DC-DC Converter

Chapter 3 (Chopper)
DEFINITION:
DC to DC CONVERTER Converting the unregulated DC input to a
controlled DC output with a desired
(CHOPPER) voltage level.

• General
• General block diagram:
• Buck converter
• Boost converter
DC supply
• Buck-Boost converter (from rectifier-
DC output LOAD
filter, battery,
• Switched-mode power supply fuel cell etc.)

• Bridge converter
Vcontrol
• Notes on electromagnetic compatibility (derived from
feedback circuit)
(EMC) and solutions.

• APPLICATIONS:
– Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC
motor control, battery chargers
1

Linear regulator Switching Regulator

• Transistor is operated
in linear (active) • Transistor is operated
mode. in switched-mode:
+ Vce − IL
+ VCEce − IL
– Switch closed:
+ Fully on (saturated) +
– Switch opened: RL
• Output voltage Vin
RL Vo Vin Vo
Fully off (cut-off)
−
−

Vo = Vin − Vce – When switch is open,

SWITCHING REGULATOR

LINEAR REGULATOR no current flow in it IL

– When switch is
closed no voltage SWITCH
• The transistor can be drop across it. RL
+
Vin Vo
conveniently + Vce −
−
IL
modelled by an • Since P=V.I, no losses
RT
equivalent variable +
occurs in the switch.
RL Vo
resistor, as shown. Vin – Power is 100% EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
− transferred from Vo
source to load. Vin
• Power loss is high at – Power loss is zero
EQUIVALENT (ON) (OFF) (ON)
high current due to: (for ideal switch): closed open closed
CIRCUIT
DT T
Po = I L 2 × RT
• Switching regulator is OUTPUT VOLTAGE
or the basis of all DC-DC
Po = Vce × I L converters

3 4
 Buck (step-down) converter Switch is turned on (closed)
• Diode is reversed + vL -
S L biased.
S iL
+ +
Vd D C RL +
Vo Vd C RL Vo
• Switch conducts VD
− −
− inductor current

CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER vL

iL • This results in
positive inductor Vd − Vo
S + vL −
+ voltage, i.e: opened opened
Vo closed closed
Vd D RL
t
−
v L = Vd − Vo
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED
• It causes linear −Vo
S iL increase in the iL
+ vL − inductor current
+ iLmax
di IL
Vd
D RL Vo vL = L L iLmin
dt
−
1
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED
Ÿ iL = ³ v L dt DT T
t
L
5 6

Switch turned off (opened) Analysis

+ vL - When the switch is closed (on) :
• Because of inductive
di
energy storage, iL S iL v L = Vd − Vo = L L vL
+ dt
continues to flow. C Vo
Vd D RL diL Vd − Vo Vd− Vo
−
Ÿ = closed
dt L t
• Diode is forward Derivative of i L is a positive
biased vL constant.Therefore iL must
increased linearly. iL
Vd−Vo
• Current now flows opened opened
From Figure iL max
(freewheeling) closed closed
diL ΔiL ΔiL Vd − Vo
through the diode. t = = = IL Δi L
dt Δt DT L
§ Vd − Vo ·
Ÿ (ΔiL )closed = ¨
iL min
¸ ⋅ DT
• The inductor voltage © L ¹ t
DT T
can be derived as: −Vo For switch opened,
iL
di
v L = −Vo = L L
dt
vL = −Vo iLmax
IL di − Vo
iLmin Ÿ L=
dt L
(1-D)T diL ΔiL ΔiL − Vo
∴ = = =
t dt Δt (1 − D)T L
DT T
§ −V ·
Ÿ (ΔiL )opened = ¨ o ¸ ⋅ (1 − D)T
© L ¹
7 8
 Steady-state operation Average, Maximum and
Minimum Inductor Current
iL iL
Unstable current
Imax
t ΔiL
IL

iL Decaying current Imin

t
t
Average inductor current = Average current in R L
iL Steady-state current V
Ÿ IL = IR = o
R
t Maximum current :
ΔiL Vo 1 § Vo ·
Steady - state operation requires that iL at the I max = I L + = + ¨ (1 − D )T ¸
2 R 2© L ¹
end of switching cycle is the same at the
§ 1 (1 − D ) ·
begining of the next cycle. That is the change = Vo ¨ + ¸
©R 2 Lf ¹
of iL over one period is zero, i.e : Minimum current :
(ΔiL )closed + (ΔiL )opened = 0 Δi L § 1 (1 − D ) ·
I min = I L − = Vo ¨ − ¸
§ Vd − Vo · § − Vo ·
2 ©R 2 Lf ¹
¨ ¸ ⋅ DTs − ¨ ¸ ⋅ (1 − D)Ts = 0 Inductor current ripple :
© L ¹ © L ¹
ΔiL = I max − I min
Ÿ Vo = DVd
9 10

