Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

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Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

A comprehensive review of machinability of difficult-to-machine alloys

with advanced lubricating and cooling techniques
Danil Yu. Pimenov a, *, 1, Leonardo Rosa Ribeiro da Silva b, c, 2, 3, Alisson Rocha Machado b, c, Pedro
Henrique Pires França c, Giuseppe Pintaude d, 4, Deepak Rajendra Unune e, 5,
Mustafa Kuntoğlu f, 6, Grzegorz M. Krolczyk g, *
a
Department of Automated Mechanical Engineering, South Ural State University, Lenin Prosp. 76, 454080 Chelyabinsk, Russia
b
Mechanical Engineering Graduate Program, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná – PUC-PR, 80215-901 Curitiba, PR, Brazil
c
Federal University of Uberlandia, Av. João Naves de Ávila, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
d
Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, Av. Sete de Setembro, Rebouças, Curitiba, Brazil
e
Department of Mechanical-Mechatronics Engineering, The LNM Institute of Information Technology, Jaipur302031, Rajasthan, India
f
Faculty of Technology, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
g
Faculty of mechanical engineering, Opole University of Technology, Opole, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Superalloys find widespread application in demanding environments owing to their robust strength and high
Machining resistance to heat and corrosion. Nonetheless, these very attributes render them difficult-to-cut materials.
Lubricating Enhancing machinability necessitates effective lubrication and cooling techniques, the efficacy of which varies
Cooling methods
depending on the specific alloy, manufacturing methodology, and machining conditions. This exhaustive review
Difficult-to-machine alloys
presents a fresh analysis elucidating the impact of diverse cooling/lubrication mothods—dry, flood, minimum
Titanium alloys
Nickel alloys quantity lubrication (MQL), cryogenic, and high-pressure cooling—on the machining of titanium, nickel, and
Heat-resistant steels steel-based superalloys fabricated through conventional and additive manufacturing processes. Key machining
operations, including turning, milling, drilling, and grinding, are scrutinized. The ramifications of each cooling
approach on critical machinability indicators such as surface roughness, cutting forces, tool wear, temperature,
and environmental footprint are meticulously assessed through an extensive literature survey. Both conven­
tionally produced and additively manufactured alloys are scrutinized to discern prevailing trends. The findings
underscore the absence of a universally optimal technique across all scenarios. MQL and cryogenic methods
exhibit notable efficacy in refining surface finish during titanium alloy machining. High-pressure cooling aug­
ments chip breakability and prolongs tool life in titanium machining, albeit yielding disparate outcomes in nickel
alloy machining contingent upon wear mode. Additively manufactured alloys generally exhibit superior
machinability compared to their wrought counterparts, although warranting further investigation. This holistic
analysis furnishes fresh insights into aligning cooling strategies with alloy-process amalgamations to optimize
machinability. It identifies extant challenges and avenues for advancing sustainable and efficient machining of
difficult-to-cut materials.

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D.Yu. Pimenov), [email protected] (G.M. Krolczyk).
1
https://orcid.org/0000–0002-5568–8928
2
https://orcid.org/0000–0003-2777–4500
3
https://orcid.org/0000–0002-5388–2954
4
https://orcid.org/0000–0001-8215–4481
5
0000–0002-9341–1962
6
https://orcid.org/0000–0002-7291–9468

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2024.109677
Received 29 February 2024; Received in revised form 11 April 2024; Accepted 17 April 2024
Available online 21 April 2024
0301-679X/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

