See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/323344940

Concept of Karya-Karana Siddhanta: A review

Article · January 2017

CITATIONS READS

2 14,103

5 authors, including:

Madhumita Panigrahi Mahesh Kumar Vyas

Gopabandhu Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya,puri All India Institute of Ayurveda New Delhi
18 PUBLICATIONS 5 CITATIONS 103 PUBLICATIONS 334 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Arjun Singh Baghel Hitesh Vyas

Institute of Teaching and Research In Ayurveda Institute of Post Graduate Teaching & Research In Ayurveda
48 PUBLICATIONS 53 CITATIONS 68 PUBLICATIONS 188 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Madhumita Panigrahi on 22 February 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Research and Reviews: A Journal of Ayurvedic Science, Yoga and Naturopathy
ISSN: 2395-6682 (Online)
Volume 4, Issue 3
www.stmjournals.com

Concept of Karya-Karana Siddhanta: A review

Madhumita Panigrahi1,*, Mahesh Vyas2, A.S. Baghel1, Hitesh Vyas1,
Kabi Prasad Mohanty3
1
Department of Basic Principles, Jamnagar, Institute of Post Graduate Teaching and Research in
Ayurveda, Jamnagar, Gujarat, India
2
Department of Basic Principles, All India Institute of Ayurveda, New Delhi, India
3
Department of Shareera Rachana, S.D. Singh Ayurveda Medical College and Hospital, Farrukhabad,
Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract
As per the necessity and requirement of individual one may find differences in methodologies
which are followed by various streams of science, but one thing which is common to all of
them is the reason to find out factors responsible for a particular action. Here the action is
termed as effect and the factor responsible for it is called as cause. This ‘cause and effect’
theory is the base of the entire human endeavor in quest of knowledge. This same quest was
responsible for manifestation of Ayurveda on earth. Great seers of Ayurveda had very good
vision through which they observed various phenomena in nature and tried to understand the
logic behind them. In Ayurveda actions or phenomena are termed as Karya whereas their
responsible factors are called as Karana. The inevitable unexceptional (Nirapavada) relation
between Karana and Karya was the first principle accepted in Ayurveda on which the whole
epitome of Ayurveda is standing upright. Ayurveda has claimed its success on the ground of
invention and evaluation of six Karana Dravyas which have been discussed in other Darshana
Shastra as Shat Padarthas. Basically there is not much difference in these two terms but in
practical aspect of Ayurvedic science, its importance and utility differs from Darshanas.

Keywords: Ayurveda, Karya-Karana, Darshana Shastra

*Author for Correspondence Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION regarded as Sarvatantra Siddhanta. When

Concerning to the evolution of universe many diseases manifested in mankind and they were
theories were established, from ancient times proving as an obstacle in rightful deeds of
to modern times. One of them is “cause and mankind, great seers of Ayurveda started to
effect” theory which is called Karya-Karana think what was the Karana responsible for
in terms of Darshana. Every Karya has a manifestation of this new Karya, i.e. diseases.
Karana and what so ever the Karya may be a
Karana for a future Karya. This principle MATERIALS AND METHODS
(Siddhanta) of relation between Karya and The literary material related to Karya-
Karana is called as Karya-Karana Siddhanta. Karanavada has been collected from various
Karya is Vyaktavastha (manifested stage) and Darshanas (Indian Philosophical Schools) and
Karana is Avyaktavastha (not manifested Several Ayurvedic texts like Charaka Samhita
stage). So there is only change in the stages. and Sushruta Samhita.
As per this theory, in creation Karya cannot be
produced without Karana. Karya resides in KARANA IN DARSHANA SHASTRA
Karana in subtle form hence it is capable to The factor which is essentially present before
produce relevant Karya. There is Karanatva in Karya is Karana. The definite existing factor
Karya and Karyatva in Karana. Ayurveda is prior to Karya is known as Karana. Cause is
the outcome of the quest i.e. what is the cause that from which the effect is produced [1].
of suffering and how it can be solved?
Acharyas gathered in a meeting to search out All factors that exist before Karya cannot be
the causes and their remedies for the considered as Karana. It should possess the
sufferings. Thus in Ayurveda, we can find following 3 characteristics to be called as
vivid description of this theory which is Karana [2].