Continuous Current Mode (CCM) Output voltage ripple

iL KCL, Capacitor current :
ic = iL + iR L iL iR
Imax
The charge can be witten as : +
iC
Q = CVo Vo

t
Ÿ ΔQ = CΔV −
Imin
0
ΔQ
Ÿ o ΔVo =
C i m ax
iL
From previous analysis, Use triangle area formula :
i L= IR
1 § T ·§ Δi ·
Δi L § 1 (1 − D) · ΔQ = ¨ ¸¨ L ¸ V o/R i m in
I min = I L − = Vo ¨ − ¸ 2 © 2 ¹© 2 ¹
2 ©R 2 Lf ¹ T Δi L iC
=
For continuous operation, I min ≥ 0, 8
Ripple voltage (Peak - to peak)
§ 1 (1 − D) · TΔiL (1 − D )
Vo ¨ − ¸≥0 ∴ ΔVo = =
©R 2 Lf ¹ 8C 8 LCf 2
(1 − D) So, the ripple factor,
Ÿ L ≥ Lmin = ⋅R ΔVo (1 − D )
2f r= =
Vo 8 LCf 2
This is the minimum inductor current to
Note : Ripple can be reduced by :
ensure continous mode of operation. 1) Increasing switching frequency
Normally L is chosen b be >> Lmin 2) Increasing inductor size
3) Increasing capacitor size.
11 12
 Basic design procedures Examples
SWITCH
A buck converter has an input of 6 V and an output of 1.5 V. The load resistor is
L
3 Ω, the switching frequency is 400 kHz, L = 5 μH, and C =10 μF. Determine (a)
Lmin= ? the duty ratio (b) the average and peak inductor currents (c) the average source
L = 10Lmin
RL
Po = ?
current, (d) the peak and average diode current.
Vd D
f=? C Io = ?
(input
D=? ripple ?
spec.)
TYPE ?

• Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

• Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device

– preferably f>20KHz for negligible acoustic noise
– higher fs results in smaller L and C. But results in higher losses.
Reduced efficiency, larger heat sink.
– Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT. Low power MOSFET can • A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given
reach MHz range. L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm, f=20KHz and D=0.4.
• Calculate Lmin. Choose L>>10 Lmin Calculate: (a) output voltage (b) maximum and minimum
• Calculate C for ripple factor requirement. inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.
– Capacitor ratings:
• must withstand peak output voltage
• must carry required RMS current. Note RMS current for • A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of
triangular w/f is Ip/3, where Ip is the peak capacitor current given 25V. The switching frequency is 10KHz. The power output is
by ΔiL/2.
125W. (a) Determine the duty cycle, (b) value of L to limit the
• ECAPs can be used
peak inductor current to 6.25A, (c) value of capacitance to limit
the output voltage ripple factor to 0.5%.
• Wire size consideration:
– Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as peak. RMS value
for iL is given as: • Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28V
2 when the input is 48V. The load is 8Ohm. Design the converter
§ Δi 2 ·
2
I L, RMS = I L + ¨ L ¸ such that it will be in continuous current mode. The output
© 3 ¹ voltage ripple must not be more than 0.5%. Specify the
frequency and the values of each component. Suggest the power
13
switch also.

