Component-I (A) – Personal details:

Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy

Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.

Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy

Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati. &
Dr. K. Muniratnam
Director i/c, Epigraphy, ASI, Mysore

Dr. T.S. Ravishankar

Director (Epigraphy) (Retd), ASI, Mysore

Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy

Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
Component-I (B) – Description of module:

Subject Name Indian Culture

Paper Name Indian Epigraphy

Module Name/Title Sanskrit Language in Indian Epigraphy

Module Id IC / IEP / 17

Knowledge of Sanskrit and all the early inscriptions

Pre requisites
from 1st CBC to late medieval period in India.

To understand our Sanskrit Inscriptions which has a

long History as an epigraphical Media belonging to
Objectives
various Dynasties, and Emperors. Also to know the
Literary value of Sanskrit Inscriptions.

Hybrid Sanskrit, Sanskrit Age, Mathura, Ayodhya,

Saka Kshatrapas Dynasty, Sodasa, Buddhism
Keywords
religion, Rudradaman, Nagarjunakonda, Brahmanical
Faith, Ghosundi, Hathibada.

E-text (Quadrant-I) :

1. SANSKRIT AS AN INSCRIPTIONAL LANGUAGE- PART- I

There is no need to reiterate the fact that Sanskrit is an inscriptional language enjoyed a
unique status as a pan Indian language, like Brahmi script, of course, not only within India
and even beyond the seas, especially with regard to South east Asia. As we know Sanskrit
as an epigraphical language has a long history. Apart from some inscriptions of the pre
Christian Era, which are in Prakrit language, Sanskrit as an epigraphical medium made its
presence almost at the end of the Christian era and gradually more and more inscriptions
started appearing throughout the length and breadth of the country. Of course, from Gupta
period onwards it completely replaced Prakrit both in North and South India. After a brief
review of the development of inscriptional Sanskrit, some more aspects like literary value of
Sanskrit inscriptions and Sanskrit inscription in South East Asia are also dealt with.

The history of Indian epigraphy begins round about the beginning of the 3 rd C.B.C. with an
element of surprise in that, contrary to our normal expectation, built up by all that we know of
our hoary traditional past, all our earliest readable inscriptions are in Prakrit and not in
Sanskrit. However, inspire of the fact that the usage of Prakrit to the total exclusion of
Sanskrit marks a definite break with the past, and there is no element of surprise for as
Buddhism and Jainism had by then come to the fore as a result of reaction against the till
then exclusively brahmanical language of Sanskrit.

The supremacy of the anti brahmanical faiths and of Prakrit continued unabated throughout
the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. in view of which that period of over two centuries can rightly be
labelled as the Prakrit Age of Indian epigraphy.
Little later, after the dawn of the 1st C.B.C. the orthodox faith begun to regain, slowly yet
steadily its lost ground as is explicitly brought home by the progressively increasing influence
which its traditional language, Sanskrit, begins to exert on Prakrit in epigraphical
composition. From then on, for as long as nearly four centuries, it was mostly a question of
whether a given inscription had in its diction more of the Prakritic or more of the Sanskritic
elements the latter steadily increasing its dominance over the former. As a matter of fact,
depending upon such epigraphical diction, we can easily label the language of any given
inscription belonging to this transitional period, as “Prakrit influenced by Sanskit” or as
“Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit”.

Essentially, the popularity of Sanskrit at the courts of the rulers either indigenous or of
foreign extraction was due to the major influence of grammarians. The main Classical
Sanskrit was codified as a result of the efforts of a number of early grammarians and most of
the outstanding amongst them being Panini (5th C B.C) who was an inhabitant of Satanura in
Gandhara (i.e, the Rawalpindi-Peshwar region) in North Western India. Gradually Panini’s
Astadhyayi eclipsed all the other works of earlier authors. The well known story of the
association of the Grammarian Sarvavarman, author of the Katantra (Kaumdra or Kalapa )
with the court of king Saravahana )Probably SimukaSatavahana who flourished in the
second half of the `1st C.B.C.) Shows that indigenous Indian kings patronized Sanskrit
grammarians. The fact is that the records of the kings of the Satavahana family are all in the
Prakrit indicates that the influence of the grammarians at the Indian courts was acting rather
slowly.