RRJoASYN (2017) 31-36 © STM Journals 2017. All Rights Reserved Page 31
Concept of Karya-Karana Siddhanta: A review Panigrahi et al.

1. Ananyathasiddh (Karya cannot take place and produces either Samanya or Vishesha in
without Karana) Dhatusamyavastha which is Karya. So
2. Niyat (Whenever Karya exists the Karana Dravya, Guna, Karma, Samanya, Vishesha,
should exist invariably) Samavaya are Purvavarti (antecedence) to
3. Purva vritti (Cause should exist prior to Karya- Dhatusamya.
effect)
According to Darshana Shastra, Karana is of
Ananyathasiddh (Karya Cannot Take Place three kinds namely Samavayi (Inherent),
Without Karana) Asamavayi (non-inherent), Nimitta Karana
The things which are not directly related to [3].
Karyotpatti are Anyathasiddha and which are
directly related to Karyotpatti is Samavayi Karana [4]
Ananyathasiddha. The factor should be one Samavayi is that in which the effect produced
without which Karya cannot take place. inheres, that is intimately connected or
identical with it, that it cannot be separated
For example, many factors exist before from the cause without losing its own
making a pot, like the person or animal that existence. It is that common factor between
carries clay to the place of making pot, stick the cause and effect which is identical or
with which the mud is mixed, potter, wheel, substantially the name in both of them.
clay etc. But except the last three no one has
direct relation with preparation of pot so only For instance, the clay in a Jar, the wood in a
those are Karana whose absence cannot make table or the threads in the piece of cloth is the
the pot. material or the constituent causes of the jar,
the table, the cloth respectively. There are
Niyatattva: (Invariability, Always Present) many other things that are required for the
This is invariability whenever the Karya exist production of these effects, but the relation of
the Karana should exist invariably without clay etc to a jar etc. is of a unique kind which
any exception. I.e. For Svasthavastha and is called Samavaya. Hence it is on the grounds
Aturavastha, the Samyak and Asamyak Yoga of the relation called Samavaya, that a
of Dravya, Guṇa, Karma, Samanya, Visheṣa, substance is the Samavayi Karana of its
and Samavaya are always present as attributes.
responsible factors.
Asamavayi Karana [5]
Example: If malarial fever is considered then The Asamavayi Karana described in Tarka
plasmodium is Karana for it. As without it Sangraha as that which contributes to the
malarial fever cannot be seen. production of the effect while co- inhering
with the effect in its material cause. It is
Purvavartitwa or Purvabhava—Antecedence inseparably united in the same object with the
It should be existent before production of effect. This Asamavayi Karana exists in the
Karya. The word Purvabhava means same object along with the Samavayi Karana
‘happening first’. The universe is full of of its own effect. Though Asamavayi Karana
events. These events take place continuously. itself is not Samavayi Karana, it is closely
But all events cannot be considered as Karana. connected with the cause (Karana).
The most important factor that exists just
before Karya is called Karana. For example, the union of threads is the
Asamavayi cause of the cloth and the color of
For example: Clay is Karana for pot. Thread is the threads is the Asamavayi Karana of the
Karana for cloth. color of the cloth. The union of threads which
inheres in the threads is an invariable and
The Karana should have existence before indispensable antecedent of the cloth and
Karya and should be directly related to Utpatti hence a cause of it. But it is not the inherent
of Karya. For example, all Dravyas consumed cause of the cloth, threads being its inherent
by person get manifested as Guna and Karma cause. Hence it is not inherent.