1. Introduction cooling techniques plays a crucial role in promoting worker health and
safety by reducing exposure to harmful substances and improving
In the realm of modern manufacturing, the machining of difficult-to- overall working conditions. This aspect underscores the social dimen­
machine alloys—such as titanium alloys [1], nickel and cobalt-based sion of sustainable development within the manufacturing industry.
superalloys [2], and high-temperature and heat-resistant steels [3] Additionally, the economic viability of these techniques—achieved
—presents a significant challenge. These materials are pivotal in the through extended tool life and reduced maintenance costs—ensures that
production of advanced products across various industries, including adopting environmentally friendly practices does not come at the
aerospace, automotive, chemical, food processing, mechanical engi­ expense of financial sustainability. Thus, the intertwining of advanced
neering, and medical devices. The unique properties of these alloys, such lubricating and cooling techniques with sustainable development prin­
as the optimal ratio of strength to ductility found in high-strength ciples offers a comprehensive approach to achieving more sustainable
structural titanium alloys [4], the high-temperature resistance of manufacturing processes, balancing environmental conservation, eco­
heat-resistant titanium alloys with minimal ductility loss [5], and the nomic viability, and social responsibility [27].
competitive performance of titanium-based superalloys in certain tem­ This review on machining difficult-to-machine alloys with advanced
perature ranges [6], underscore their importance. lubricating and cooling techniques offers pivotal insights for enhancing
Nickel-based superalloys are renowned for their refractory capabil­ manufacturing processes across industries reliant on such materials. It
ities, whereas cobalt-based counterparts potentially offer superior hot underscores the potential for technological advancements that could
corrosion, oxidation, and wear resistance [7]. Similarly, iron-based su­ lead to higher quality and more durable manufactured components.
peralloys present an interesting alternative due to their comparable Additionally, it highlights the environmental benefits of adopting sus­
creep and oxidation resistance to nickel-based superalloys but at a lower tainable machining practices, such as reduced chemical waste and
manufacturing cost [8]. Heat-resistant steels are designed to withstand emissions, aligning with global environmental protection goals.
elevated temperatures under stress without succumbing to permanent Economically, this review study suggests that improved machin­
deformation or fracture [9]. The ability of these metal alloys to retain ability through advanced techniques could lead to significant cost re­
high-strength properties near their melting points contributes to their ductions, making the production of complex components more feasible
classification as difficult-to-machine materials. This characteristic and providing a competitive edge through enhanced product quality and
complicates their machining process, underscoring the need for efficiency. Furthermore, it points to the possibility of safer working
advanced machining tools and techniques [10]. conditions by minimizing exposure to hazardous chemicals. In essence,
Historically, review papers have explored the machining of such this research not only furthers our understanding of machining chal­
materials, highlighting the benefits of using CBN tools for increased lenges but also proposes a multi-faceted approach to improving
productivity in machining aero-engine alloys [11], and favoring ceramic manufacturing practices. This encompasses technological innovation,
tools for high-speed continuous machining [12]. Despite these ad­ environmental sustainability, economic viability, and occupational
vancements, the challenge of improving machinability through cooling health and safety, potentially bringing about substantial societal
methods alone remains insufficiently addressed [13]. Recent literature benefits.
has begun to explore sustainable techniques aimed at enhancing the Given the critical role of heat generation in impairing productivity by
machinability of superalloys, with a focus on cooling methods that increasing cutting temperatures and reducing tool strength [28], this
contribute to sustainability [14], and examining the impact of cool­ review article aims to fill a gap in the literature. For the first time, it will
ing/lubrication technologies on the machining of titanium alloys [15]. comprehensively cover the main methods of lubricating and cooling in
Furthermore, studies have reviewed eco-friendly grinding technology the machining of both traditional and additively manufactured super­
for nickel-based superalloys [16], and conventional machining methods alloys. This includes titanium alloys, nickel alloys, and steels, employing
involving minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) across various metals techniques such as dry cooling, conventional cooling systems, minimum
[17]. quantity of lubricant (MQL), minimum quantity cooling lubrication
The advent of powder metallurgy and additive manufacturing (MQCL), cryogenic lubrication (CL), and high-pressure cooling (HPC).
methods, such as selective laser melting [18], laser metal deposition The paper will delve into the machining of these alloys through various
[19], detonation spraying [20], and fused deposition modeling [21], processes—turning, milling, drilling, and grinding—and will examine
introduces new challenges in improving the machinability of these the effects of different lubricating and cooling methods on surface
materials [22]. While some reviews have investigated the machining of roughness, cutting forces, chip morphology, tool wear and life, tem­
additively manufactured titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4 V [23] and other tita­ perature, and environmental impact. The structure of this article is
nium alloys [24], a comprehensive analysis focusing on the variety of organized as follows: Section 2 describes the different superalloys;
cooling methods available remains lacking. Moreover, while the Section 3 presents the state-of-use of cooling lubrication techniques in
machinability of workpieces from additively manufactured nickel and machining; Section 4 discusses the machinability of traditional and
titanium alloys has been compared with that of their forged counterparts additive manufactured superalloys under various cooling-lubrication
[25], high-strength steels and a detailed examination of cooling methods conditions; Section 5 explores "Challenges and future trends"; and Sec­
have been notably absent. tion 6 concludes the discussion.
Sustainable development’s connection to machining Difficult-to-
Machine Alloys using advanced lubricating and cooling techniques is 2. Difficult to machine alloys: chemical composition,
deeply rooted in the principles of efficiency and environmental re­ classification, and properties
sponsibility. These advanced methods significantly enhance the
machining process’s efficiency, leading to reduced material waste and The term “superalloys” refers to a particular group of metallic alloys
more judicious use of cutting fluids. This not only aligns with sustainable that present outstanding properties when compared to most of the
resource use but also contributes to significant energy conservation. As metallic alloys used in industry. Titanium, nickel, cobalt, and iron-based
energy consumption during the machining process is lowered, the alloys are usually classified as superalloys because of their combination
environmental footprint of manufacturing activities is subsequently of high-strength (even at excessive temperatures), wear resistance, and
reduced. Moreover, by utilizing eco-friendlier alternatives and mini­ resistance to chemical degradation [29,30]. These characteristics make
mizing waste production, these techniques mitigate the adverse envi­ them suitable for special applications in aerospace, medical devices, and
ronmental impacts traditionally associated with machining, such as automotive industries, among others. Among them, titanium alloys are
hazardous waste and extensive use of non-renewable resources [26]. considered a particular group of metallic materials because of their low
Furthermore, the implementation of advanced lubricating and density (nearly half that of steel), and superplasticity can be reached by