However, many inscriptions in Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit belonging to especially Indian

rulers who flourished about the second half of the 1st C.B.C. Sometime, before Saka
Sodasa, the Sanskrit records of whose age have been referred to above.

The Sanskrit language as used in the early inscriptions shows that the influence of the
grammar of Panini was not fully established even in the Central Part of India, which was the
home of its great commentator, Patanjali (2nd C.B.C) of Gonarda (Between Ujjayini and
Vidisa) as late as the 3rd CA.D. This is indicated by Prakritic forms occurring in Sanskrit
epigrahs, e.d, Khanapita (for Khanita preferred by the Paninean school) noticed in a
Sardulavikridita stanza in the Kanakhera (near Sanchi) inscription (3rd CAD) of Saka
Sridharavarman.

Sanskrit began to come into epigraphic use only in the first CBC. The earliest Sanskrit
inscriptions, on paleographical grounds are Ghosundi, Hathibada and Ayodhya inscriptions.
The language of the Hathibada – Ghosundi inscription like that of Ayodhya is essentially
standard Sanskrit, though with some marginal indications of informal usage and style. Apart
from these the earliest Sanskrit inscriptions are found in Mathura, which has yielded several
records of the 1st and 2nd CAD, which belong to Saka Kshatrapas and the early Kushanas,
which are written in Sanskrit, The earliest of the Sanskrit inscriptions from Mathura are
probably those of the time of the Kshatrapa Shodasa, who is dated with reasonable certainty
to the early years of the first C.A.D Next important inscription is the Mora well inscription,
which seems to record the dedication of a shrine to five epic heroes. Except the beginning
portion, the remaining part of the inscription is written beautiful standard Sanskrit.
A similar linguistic situation is observed in another fragmentary Mathura stone slab
inscription of Sodasa time whose first two lines appear to be in hybrid dialect as indicated by
the non-standard sandhi, and the remaining part of the inscription is in standard Sanskrit.
Another inscription from Mora engraved on a door jamb is in standard Sanskrit except for the
typical hybrid from Svami (Sya). There are other few inscriptions from Mathura of the same
period is in Sanskrit language. It may be noted that the Sanskrit inscriptions from Mathura,
belonging to early phase. Firstly, they are mostly Brahmanical in affiliation, and those of
KankaliTila inscription is of Jaina in nature, is in standard Sansrit. Coming to Kushana
period, there is a longer inscription is the IsapurYupa of the year 24 (102) A.D.
Commemorating the performance of the dvadasaratra sacrifice in proper Sanskrit. An earlier
inscription from TokriTila, records donations, apparently Brahmanical in nature, during the
reign of Huvishka is in Sanskrit. On the whole, a good number of the inscriptions of Mathura
from the early first to about the middle of the second C.A.D. are written fairly standard
Sanskrit. It may be noted that most of the Sanskrit inscriptions are Brahmanical in affiliation,
whereas Buddhist, inscriptions, are of bit nonstandard type. This is a phase, where we
notice, that Sanskrit began to establish itself as an epigraphic language in this era,
especially in Brahmanical circles continuing trend which began in 1st C.B.C.

EARLY SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS FROM WESTERN INDIA’;

The inscriptions of the earlier house of western Khastrapa kings, namely, the Kshaharata
line of Nahapana (middle of 1st C.A.D) are mostly in Prakrit, but for Nasikl inscriptions No.
10, of Nahapanas’ son-in-law Ushavadata, which is written in a fair approximation of
standard Sanskrit, The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman, the greatest king of the
second western Kshatrapa line of Chashtanca of 150 A.D forms a major paradigm shift as
far as usage of Sanskrit is concerned It is not only written in beautiful Sanskrit but also first
extensive record in the poetic style. The Sanskrit of the Junagadh inscription was evidently
the preclassical literary style. The literary style of Sanskrit was not however, employed in
the inscriptions of the time of the western Kshatrapa rulers who succeeded Rudradaman
also from the 3rd C.A.D. we have several Sanskrit inscriptions on Yupas from Badva and
Barmala in Rajasthan, though written in Sanskrit, local strains are visible.