14

Boost (step-up) converter Boost analysis:switch closed

L D
iL
L D
+ vL −
Vd C + +
S
Vd C vo
RL Vo S
−
−
CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER
iL L D
+ vL −

Vd C
+ v L = Vd Vd
S RL Vo
di
− =L L v L
CLOSED
dt
t
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED di V
L
Ÿ L= d Vd− Vo
D dt L
+ vL - diL ΔiL ΔiL
+ = = i L
ΔiL
Vd
S C RL
Vo dt Δt DT
di V
− Ÿ L = d
dt L DT T t
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED V DT
(ΔiL )closed = d
15 16
 Switch opened Steady-state operation
iL
D
+ vL - (ΔiL )closed + (ΔiL )opened = 0
+
Vd DT (Vd − Vo )(1 − D )T
Vd C vo
S
- + =0
L L
Vd
v L = Vd − Vo Ÿ Vo =
1− D
di
=L L Vd
dt • Boost converter produces output voltage that is
diL Vd − Vo vL greater or equal to the input voltage.
Ÿ = OPENED

dt L t • Alternative explanation:
diL ΔiL Vd− Vo – when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus
=
dt Δt output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
Δi L ΔiL
= iL
– When switch is opened, the output stage
(1 − D )T
receives energy from the input as well as from
( 1-D )T
the inductor. Hence output is large.
t
diL Vd − Vo DT T
– Output voltage is maintained constant by
Ÿ = virtue of large C.
dt L
(Vd − Vo )(1 − DT )
Ÿ (ΔiL )opened =
L
17 18

Average, Maximum, Minimum L and C values

Inductor Current
For CCM,
Input power = Output power I min ≥ 0 Vd
vL
V 2 Vd V DT
Vd I d = o 2
− d ≥0
R (1 − D ) R 2L
2
§ Vd · D (1 − D )2 TR
¨ ¸ Lmin = V d −V o
(1 − D ) ¹ Vd 2
Vd I L = ©
2 Imax
=
(1 − D ) 2 R D(1 − D ) R
2
R iL
= Imin
Average inductor current : 2f
Vd
Ÿ IL = iD
(1 − D ) 2 R Ripple factor Imax

Maximum inductor current : §V · Imin

ΔQ = ¨ o ¸ DT = CΔVo
Δi Vd V DT ©R¹
Ÿ I max = I L + L = 2
+ d V DT Vo D
Io=Vo / R
2 (1 − D) R 2L ΔVo = o =
RCf RCf ic
Minimum inductor current :
ΔVo D
Δi Vd V DT r= =
Ÿ I min = I L − L = 2
− d Vo RCf
2 (1 − D ) R 2L ΔQ

DT T
19 20
 Examples
Buck-Boost converter
A boost converter has parameter Vs =20 V, D =0.6, R =12.5 Ω, L=10 μH, C =40
μF, and the switching frequency is 200 kHz. Determine (a) the output voltage (b)
the average, maximum, and minimum inductor currents. (c)the average current in
S
the diode .Assume ideal components. D
+

Vd C
L RL Vo
−

CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

S D
+ +

Vd iL vL Vo
− −

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

• The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V,
D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine S D
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum and minimum + +
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple. Vd iL vL
Vo
−
• Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V −
from a 24V source. The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty cycle ratio, switching CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED
frequency, inductor and capacitor size, and power device.

21 22

Buck-boost analysis Output voltage

Vd Steady state operation :
Switch closed vL
Δ iL (closed ) + Δ iL (opened ) = 0
di
v L = Vd = L L V DT Vo (1 − D)T
dt Ÿ d + =0
diL Vd L L
Vd−Vo
Ÿ = Output voltage :
dt L Imax

ΔiL ΔiL Vd iL § D ·
= = Imin Ÿ Vo = −Vs ¨ ¸
Δt DT L ©1 − D ¹
V DT
Ÿ (ΔiL ) closed = d Imax • NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter either be
L iD
higher or lower than input.
Switch opened Imin
– If D>0.5, output is higher than input
di
v L = Vo = L L Io=Vo / R – If D<0.5, output is lower input
dt
di V
Ÿ L= o i c • Output voltage is always negative.
dt L
ΔiL Δi L V ΔQ
= = o • Note that output is never directly connected to load.
Δt (1 − D )T L DT T
V (1 − D)T • Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed
Ÿ (ΔiL ) opened = o
L and transferred to load when switch is opened.