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

adding specific alloy elements [31]. require machining to achieve the final tolerances and surface finishing.
Superalloys are multicomponent (generally composed of five or more This has coined the term “hybrid manufacture” (HM) when using a
metallic elements), i.e., there is a diversity of alloy elements to get platform that provides several manufacturing processes (e.g., selective
specific, giving rise to exceptional performance and mechanical prop­ laser sintering and grinding), as discussed by Grzesik [37]. According to
erties. For example, Fig. 1 shows an Ashby-like map [32] in which one Zhu, Dhokia, Nassehi, and Newman [38], the HM reduces the drawbacks
can observe the excellent strength maintenance at high-temperatures of the individual manufacturing processes involved. As with traditional
achieved by Ti- and Ni-based alloys. However, the same properties manufacturing processes, the thermomechanical history of the compo­
that make them exceptional materials can also bring processing prob­ nents influences the obtained microstructure and mechanical properties
lems. Characteristics such as high strength at high temperature, low of the additively manufactured parts, and these characteristics will be
thermal conductivity, and deformation hardening are barriers to over­ determinant in the selection of the machining process setup. The
come during the machining processes of these materials [33]. Among microstructure and properties of the multicomponent alloys studied in
other main reasons like design freedom and reduced need for machi­ this work are determined in the following sections.
nes/tools, additive manufacturing has been used in the manufacturing of
superalloy components because of the opportunity to use less material 2.1. Titanium alloys
and skip the high number of machining steps required to manufacture
complex geometries that can be difficult and costly for such alloys [34]. ASTM B381–21 [39] covers 39 annealed titanium and titanium alloy
Although additive manufacturing processes of metallic alloys have forgings grades. Veiga, Davim, and Loureiro [40] classified micro­
quickly developed in recent years, and there are already different structure into alpha, alpha-beta, and beta. However, Machado and
technologies that can produce reliable components in terms of geometry Wallbank [41] classify them as unalloyed, alpha, near-alpha, alpha-beta,
tolerances and mechanical resistance, these processes face problems in and beta alloys. Beta-type alloys can reach 1200 MPa of yield strength,
achieving high-quality surface finishing [35]. They must still achieve the being the harder of them. Biomedical uses tend to reduce the elastic
required standard for many applications [36]. In this manner, most modulus of beta-type alloys to minimize the load misfit between tissues
metallic additively manufactured are produced in near net shape and and prostheses [42]. Additive manufacturing can be used for that

Fig. 1. Map of strength versus service temperature for difficult-to-machine alloys.

Adapted from [32].