Early Sanskrit inscriptions from the Deccan and Southern India:

If we take a general look at the Sanskrit inscriptions from Deccan and Southern India, we are
given to understand that the Sanskrit inscriptions began to appear slightly at a later date
when compared to north, and lagged behind in its gradual adoption there as the primary
epigraphic language. The first significant group of Southern Sanskrit inscriptions is from
Nagarjunkonda where, in addition to many Prakrit inscriptions, a few Sanskrit is also been
found. The earliest dated Sanskrit inscription from Nagarjunakonda, of the year II of King
Ehavalashi (EhavalaChamtamula) records a Brahmanical (Saiva) donation in good classical
verse. A pillar inscription of the 16th regnal year of the same king, also of Saiva content,
does not fall in line as to how a pure Sanskrit inscription should be. A Buddhist inscription of
Ehavala of 24th regnal year in Sanskrit prose is more or less like the above inscription.

Thus we have at Nagarjunakonda examples of both standard and hybridized Sanskrit in both
Buddhist and Brahmanical records, and all from a period when Prakrit inscriptions were also
still being written. An examination of the inscriptions reveal that most of the inscriptions that
are verified are in Standard or near standard Sanskrit, while those written in prose are in
hybridized Sanskrit. Similarity is observed in north also, as is seen in the moral well
inscription.

Several of the early specimens dof epigraphic Sanskrit from other southern Indian sites
occur in bilingual Sanskrit and Prakrit records, one of the typical example in the Basim
Copper plates of the Vakataka ruler Vindhyasakti II, who ruled around the middle to lar fourth
C.A.D. In this charter the introductory genealogical portion is in Sanskrit, while the
remaining operative portion of the grant, is in Prakrit. Similar patterns emerge in this period
in the far south. For instance, the early Pallava charters from Mayidavolu and
Hirachadagalli, datable to about 4th CAD are in Prakrit, but on some of them the kings name
on the seal is given in Sanskrit. Some of the later records, such as the Gunapadeya copper
plate of the time of Skandavarman have imprecatory verses at the end in Sanskrit.
Progression is seen towards Sanskrit more and more in the Mattepad copper plates of the
Damodaravarman.

A major shift is seen taking place around the latter part of the 4th CAD in Southern India,
Prakrit being replaced by Sanskrit, and it is also attested in the inscriptions of several other
dynasties. A particularly clear case appears in two copper plate inscriptions of the
salankayana from Kamekollu. Though early pallava charters are Prakrit first year of
Nandivarman’s grandson Skandavarman, is in Sanskrit, they are datable to 4th and 5th
Centuries on Palaeographical grounds.

Finally, after this transitional period in the 4th and early 5th CAD Prakrit fell out of use
completely in Southern Indian inscriptions. Sanskrit emerges as sole epigraphic language,
until the regional Dravidian languages began to come into use around the 7 th CAD. And it
may also be noted that all along regional languages Sanskrit was also used by many of the
major dynasties.

Early Sanskrit inscriptions from other regions:

With the exception of the very early Ayodhya inscription as mentioned above, there are few
early Sanskrit inscriptions from eastern and north eastern India. There are some short
inscriptions of the Magha Kings of Kausambi of the 2nd CAD are in Sanskrit, the Bandhogarh
inscriptions of Vaisravana, and the Kesam pillar inscription of Vaisrava. Apart from such
scattered and marginal examples, The earliest true Sanskrit inscription from the northeast is
probably the Susumiya rock inscription, datable to about the middle of the 4th CAD from the
north a notable set of relatively early Sanskrit inscription in more or less correct classical
style are the Jagatpur (Dehradun Dist UP) Asvamedha brick inscriptions of King
Silavarman, dated Palaeographically to about the 3rd CAD.