RRJoASYN (2017) 31-36 © STM Journals 2017. All Rights Reserved Page 32
Research and Reviews: A Journal of Ayurvedic Science, Yoga and Naturopathy
Volume 4, Issue 3
ISSN: 2395-6682 (Online)

Nimitta Karana [6] (Instrumental Cause or the circumstances in which they were not
Occasional Cause) already present means they have come out of
The Nimitta Karana is a cause which is other nothing as the Buddhists say.
than both Samavayi and Asamavayi causes.
Nimitta Karana is different from Samavayi How can we hold that something comes out of
and Asamavayi Karanas and is the nothing? So far as the material of the effect is
instrumental cause only. It helps the Samavayi concerned, it is the same which was existence
and Asamavayi Karana in the production in the form of cause. If it were not so, then
(Creation of Karya). After production of anything could arise out of nothing. In that
Karya this Karana detach from Karya. Such case nobody would make any selection of a
type of cause is called Nimitta Karana. Only particular material for the production of the
Samavayi and Asamavayi Karana are not particular effect. Moreover causal capacity to
sufficient, other causes which are useful bring about the certain effect belongs to
indirectly are known as Nimitta Karana. For certain things only, and they are those things
instance, the viewer, the loom and the shuttle which possess potency for the production of
etc. are the Nimitta Karana of the cloth. the effect. From these considerations the
Samkhya philosophers comes to a conclusion
Karya [7] that all the effects that come into manifestation
Karya or effect is the counter co- relative of its after the fulfillment of the necessary
own antecedent known in its inherent cause. conditions, have a previous existence in
Non-existence of a substance prior to its potential forms. This doctrine is called the
production is called as Pragbhava and the doctrine of the precious existence of the effect
thing which accomplishes this Abhava is (Satkarya Vada) [11]. The process of world
Karya. does not bring anything new into existence. It
is a process of transformation of the potential
Law of Causation—Philosophical Approach (Avyakta) effects into actual effects. On
Every effect is thus a new creation account of the accessory causes the material
(Aarambha) according to the Nyayikas, and causes transformed into the effect. This view
before its actual creation it never existed is called Parinamavada [12], the doctrine of
(Asat). This view is called Aarambha Vada [8] transformation. The stock example of the
(creationism) and Asatkarya Vada [9] Samkhya thinkers is the transformation of the
(doctrine of previous non- existence of milk into curd. We may add the transformation
effects). Nyaya doctrine of Asatkarya Vada is of ice into water and that of water into vapor.
however to be carefully distinguished from the This Samkhya doctrine of Satkarya Vada is
Buddhistic doctrine going by the same name. accepted by the Vedanthists also. The Advaita
According to the later view, every effect arises Vedanta [13], however, goes still deeper into
out of nothing (Asat) and after a momentary the problem. Cause and effects are
existence comes to nothing (Asat)— phenomenal appearances. “Asatah Sat Jayate”
Kshanabhangura Vada [10]. Nonbeing (Asat) it is from nonbeing that beings come out. The
is the source as well as the end of all Advaita Vedanthists do not agree with the
temporary beings namely, the effect (Karana). Buddhists on their doctrine of nonbeing
The Nyayikas do not subscribe to such a view. (Shunya Vada). They hold that the
According to them on the contrary every appearances are not the appearances of non-
causative effect has positive cause out of being (Shunya) but of some being which
which it emerges. If everything could come underlies the appearance. Take the vapor,
out of nothing, they would say against the water and ice. Here the underline reality is
Buddhists, there would be no need of vapor has changed into water on account of
determining the cause of effects so carefully. the influence of accessory causes on it, and so
The Samkhya philosophers go to the other also appearing as water is changed into ice.
extreme. They believe that effects are not Vapor, water and ice are really the forms in
absolutely new creations. No explanation can which their underlying essence successively
be given for an absolutely new thing. To say appears. The change is only a change in the
that absolutely new things can emerge from forms, but they remains unchanged

RRJoASYN (2017) 31-36 © STM Journals 2017. All Rights Reserved Page 33
Concept of Karya-Karana Siddhanta: A review Panigrahi et al.