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purpose, as revised by Chen et al. [43], who reported a minimum value This summarization was done by Hack et al. [52], and Table 2 presents
of elastic modulus of 44 GPa. The most used titanium alloys are the their descriptions.
alpha-beta Ti6Al4V, regardless of application sector, comprising about The values reported by reference [52] showed that there is a possi­
45% of those titanium alloys produced. It possesses a yield strength of bility to increase the uniform elongation concerning the conventional
825 MPa (340 HV) in the annealed condition and 965 MPa (360 HV) in alloy using the AM process. Besides, there is an enormous variation in
the solution-treated and aged condition, as reported by Machado and this property, which means that the microstructure control is decisive in
Wallbank [41]. correlating machinability to mechanical properties. Looking only at UTS
A detailed investigation was conducted by Egorova et al. [44], who values, with the increase in strength using AM processes, there is an
verified, among many microstructural factors, the primary influence of expectation of increasing the difficulty to machine Nickel-based alloys
the size of beta grain on the machinability of Ti-based alloys. Table 1 is AM processed.
adapted from some compilations built by Yan and Yu [45] or Ti6Al4V,
probably the most studied class of titanium alloy through additive
2.3. Heat-resistant steels
manufacturing processes.
It is clear from Table 1 that there is a more significant loss in uniform
Depending on their microstructures, heat-resistant steels are usually
elongation using the SLM process, besides the higher resulting strengths.
classified into ferritic and austenitic categories. Table 3 presents a
The mechanical properties of conventional alloy are within the range
classification Masuyama [53] proposed, in which both ferritic and
obtained with other processes. This analysis showed a more significant
austenitic classes are subdivided.
challenge to machine SLM alloys, deserving special attention in cooling
The term ’ferritic’ is replaced by Hu [54] as ’ferritic/martensitic’.
techniques to achieve suitable surface integrity results.
When one considers class IV in Table 3, it does make sense. The main
A specific class of material deserves attention due to the intermetallic
element in this class is chromium, added in the range of 2–13% wt. To
formation: TiAl. Wu [46] described the superior specific modulus and
stabilize the austenite the addition of Nickel is usually the most
specific strength of TiAl concerning Ni-based superalloy up to 600 ◦ C.
common.
However, as with almost all intermetallics, the limited ductility (up to
In the same way, as described for Nickel alloys, the microstructure of
1 MPa) determines their composition. Adding Nb improves the oxida­
heat-resistant steels is determined by the precipitates. Many carbides are
tion resistance, while small amounts of Carbon or Boron ensure the
formed with different stoichiometry, and even topological phases can be
high-strength at high temperatures. The combination of properties gives
found in austenitic classes, such as θ, χ, and G-phase [54]. The main
rise to a series of superficial defects at the machined TiAl, summarized
carbides in ferritic heat-resistant steels are M23C6, M3C, M2C, and M6C,
by Castellanos et al. [47], especially smearing, cracking, material
while M23C6 and MC are predominant in austenitic ones.
pull-out, and surface cavities.
Syreyshchikova et al. [55] compared the machinability of
heat-resistant steels was compared to the Nickel-base alloys under
2.2. Nickel alloys different grinding conditions [55]. These authors concluded that these
steels have slightly better machinability than nickel alloys, 1.5–2.3 times
Nickel is a face-centered cubic structure and does not suffer allo­ more.
tropic transformation until its melting point (1455oC). Nickel alloys are The processing of steels through additive manufacturing has yet to be
strengthened by alloying elements such as cobalt, chromium, molyb­ applied to all classes of heat-resistant steels. Among those in Table 3, the
denum, and tungsten and usually contain two types of micro­ austenitic steels probably received more attention [56]. It deserves re­
constituents, according to Ezugwu, Wang, and Machado [48]. A metallic marks on the significant number of values determined for 316 L stainless
matrix is usually dual-phase; one is an intermetallic phase, such as steel.
gamma prime. A certain number of carbides is also designed, helping to The values in Table 4 align with those reported by Bajaj et al [56].
block the grain growth during hot service. However, adding refractory These authors showed the same range for uniform elongation but with a
elements can promote the formation of topologically close-packed (TCP) more significant possibility for yield strength (YS) of 316 L/LPBF:
phases following prolonged periods of high-temperature exposure. 425–700 MPa. In front of the values of annealed microstructures, the
Wilson [49] described five TCPs in detail (stoichiometric composition, conclusion is the same: there is a possibility to increase the strength
unit cell type, space group, and lattice parameters): σ, μ, and γ. without losing the elongation. Applying AM to heat-resistant steels find
TCP will bring the same problem as any intermetallic phase: its vast possibilities for multiple classes of steels. Although some results of
hardness is relatively high at high temperatures. Considering the heat ferritic and martensitic microstructures produced by AM are known, the
generation during machining, the machinability of intermetallic alloys is composition of these alloys is quite different to consider them
a complex issue to solve. Finally, it deserves to cite the sensitivity of heat-resistant.
intermetallic phases to the composition variation. Brunetti et al. [50]
studied the effect of different iron additions to NiAl alloy. They verified 3. Different cooling lubrication methods
variation from 110 to 180 GPa in indentation modulus and from 3.2 to
6 GPa in hardness varying iron content within 10–50% at%. Cooling techniques play an essential role in the machining of su­
Nickel-based alloys have been manufactured through additive peralloys. However, the application of cutting fluid into the machining
manufacturing techniques [51]. As the comparison of mechanical zone is complicated, but its advantages are more in providing good
properties depends on the microstructures, it is more comprehensive to lubrication and cooling effects. Machining superalloys without using
take only a well-known grade, Inconel 625, to visualize the differences. coolant is very cumbersome because of their unique properties like high