THE EMERGENCE OF SANSKRIT IN THE GUPTA PERIOD’:

It was during the reign of the early Gupta emperors in the 4th CAD that Sanskrit occupied a
paramount place as an epigraphic language, and it almost became a Pan Indian Language,
a language of par excellence. An important milestone in the history of Sanskrit as an
epigraphic language in the inscriptions of Samudragupta, especially the Allahabad Pillar
Inscription, is considered one of the best literary work of very high order written in mixed
prose and verse (Champu) style. More or less from this period onwards, all the inscriptions
of the Guptas and their neighbours and feudatories in northern India were written in correct
classical Sanskrit and it may be noted that similar developments followed soon after in
Southern and remaining parts of India.

Thus by about the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5 th CAD Sanskrit had at last
established itself as virtually the sole language for epigraphic use throughout India. Prakrit
as an epigraphic language, fell out of use, with occasional exception for literary effect or
sectarian considerations, Practically Sanskrit continued to enjoy its privileged position in the
north for many centuries, until region and Islamic languages began to appear in inscriptions
of the medieval period. However, Sanskrit continued to be in usage along with other
languages. IN the south the regional languages made their appearance earlier and more
prominently.

SUMMARY

Thus, the above study reveals that by the end of the pre Christian era, we find a small
number of inscriptions of Brahmanical content recording religious donations and foundations
in Standard or nearly standard Sanskrit, About the beginning of the Christian Era, we find an
increase in inscriptions using Sanskrit in Mathura and surrounding regions, and it appears to
be more than coincidence that this development appeared at precisely the time where this
area of northern India came under the domination of the Senthian Kshatrapa rulers. But, we
find the continuation in the domain of the early westernKshatrapas in Maharashtra and
Gujarat and the best specimen among them is the Junagadh inscriptions of Rudradaman
and the first long epigraph, stands as the best specimen as a literary work in classical
language and style.

Thus it appears that the use of Sanskrit for inscriptions was promoted, by the Seyuthian
rulers of norther n and western India in the first two centuries of the Christian Era. The
spread of epigraphs Sanskrit to the south in subsequent centuries can also be attributed to
the influence, direct or indirect of the Western Kshatrapas. IN this connection, it is significant
that the earliest southern Indian Sanskrit inscriptions came from Nagarjunakonda, since
other inscriptions from the same site attest to the connections of the Kshatrapas and other
western Indian rulers with its for instance, a Nagarjunakonda memorial pillar inscription of
the time of King Rudrapurushadatta attests to a marital alliance between the Western
Kshatrapas and the Ikshavakus rulers of Nagarjunakonda.

As we have seen above, Sanskrit has a well-established language during Gupta empire, and
Sanskrit was adopted as the sole administrative language for epigraphic and other purposes.
The adoption of Sanskrit by the Guptas is sometimes thought to represent a Brahmanical
revival. Though, resurgence of Sanskrit taken place in full measure, during the time dof the
Guptas, the possibility of Sanskrit as a Pan Indian Language right from early Christian era
cannot be precluded.

Thus Sanskrit as a inscriptional language has a long history pre and post Christian Era
practically in its influence is seen in every language, which later at different periods.
2. LITERARY VALUE OF SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS: PART II

As we all know apart from being rich repository of contemporary some of the events
sometimes even of earlier period. Inscriptions especially Sanskrit inscriptions comprise
among sources for the study of Sanskrit literature. Especially, some of the inscriptions are
endowed with high literary value. Both lithic and copper plate inscriptions are permanent
documents and sometimes we notice that Sanskrit poets of great repute have composed the
prasastis. The Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta is an excellent piece of poetry
composed by Harisena. But for this inscription we would have lost a beautiful piece of
literature, written in Champu style an admixture of both prose and verse. RavikirtisPrasasti
at Aihole is another beautiful piece of Sanskrit literary work. Again, one of the earliest
literary inscription of very high order is Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman of 150 A.D.
Unfortunately name of the composer is lost.

The Talagunda inscription of Kadamba Kakusthavarman is another important contribution to

Sanskrit literature and fortunately the name of the poet Kubja is preserved. It may be noted
that majority of the verses are in a metre, which is not met with other literary works.