throughout. This view is called Vivarta Vada fundamentals of Ayurveda. Ayurveda too
[14], the doctrine of appearances. According to accepts that without the cause, there is no
the Advaita Vedanthists the phenomenal world action. While describing the Dravyotpatti,
consists of the names and the forms of the Karya-Karana Bhavas has been dealt.
underlying real substance called Brahma by Similarly it is considered that all the Vyakta
them. Within the sphere of the phenomena the Bhavas are having some cause for their
doctrine of Parinama (transformation) holds production. In Charaka Sharirasthana it is
good, but when we think of the relation of the told that; whatever factors that get originate
appearance with the substance underlying has some cause for their origin [18]. In
them, which is their real material (Upadana) Ayurveda the Karya-Karana Bhava has been
cause, we are led to the doctrine of Vivarta utilized to fulfill its aims and objectives. On
(appearance). the basis of Satkaryavada the famous Sutra
was stated that “Effect discloses the same
The problem of causality is as alive today as it qualities as the cause”. The well-known
was ever before. The Samkhya view, principles of Ayurveda, i.e., 1) the Samanya is
Parinama Vada or Satkarya Vada is an the cause of increase of all things at all time
outcome of a different approach to the and the Vishesha is the cause of their decrease
problem. It does not look at the world from the and 2) nothing beyond the material objects can
point of view of appearances, but from the be the subject of medical science was
point of view of material realities capable of established [19, 20]. Acharya Vagbhata also
appearing in those forms. The truth of this says “As the manifold universe is nothing but
view is also corroborated by experience and a modification of Gunas, so all the diseases are
supported by physical sciences. Scientific nothing the three Doshas” [21].
principles of “Indestructibility of matter”,
conservation of energy, quantitative identity of Theory of Karya-Karana Vada or
cause and effect and uniformity of nature lead Siddhanta?
us to a view of causality asking to that of The theory of Karya-Karana is to be
Samkhya. Vaisheshika hold that there is considered as a Siddhanta because the state of
negation of effect prior to its production so the Karana as well Karya and their
effect becomes the counter entity of the interrelationship is examined and accepted by
antecedent negation. Antecedent negation is all Darshana and sciences. But, the question
the negation of the effect before its production. arises then why it is called as Vada? The
Karya is to be decided first then to select the answer to this is that there are different views
way to achieve Karya. in regard with state of Karya and Karana and
it remains unanswered which came first Karya
Law of Causation and its Approach in or Karana? Just as there is a very famous
Ayurveda puzzle which came first a hen or an egg, and it
The main aim of Ayurveda is Dhatu Samya, remains as a puzzle only.
which is described in the text as Karya and 1. Cause for every Karya in universe [15]
Karana used to produce this Karya are the According to Acharya Charaka, Samanya,
Shat Padarthas [15]. Karana is the one which Visheṣa, Dravya, Guṇa, Karma and Samavaya
produces the Karya; this Karana can be are the causative factors for the whole universe
anything a person, a material, etc. Various or these are six such factors which are
Karana described in Ayurveda can be found responsible for everything in this universe and
and explained as; whoever or whichever does hence known as Shat-Karanas.
the Karya or produces the effect is considered 2. Cause for Dirghayu [22]
as Karana and that itself is the cause [16, 17]. After gaining the correct knowledge of these
Here, the “Vaidya” is said to be the Karana for six Karanas and following the methods or
Dhatu Samya. The Karana mentioned here is prescriptions available in the science,
the having independent existence. Acharyas attained the highest level of
wellbeing and an inexhaustibly long life. So
The principle of Satkarya Vada has been here Karma becomes one of the cause for
mainly utilized in developing the basic attaining healthy and long life.

RRJoASYN (2017) 31-36 © STM Journals 2017. All Rights Reserved Page 34
Research and Reviews: A Journal of Ayurvedic Science, Yoga and Naturopathy
Volume 4, Issue 3
ISSN: 2395-6682 (Online)