Table 1 Table 2
Comparison between mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V, processed convention­ Comparison between mechanical properties of Inconel 625, processed conven­
ally and through different AM routes [45]. tionally and through different AM routes.
Process UTS (MPa) Uniform elongation (%) Process UTS (MPa) Uniform elongation (%)

Conventional 950 14 Conventional 827 30

LMD 800-1000 5-19 L-BPF 880-1070 9-60
EBM (electron beam melting) 800-1100 9-13 DMLS (direct metal laser melting) 880-1010 28-58
SLM (selective laser melting) 900-1200 2-7
Source:Adapted from Hack et al. [52].

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Table 3
Classes of steels considered heat resistant [53].
Heat resistant steels

Ferritic steels Austenitic steels

I. carbon steels (C– Mn, and other basic I. 18%Cr–8%Ni steels and 25%
elements) Cr–20%Ni steels of the AISI300
series
I. low alloy steels (0.5%Mo,2.25%Cr–1%Mo) I. 21%Cr–32%Ni steels such as
Alloy 800 H
I. intermediate alloy steels (5–10% Cr) I. Cr–Mn steels of the AISI200
series
I. high alloy steels (12% Cr martensitic steels
and 12–18% Cr ferritic steels of the AISI400
series)

Table 4
Comparison between mechanical properties of austenitic steel processed
conventionally and by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) [56].
Steel/Process UTS (MPa) YS (MPa) Uniform elongation (%)

316 L/Conventional 450-555 160-365 43

316 L/LPBF 640-700 450-590 36-59

strength maintained at elevated temperatures, poor thermal conduc­

tivity, work hardening ability, e.g. These properties generate high
temperature in the cutting zone that results, for instance, in softening of
the cutting tool, short tool life, high cutting forces, or poor surface fin­
ishing. Similarly, the built-up edge formation, abrasion, adhesion,
diffusion, and notch wear are the significant problems that lead to rapid
tool wear during the machining of superalloys without using any
coolant. Therefore, controlling the machining zone temperature is
crucial, and applying a cutting fluid is the only way to minimize this
problem. Fig. 2. The schematic of MQL setup in micro-end milling [74]. (a) schematic of
On the other hand, the cutting fluids and their cooling systems have the experimental set-up in side-view. (b) schematic of the experimental set-up
their pros and cons. The strict government policies and environmental in top-view.
regulations limit the application of cutting fluids to a great extent. For
instance, the flood cooling system is usually employed in the previous requirements [68]. Coefficients of friction and heat generation are
years. However, its disposal, reuse, and negative impact on operator minimized in the MQL method [69], which uses a thin oil film formed
health are some issues of flood cooling systems during the machining of between the cutting tool and the workpiece/chip when tiny oil drops are
superalloys that demand concerns. Thus, an appropriate cooling system mixed with air and sprayed in the cutting zone. Compared to flood
might be utilized to offset this. In addition to cooling and lubricating cooling, it is believed that with MQL, the oil can penetrate closer to the
purposes, cutting fluids in machining are used to transport chips, cutting edge because the air jet is more efficient in delivering the drops
minimize cutting tool wear, and extend tool life, protect against corro­ of oil in the chip-tool interface, according to Sales, Diniz, and Machado
sion, decrease power, enhance workpiece quality, and boost produc­ [70]. Because of high tool wear, high temperature, and low surface
tivity [57,58]. quality, MQL is employed primarily to prevent these adverse conse­
Cutting fluids enhance machining performance due to their lubri­ quences and provide an environmentally friendly machining method
cating, cooling, and chip-clearing functions. Cutting fluids reduce cut­ [71]. The lubricant flow rate in MQL cutting is typically between 10 and
ting forces by eliminating weld-like material adhesion between the tool 100 mL/h, which is twenty thousand times less than conventional
and chip by lubricating the tool-workpiece and tool-chip interfaces. Chip coolant cutting [72]. Particles larger than 10 µm are required to avoid
entanglement and re-cuts can harm the workpiece and cutting tool if not health issues when sprayed oil is used. Chip recycling costs are also
removed from the cutting zone [59,60]. When it comes to abundant fluid decreased when using MQL machining because the chip and workpiece
application, the expenses of employee health, storage, and disposal rise are nearly dry [73].
along with the risks to health and the environment accompanying the There are obvious environmental and health costs associated with
practice [61,62]. Because of these problems, some alternatives have using traditional cutting fluids. As a result, an alternative to oil-based
been sought to minimize or even avoid cutting fluid [63]. In order to coolers that generate no liquid waste and have no hazardous side ef­
increase the cutting performance in machining processes of fects is required. When it comes to improving machinability, cryogenic
difficult-to-machine materials and to minimize the adverse effects such cooling is favored. It is a technology that cools the cutting zone at
as high cutting forces, high temperature, rapid tool wear, and extremely low temperatures. First, CO2 coolant was employed in cryo­
chip-breaking problems in the literature and industry, cutting fluid, genic applications to keep cutting tools longer, and the use of this gas has
minimum amount of lubrication (MQL) [64], high-pressure cooling increased due to the need for large tanks and the difficulty of controlling
(HPC) methods [65] and cryogenic cooling [66,67] are widely used. The coolant flow in N2 applications [75]. Liquid CO2 (LCO2) at − 78.5 ◦ C is
amount of coolant used in the machining process significantly impacts stored in tubes at 57 bar pressure, while − 196 ◦ C liquid nitrogen is
the total production cost, the environment, and human health. However, stored in insulated containers [75]. As a potential alternative to con­
product quality and cutting tool life should not be compromised when ventional machining, liquid nitrogen (LN2) based cryogenics can be
using less coolant. The minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) method, considered (Fig. 3). LN2 is a suitable refrigerant since it has a temper­
illustrated in Fig. 2, developed recently appears to meet these ature of − 196 ℃ at 1 atm pressure. Because liquid nitrogen evaporates