23 24
 Average inductor current
L and C values
Max and min inductor current,
Δi Vd D V DT
Assuming no power loss in the converter, Ÿ I max = I L + L = 2
+ d
power absorbed by the load must equal
2 R (1 − D ) 2L
Δi L Vd D V DT
power supplied the by source, i.e. Ÿ I min = I L − = 2
− d
Po = Ps 2 R (1 − D ) 2L
For CCM
Vo2
= Vd I s
R Vd D V DT
+ d =0 2
But average source current is related to R(1 − D ) 2L
average inductor current as :
(1 − D) 2 R
Is = ILD Ÿ Lmin =
2f
V2 Output voltage ripple,
Ÿ o = Vd I L D
R §V ·
Substituting for Vo , ΔQ = ¨ o ¸ DT = CΔVo
©R¹
Vo2 P Vd D V DT Vo D
Ÿ IL = = o = ΔVo = o =
Vd RD Vd D R(1 − D ) 2 RC RCf
ΔV D
r= o =
Vo RCf
25 26

Example
A buck-boost converter has parameters Vs=12 V, D=0.6, R=10 Ω, L =10 μH, C
=20 μF, and a switching frequency of 200 kHz. Determine (a) the output voltage
(b) the average, maximum, and minimum inductor currents, and (c) the average
value of input current.
Solution

S Buck − Boost
Vo D
D + =−
V C Vo
Vd 1− D
L RL
d
− ΔVo D
=
Vo RCf
(1 − D) 2 R
Lmin =
2f

Control of DC-DC converter:

Converters in CCM: Summary pulse width modulation (PWM)
Vo (desired)
Buck + Vcontrol Switch control
signal
Vo Vo (actual) Comparator
S L =D -
V + Vd Sawtooth
D C RL
Vo ΔV D Waveform Sawtooth
1−
d
Waveform
− Voo = 8 LCf 2
( − D)R
Lmin = Vcontrol 1
1 2f
Vcontrol 2

L Boost
D
Vo 1
= Switch
V + Vd 1 − D control
C Vo ton 2
S ΔV D signal
=
d
RL − Voo RCf
ton 1
D( − D)2 R
L = T
min 1 2f

27 28
 Isolated DC-DC Converter Linear and SMPS block diagram
Basic Block diagram of linear power supply
• Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer
C E
• Two types: Linear and Switched-mode Vce=Vd-Vo +Vo DC Regulated
DC Unregulated
B +
• Advantages of switched mode over linear power +
supply Vd
Base/gate
Drive
RL Vo
Line
-Efficient (70-95%) Input
- -
1φ / 3φ
-Weight and size reduction Rectifier/ Error Vo
50/60 Hz Filter Amp.
Isolation
Transformer
• Disadvantages Vref
-Complex design
-EMI problems
Basic Block diagram of SMPS
• However above certain ratings,
DC-DC CONVERSITION AND
SMPS is the only feasible choice DC ISOLATION
DC
Unregulated Regulated
High
• Types of SMPS RECTIFIER Frequency
EMI
AND
-Flyback FILTER
FILTER
rectifier Vo
and
-forward filter
-Push-pull Vref
-Bridge (half and full)
Base/
PWM error
gate
Controller Amp
drive

29 30

High frequency transformer Flyback Converter

Basic function :
1) Input - output electrical isolation
+
2) step up/down time - varying voltage C R Vo
Vd LM
−
Basic input - output relationship
v1 N1
= ;
v2 N 2 Flyback converter circuit
i1 N 2
=
i2 N1
iD
Models : iS i 1 N1 N2
+
+ − + vD −
i1 i2 iLM v2 iC iR Vo
N1 N2 v1
Vd
+ + − + −
+ vSW − i2
V1 V2 Ideal model
− −
Model with magnetising
i1 N1 N2 i2
inductance
+ +
Lm Model used for
V1 V2
−
most PE application
−

31 32
 Operation: switch closed Switch opened
iD
0 N1 N2 N1 N2
is=iLM
+ + +
+ − −
v2 iLM v1 v 2 = − VS Vo
iLM v1 Vo Vs
Vd + − + −
− −
+ vSW −
v1=Vs 0