It has come to our knowledge that some well-known poets have composed Prasastis, one
such poet is Umapatidhara, the author of the famous Deopara inscription. We know about
this poet through Jayadeva, who mentions Umapatidharakas one of the poets of his day,
along with Dhyoyi. This Prasasti is a significant contribution to Sanskrit literature. Further,
we may note that in the inscription of Vema, the Reddi King, it is expressly stated that
Srimatha, the poet and Director of Public instruction in the kingdom, composed it and as it is
bilingual, it shows Srimathas’ ability as a poet both in Sanskrit and Telugu. Another aspect
to be borne in mind is that the composers of both of lithic and copper plate inscriptions,
especially Prasasti. Came under the influence of great literary works of Kalidasa, Bharavi,
Bana and many others and they amply reflected them in their composition of inscriptions,
like style, diction and many other aspects is connected with Sanskrit literary works.

The occurrence of passages or even complete works in lithic records is illustrated by the
inscription on the pillars of a Surya Temple at Kanchipuram containing the Suryasataka of
Mayura in early CholaGrantha Characters of about the 10th C.A.D. The other example of a
complete work occurring only as a lithic record is very valuable as the only surviving text
when all other copies on perishable material are lost. AN example is supplied by the
ParijatamanjariNataka by Madana discovered at Dhara, along with this were discovered two
Prakrit poems attributed to King Bhoja and eulogizing the tortoise incarnation of Vishnu of is
great interest as Bhoja himself a great patron of letters.

Thus, the above facts reveal that there are several inscriptions, especially prasastis found
throughout the Indian sub-continent, which were endowed with great literary value and which
formed a class by itself.

3. SOUTH EAST ASIA AND SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS; PART - III

All along tradition and culture the scripts and languages too travelled outside the Indian sub-
continent to different adjacent countries, especially to South East Asia and there are
hundreds of inscriptions written in a script which are akin to Brahmi, which was in vogue in
India during 5th CAD. Apart from the script many inscriptions are written in Sanskrit
Language. Many Sanskrit and Palki inscriptions dating from about the fifth to sixteenth
centuries A.D. have been found in Thailand, dated Palaeographically to around 5 th C. In the
7th to 12th Centuries, Sanskrit inscriptions become quite common. Several of the major
Sanskrit inscriptions of eastern Thailand belong to the Kamer Kings of neighboring
Cambodia.

There are hundreds of Sanskrit inscriptions, reported from Cambodia, and some of the
inscriptions are very long inscriptions, range in date from about 5 th or 6th to 13th or 14th
centuries. The Sanskrit inscriptions of Cambodia have won praise for their literary and
scholarly qualities and the skill of their composition and execution. They are composed,
almost, without exception, in classical verse, and many are quite long. The style is typically
highly ornate especially in the eulogistic portions of royal grants. One of the features of the
Cambodian Sanskrit inscriptions are learned references to literary and technical texts.

The kingdom of champa in modern Vietnam has yielded number of Sanskrit or bilingual
Sanskrit and Champa inscriptions dating from approximately 3rd to 4th Century. The Vo-canh
inscriptions is considered to be the earliest Sanskrit inscriptions of South East Asia although
its precise dating is a matter of controversy. In style, the Champa Inscriptionsfollow the
Prasasti mode. There are a few inscription in Indian languages from Laos, mostly Sanskrit
inscription of the Khmer Empire are from 7th to 12thCAD. As we understand Malaysia has a
few Sanskrit records, which are Buddhist content, dating from 4th to 8th C A D Mostly they
are found in the northwestern corner of the country. In Indonesia, the Sanskrit inscriptions
are found in good number on the stone slabs, [pillars, images and other materials, especially
on the island of Java, but also on Sumatra Borneo and Bali.

There are many Sanskrit inscriptions in Java in the middle period, around 8 th and 9th
Centuries Sanskrit inscriptions from Sumatra range in date from the 7 th or 8th to 14thCAD As
in Java, most of the later inscriptions are Buddhist in nature. A few Sanskrit inscriptions,
mostly dating to about 9th and 10thCAD have been found on Bali.

Thus, Sanskrit was an epigraphical language and a very popular medium of expression, not
only within India, but also beyond seas, especially, in South East Asian Countries.