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Fig. 3. Cryogenic machining setup [77].

as nitrogen gas and combines with air, there is no detrimental waste to

the environment once cutting occurs. Because of this, it is considered
environmentally beneficial and naturally recyclable [76].
Cryogenic coolant applied to the workpiece and cutting tool im­
proves machining performance because of its efficient cooling ability
and reducing friction coefficient at the tool-chip interface [5]. In addi­
tion, the embrittlement that happens because of rapidly lowering the
chip temperature increases the chip’s potential to shatter when liquid
nitrogen is applied at the chip surface from the cutting tip. Built-up-edge
(BUE) formation is reduced or eliminated when a liquid film forms be­
tween the chip contact area and the cutting tool. Adding to this is effi­
cient cryogenic cooling, which lowers the cutting zone temperature and
improves the wear behavior of the inserts, resulting in longer tool life.
Applying liquid nitrogen from the free surface of inserts will improve the
quality of the finished products. Because of its impact on workpiece
surface integrity parameters such as microstructure, microhardness,
texture, phase transformation, and residual stress, cryogenic cooling is
Fig. 4. Heat sources and application of high-pressure water jets [77].
crucial to the service performance of medical implants, and its benefits
for tool wear and surface roughness.
Lequien, Poulachon, Outeiro, and Rech [78] have found that the LN2 increase when the shear speed increases.
pressure, nozzle diameter, projection angle, and the distance between
the nozzle and the workpiece surface are the most influential parameters 3.1. Dry machining
of the thermal distribution and heat transfer coefficient in cryogenic
machining. With cryogenic cooling, the heat generated at the cutting Dry machining entirely avoids applying cutting fluid in any form. It
tool-chip interface was significantly reduced, as shown in Fig. 4, as were avoids health hazards like dermatitis, skin infections, respiratory dis­
the thermal effects, reducing the tension-type residual stresses in the eases, and cancer linked with prolonged exposure to cutting fluids and
surface layer and thus improving the compression-type residual stress simultaneously may enhance the overall cutting performance [81]. The
formation and surface integrity as opposed to dry cutting. In addition, it application of dry machining in open-faced cutting, like turning, milling,
was discovered that the jet pressure did not affect the depth affected by and boring, is more favorable owing to easy chip removability than
tensile residual stress and hardening. Consequently, it has been found other machining operations. On the contrary, closed-face cutting oper­
that residual tensions on the surface can be decreased by high-pressure ations like drilling, reaming, and tapping may not be effectively run dry
jets [79]. owing to difficulties in chip evacuation and the likelihood of workpiece
Another efficient lubri-cooling method is the high-pressure coolant surface damage with the chips. Dry machining has benefits such as no
supply. Cutting operations can be significantly improved using a high- atmosphere, water, or earth pollution caused by cutting fluids, abridged
pressure water jet at the tool-chip contact. Habak and Lebrun [80] work-related health hazards, and substantial cost savings, as there are no
studied the influence of high-pressure water jet cooling on the surface fluid management, repairs, and removal costs. Hence, dry machining has
integrity of AISI 316 L material during machining. Residual stresses are attracted the minds of investigators and machining industries to offer a
influenced by the jet pressure and shear characteristics (Fig. 5). The healthy and cleaner atmosphere. However, significant concerns related
residual stresses on the surface diminish as the jet pressure increases but to the application of dry machining for superalloys include, for example,