§N ·
diLm v1 = −Vo ¨¨ 1 ¸¸
v1 = Vd = Lm © N2 ¹
dt
But v2 = −Vo
diLm ΔiLm ΔiLm Vd
= = = §N · §N ·
dt dt DT Lm Ÿ v1 = v2 ¨¨ 1 ¸¸ = −Vo ¨¨ 1 ¸¸
© 2¹
N © N2 ¹
Ÿ ΔiLm ( V DT
= d ) di §N ·
closed Lm v1 = Lm L m = −Vo ¨¨ 1 ¸¸
dt © N2 ¹
On the load side of the transformer,
diL m ΔiL m ΔiL m − Vo § N1 ·
§N · §N · = = = ¨ ¸
v2 = v1 ¨¨ 2 ¸¸ = Vd ¨¨ 2 ¸¸ dt dt (1 − D )T Lm ¨© N 2 ¸¹
© N1 ¹ © N1 ¹ V (1 − D )T § N1 ·
Ÿ (ΔiL m )open = − o ¨¨ ¸¸
§N · Lm © N2 ¹
v D = −Vo − Vd ¨¨ 2 ¸¸ < 0, i.e. diode turned off
© N1 ¹ Voltage across the switch :
Therefore, §N ·
vSW = Vd + Vo ¨¨ 1 ¸¸
i2 = 0 and i1 = 0 © N2 ¹
33 34

Flyback waveforms
Output voltage
Ps = P0 Vs
For steady - state operation, 2
( )closed ( )opened V v1
ΔiLm + ΔiLm =0 Vd I s = 0
R
V DT Vo (1 − D )T § N1 · I s is related to I Lm as : -V(N 1 /N 2 )

Ÿ d − ¨¨ ¸¸ = 0
Lm Lm © N2 ¹ Is = m
I L DT
T
( )
= I Lm D
i Lm
Δ iL

§ D ·§ N 2 ·
Ÿ Vo = Vd ¨ ¸¨¨ ¸¸ Solving for I Lm
© 1 − D ¹© N1 ¹
is
V2
( )
Vd I Lm D = 0
R
• Input output relationship is similar to buck-boost
t
converter. V0 2
Ÿ I Lm =
Vd DR iD
• Output can be greater of less than input,depending
upon D. I Lm can written as :
2 iC
Vd D § N2 ·
• Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is present. I Lm = ¨
2 ¨N ¸
¸
(1 − D ) R © 1 ¹
− V o/ R
V0 § N 2 ·
DT T t
= ¨ ¸
(1 − D ) R ©¨ N1 ¸¹

35 36
 Max, Min inductor current Example
ΔiLm The Flyback converter has these specifications:
I Lm = I Lm + DC input voltage: 40V
,max 2 Output voltage: 25V
2
Vd D§ N 2 · V d DT Duty cycle: 0.5
= ¨¨ 2
¸¸ + Rated load: 62.5W
(1 − D ) R © N1 ¹ 2 Lm Max peak-peak inductor current ripple:
25% of the average inductor current.
ΔiLm
I Lm ,min = I Lm − Maximum peak-peak output voltage: 0.1V
2 Switching frequency: 75kHz
2
§ N 2 · Vd DT
Vd D Based on the abovementioned specifications, determine
= ¨
2 ¨N ¸
¸ − a) Transformer turns ratio
(1 − D ) R © 1 ¹ 2 Lm
b) Value of magnetizing inductor Lm.
For CCM, I Lm , min = 0 c) Maximum and minimum inductor current.
d) Value of capacitor C.
2
§ N2 ·
Vd D V DT Vd D
¨
2 ¨N ¸
¸ = d =
(1 − D ) R © 1 ¹ 2 Lm 2 Lm f
2
V (1 − D) 2 R § N1 ·
Ÿ ( Lm )min = d ¨¨ ¸¸
2f © N2 ¹
Ripple calculation is similar to boost,
ΔV0 D
r= =
V0 RCf
37 38

Full-bridge converter Full bridge: basic operation

• Switch “pair”: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].
SW1 SW3
Lx
+ + + • Each switch pair turn on at a time as shown. The
NS vx Vo other pair is off.
C R
− −
vp
VS

−
NS • “AC voltage” is developed across the primary.
Then transferred to secondary via high frequency
SW4 SW2 transformers.

SW1,SW2 • On secondary side, diode pair is “high frequency

full wave rectification”.
DT T
SW3,SW4
• The choke (L) and (C ) acts like the “buck
T T
converter” circuit.
+ DT
VP 2 2
VS
• Output Voltage

-VS
§N ·
Vo = 2Vs ¨ s ¸ ⋅ D
¨ ¸
Vx
§N ·
VS ¨¨ S ¸¸
© NP ¹
©Np ¹
DT T T T
+ DT
2 2

39 40