3. Cause for the effect as Purushotpatti [23] Karana Kriya Karya

Rajas and Tamas are considered as the cause • Ksheena Samanya Yogat Vriddhi Vardhan
for production of Rashipurusha. The • Vriddha Viparyayad Hrasah Hrasa
Chikitsapurusha is the effect of combination • Sama Ksheena-Vriddhanam Palana
of Panchamahabhuta and Atma. Nimittatah Samyam
4. Cause for the effect as Rogotpatti
Healthy status is maintained when Dosha, CONCLUSION
Dhatu, and Mala are in homeostasis, and when Karya-Karana Siddhanta is a universal
this homeostasis is disturbed it leads to Vyadhi law/principle/theory which mainly explain by
[24]. To create this Dosha Vaishamya or Darshana, that every effect has its own
Vyadhi, certain causes are required and these specific cause and all the specific causes
are the Nidana called as Karana in Ayurveda produce the specific effect. Almost all the
[25]. It is also considered that the one which opinions directly or indirectly found are being
produces the disease is called as Hetu or applied in Ayurvedic Chikitsa Vijnana.
Nidana or Karana. According to Ayurveda, Dhatusamya is
5. Cause for the effect as Dhatusamya/Chikitsa concerned with the normalcy of all Dhatus
The primary aim of Ayurveda is to maintain (constituents of the body). To attain this
the healthy status of a Svastha purusha and to Dhatusamya, Acharyas mentioned Shat-
cure the diseases if they occur. For achieving Karanas as Samanya, Vishesha, Guna,
both these aims, Dhatusamya is necessary Dravya, Karma and Samvaya. The concept of
which can be described by Hetu Skandha, every principle is an ideology that is to be
Linga Skandha, Aushadha Skandha. considered neither complete truth nor
completely false but all these are partial, time
In Hetu Skandha being, conditional truth and are needed to
Consumption of Vishama Hetu causes ascertain or establish the true knowledge
Vaishamyata of Shareera Dhatu and so as vice likewise such deep knowledge of Ayurvedic
versa. Dhatuvaishamya is of two types, it may science / philosophy to understand the mystery
be either Vruddhi or Kshaya of the body of life as well as of management.
constituents. The knowledge of Samanya and
Vishesha is important to maintain in REFERENCES
equilibrium of Dosha and Dhatu which are the 1. Annambhatt, Tarkasangraha, Pratyaksha
basic factors for positive health. Hence in the Parichcheda, Edited by Shri Satkarisharma
condition where there is decrease in the body Vangiya, Fourth Edition, Chaukhambha
constituents, one has to administer the drug Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2003, 36
and diets which are having Samana Gunas 2. Annambhatt, Tarkasangraha, Pratyaksha
(Samanya)to them and when they get increase Parichcheda, Edited by Shri Satkarisharma
one has to give drugs and diet which are Vangiya, Fourth Edition, Chaukhambha
Viruddha Guna (Vishesha). And it is also Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2003, 36
necessary to maintain the equilibrium state of 3. Annambhatt, Tarkasangraha, Pratyaksha
those which are neither increased nor Parichcheda, Edited by Shri Satkarisharma
decreased. Both the Samanya and Vishesha Vangiya, Fourth Edition, Chaukhambha
follow Yugapat Pravritti. Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2003, 37
4. Annambhatt, Tarkasangraha, Pratyaksha
In Linga Skandha Parichcheda, Edited by Shri Satkarisharma
Nidana Sevana mainly leads to Roga Utpatti. Vangiya, Fourth Edition, Chaukhambha
Here the cause Dhatusamya leads to the effect Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2003, 38
Swastha Linga, and the cause Dhatu 5. Annambhatt, Tarkasangraha, Pratyaksha
Vaishamya leads to the effect Vikara Linga. Parichcheda, Edited by Shri Satkarisharma
Vangiya, Fourth Edition, Chaukhambha
In Aushadha Skandha Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2003, 39
Here the Aushadha is the Karana for the 6. Annambhatt, Tarkasangraha, Pratyaksha
Karya, Prakriti-Sthapana of Ksheena or Parichcheda, Edited by Shri Satkarisharma
Vriddha Dosha-Dhatu-Mala. Vangiya, Fourth Edition, Chaukhambha
Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2003, 41

RRJoASYN (2017) 31-36 © STM Journals 2017. All Rights Reserved Page 35
 Concept of Karya-Karana Siddhanta: A review Panigrahi et al.