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Fig. 5. Residual stress profiles: a) Dry cutting, b) High-pressure water jet cooling (f = 0.1 mm/rev, ap = 1 mm) [80].

shorter tool life, loss of geometrical form and accuracies, poor surface interrelations between the input and output parameters and the
integrity and more considerable residual stresses, large heat generation complexity of the machining environment.
and severe interfacial temperatures, and chip evacuation. [82,83]. For The cutting tool materials should efficiently resist high stresses and
instance, dry machining leading to the development of residual stresses sustain the severe cutting temperature without losing the hot hardness.
in machining surface layers, causing deleterious effects on the fatigue Especially in dry machining, the probability of detriment of the tool life
and corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-4 V, was reported by Sun and Guo is higher in the absence of the cutting fluid owing to softening/defor­
[84] and Khaliq et al. [85]. mation of the cutting edge or increased diffusion wear mechanism.
Similarly, catastrophic failure of the tool, opposite of progressive tool Typically, various tool materials, including straight grade and steel
wear during wet drilling, was reported during dry drilling of RR100 cutting grade of cemented carbides (coated and uncoated); cermets
nickel-based superalloy [86]. The fruitful implementation of dry based on titanium carbonitride; ceramics; polycrystalline diamond
machining of superalloys requires essential actions such as optimum (PCD) and polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (pCBN) are used for
choice of cutting parameters, proper selection of tool material, alter­ machining superalloys. Apart from titanium alloys, which generally are
ation of tool design, and application of tool coatings, as diagrammati­ machined with uncoated straight grade of cemented carbides [41], the
cally illustrated in Fig. 6. The figure contains the technological facilities nickel-based and steel-based superalloys can be machined with any cited
for cutting and machine tools and their relationships between tools. The excellent hot hardness of Ceramic, PCD, and pCBN tools make
sub-groups variables. The last part of this figure outlines the perfor­ them best suitable for dry machining applications at higher cutting
mance measures of machining operations, such as tool wear index, chip, speed than the uncoated/coated carbide cutting tools. Recently, Lindvall
and surface integrity parameters. The central theme here is to show the et al. [87] suggested the superiority of the tool life of PCD compared to

Fig. 6. Prospects for successful implementation of dry machining of superalloys.

