of skeletal muscles
o Movement of viscera
o Breathing movements
o The valves, which prevents the back flow of lymph

ii. Lymph capillaries

• These are blindly in the body tissues, where pressure from the accumulation of
interstitial fluid or extracellular fluid forces the fluid into the lymph capillaries
• This fluid enters the lymph capillaries, it is called lymph
• In the intestine, the branches of lymph capillaries, within villi are called lacteals
• The intercellular spaces in the walls of lymph capillaries are larger than those of the
capillaries of blood vascular system
• So, larger molecules from the interstitial fluid can also enter the lymph capillaries

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iii. Lymph vessels

• The lymph capillaries join to form larger lymph vessels, and ultimately form
thoracic lymph duct, which opens into subclavian vein
• The flow of lymph is always towards the thoracic duct

iv. Lymphoid masses

• There are several lymphoid masses are present in the

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o Walls of digestive tract
o In the mucosa and sub-mucosa
o Spleen
o Thymus
o Tonsils
o Adenoids
• They produce lymphocytes
v. Lymph nodes
• These are present in humans
o Neck region
o Axilla
o Groin
• There phagocytosis takes place

FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

i. In an average person, about three litres more fluid leaves the blood capillaries than is
absorbed by them each day. It returns this excess fluid and its dissolved proteins and other
substances to the blood
ii. The lacteals of villi absorb large fat globules, which are released by interstitial cells after
the products of digestion of fats are absorbed. After a fatty meal the fat globules may make
up 1 % of the lymph
iii. The lymphatic system helps defend the body against foreign invaders. Lymph nodes have
lymphocytes and macrophages that destroy bacteria and viruses. The painful swelling of
lymph nodes is certain diseases (mumps is an extreme example) is largely a result of the
accumulation of dead lymphocytes and macrophages
iv. Just as the lymph nodes filter lymph, the spleen filters the blood, exposing it to
macrophages and lymphocytes that destroy foreign particles and aged red blood cells

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