7. Annambhatt, Tarkasangraha, Pratyaksha 18. Acharya Yadavji Trikramji, editor. Caraka

Parichcheda, Edited by Shri Satkarisharma Samhita of Agnivesh, Vimana Sthana,
Vangiya, Fourth Edition, Chaukhambha Ch.8, Ver.69, 1st Edition, Varanasi:
Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2003, 37 Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthana Varanasi,
8. By Dr. Yogesh Chandra Mishra, Padartha 2001, pg. 292.
Vijnana, Edited by Prof. Jyotirmitra 19. Acharya Yadavji Trikramji, editor. Caraka
Acharya, Second Edition, Chaukhambha Samhita of Agnivesh, Sutra Sthana, Ch.1,
Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2005, 479 Ver.44, 1st Edition, Varanasi:
9. By Dr. Yogesh Chandra Mishra, Padartha Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthana Varanasi,
Vijnana, Edited by Prof. Jyotirmitra 2001, pg. 9.
Acharya, Second Edition, Chaukhambha 20. Sushrut samhita, edited by Kaviraj
Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2005, 479 Ambikadatta Shastri, 14th Ed,
10. By Dr. Yogesh Chandra Mishra, Padartha Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthana,
Vijnana, Edited by Prof. Jyotirmitra Varanasi, 2003. Page no. 398, Chikitsa
Acharya, Second Edition, Chaukhambha sthana chapter 1, verse no.13
Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2005, 480 21. Astanga Samgraha, edited by Dr.
11. By Dr. Yogesh Chandra Mishra, Padartha Shivaprasad Sharma, Third Edition,
Vijnana, Edited by Prof. Jyotirmitra Chaukhamba Krishnadas Ekademy,
Acharya, Second Edition, Chaukhambha Varanasi, 2012, Sutra Sthana, Ch 22, Vers
Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2005, 475 No.5, Pg. 170
12. By Dr. Yogesh Chandra Mishra, Padartha 22. Acharya Yadavji Trikramji, editor. Caraka
Samhita of Agnivesh, Sutra Sthana, Ch.1,
Vijnana, Edited by Prof. Jyotirmitra
Ver.29, 1st Edition, Varanasi:
Acharya, Second Edition, Chaukhambha
Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthana Varanasi,
Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2005, 482
2001, pg. 7.
13. By Dr. Yogesh Chandra Mishra, Padartha
23. Sushrut samhita, edited by Kaviraj
Vijnana, Edited by Prof. Jyotirmitra
Ambikadatta Shastri, 14th Ed,
Acharya, Second Edition, Chaukhambha Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthana,
Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2005, 35 Varanasi, 2003. Page no. 343, sharir
14. By Dr. Yogesh Chandra Mishra, Padartha sthana chapter 1, verse no.18.
Vijnana, Edited by Prof. Jyotirmitra 24. Acharya Arundatta & Hemadri,
Acharya, Second Edition, Chaukhambha commentator. Astanga Hridaya of
Sanskrit Sansthana, Varanasi, 2005, 486 Vagbhatta, Sutrasthana Ch.1, Ver.19, Pg.
15. Acharya Yadavji Trikramji, editor. 13.
Charaka Samhita of Agnivesh, Sutra 25. Acharya Yadavji Trikramji, editor. Caraka
Sthana, Ch.1, Ver.53, 1st Edition, Samhita of Agnivesh, Nidana Sthana,
Varanasi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthana Ch.1, Ver.7, 1st Edition, Varanasi:
Varanasi, 2001, pg 14. Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthana Varanasi,
16. Acharya Yadavji Trikramji, editor. Caraka 2001, pg. 194.
Samhita of Agnivesh, Vimana Sthana,
Ch.8, Ver.69, 1st Edition, Varanasi:
Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthana Varanasi, Cite this Article
2001, pg.272 Madhumita Panigrahi, Mahesh Vyas, A.S.
17. Acharya Yadavji Trikramji, editor. Caraka Baghel et al. Concept of Karya-Karana
Samhita of Agnivesh, Vimana Sthana, Siddhanta: A review. Research and
Ch.8, Ver.86, 1st Edition, Varanasi: Reviews: A Journal of Ayurvedic Science,
Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthana Varanasi, Yoga and Naturopathy. 2017; 4(3): 31–36p.
2001, pg.274.

RRJoASYN (2017) 31-36 © STM Journals 2017. All Rights Reserved Page 36

View publication stats