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

pCBN during high-speed finishing of Ti6Al4V in a dry environment due provide deprived results, while round and square-shaped inserts
to the formation of the (Ti, V)C tool protection layer. enhance the tool life and surface finish in analogous cutting conditions
Similarly, ceramic tools (Al2O3–TiC, Si3N4, SiAlON, and SiC whisker- [94]. Recently, researchers have analyzed the effect of various types of
reinforced Al2O3) have found increased application in the dry machining textures, such as circular cavities, pits or linear grooves and cross pat­
of superalloys. For example, Molaiekiya et al. [88] found the suitability terns, on their potential advantage in enhanced cutting performance
of a new generation SiAlON ceramic tool for roughing operation under through improving lubrication at the contact point, minimizing the
extreme conditions of high-speed dry milling of Inconel 718. Similarly, tool-chip contact area, and trapping wear debris.
Shalaby et al. [89] revealed that SiAlON ceramic inserts outperformed Furthermore, texturing also reduces the crater and flank wear, fric­
three other ceramic inserts, including pure alumina with the addition of tion forces, cutting forces, and cutting temperature [95]. The successful
ZrO2, mixed alumina (CC650), and alumina matrix reinforced with SiC applications of tool texturing are reported in drilling, milling, and
whiskers. It was reported that the formation of many mullite tribofilms turning operations. For example, Siju et al. [96] proposed dual texturing
on the tool face of SiAlON ceramic serves as a thermal barrier layer and of uncoated carbide tool insert surfaces comprising grooves in the
protects against wear. sticking zone and dimples in the sliding zone, as shown in Fig. 8, in dry
Coatings have a multifaceted influence on dry machining, which turning of Ti6Al4V and reported a reduction of cutting force (Fx) and
includes i) reducing the friction at the tool-work interface, ii) lessening thrust forces (Fy) by 31% and 16%, respectively, as compared to that of
the tool wear progression arising via abrasion, iii) functioning as diffu­ untextured tools. Mishra et al. [97] applied laser texturing on two dis­
sion barriers to constrain crater wear, iv) decreasing the thermal loads similar PVD-coated AlTiN and AlCrN cemented carbide inserts during
on the tool material via low thermal conductivity. Typically, TiN, TiCN, dry turning of Ti6Al4V and reported decreased cutting force, thrust
TiAlN, TiCrN, CrN, Al2O3, PCBN, and diamond coatings are applied as force, and flank wear in the case of textured tools as compared to that of
monolayer coating on the tools’ surfaces primarily through Chemical un-textured plain or coated inserts.
Vapor Deposition (CVD) or Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) methods. A summary of selected research papers targeted at improving dry
Zhao and Liu [90] investigated the influence of the coating layer machining of superalloys through the application of novel tool mate­
thickness of PVD TiAlN coated carbide tools for dry hard turning Inconel rials, tool coatings, tool texturing, and tool geometry variation is pre­
718. They suggested that 1 µm coating thickness was better for coating sented in Table 5.
antifriction effect and lower cutting temperature (Fig. 7). However, as
the processes are developing towards high-speed and high-precision
3.2. Conventional cooling system
machining of superalloys, multi-layered coatings have become more
popular owing to their enhanced overall performance. The performance
Owing to the high number of machining operations all over the
of PVD-coated TiN/TiAlN multi-layered carbide inserts under dry con­
world and their remarkable potential in recycling used metals and en­
ditions during the turning of Inconel 825 was found to be superior to
ergy efficiency, it is significant to envisage accurate tooling and envi­
that of uncoated tool inserts [91]. The coated inserts offered lower
ronmental conditions [12]. Despite enormous efforts to reach maximum
cutting forces and tool wear in dry machining compared to flood and dry
efficiency and minimum ecological hazard since a long time ago, the
machining, which is a step towards green machining. Vetri Velmurugan
versatility of machining operations showed obstacles to success in all
and Venkatesan [92] compared the effect of the coating methods, that is,
machining processes. As the ultimate aim of manufacturing processes,
PVD and CVD, on the performance of carbide tools during high-speed
surface integrity representative parameters have the utmost importance.
turning of Waspaloy under dry conditions. PVD coating offered an
However, the strict government laws and increasing demands from the
improved surface finish, a reduced cutting force, and specific cutting
market for sustainable and, at the same time, precision machining can
pressure by 48%, 60%, and 66% compared to CVD coating.
create a paradox. In addition, dynamic interaction among the parame­
Another approach to advance dry machining performance while
ters in machining processes reveals a significant challenge to obtain
cutting superalloys is modification of tool design through tool geometry
standardized results. Recently, zero waste and carbon emission-based
alteration, texturing of tool surfaces, and chip breakers. Alteration of
works gained popularity in this respect. A critical part of this purpose
tool geometry includes provisioning a very sharp cutting edge and high
can be met by determining the accurate cooling/lubricating conditions
rake angle, included angle, and modification of the cutting-edge radius.
in any metal-removing operation [114]. Using conventional cooling
A higher included angle, for instance, increases edge strength and the
systems, also known as flood cooling, flooding, wet machining, or
tool–chip contact area, thus lowering the stress and temperature at the
abundant cutting fluid application, is the earliest method in machining
cutting edge [93]. The alteration in the approach angle of the cutting
processes (Fig. 9).
tool inserts influences tool life through changes in the chip curvature
With the increasing demand for new generation materials for some
and chip segmentation. When machining superalloys, especially
industries such as aerospace, aeronautics, and medical, flooding has
nickel-based alloys, it is commonly believed that rhomboid-shaped tools
evolved to new variants in time. The main reason is its incapability to

Fig. 7. Effect of coating thickness on (a) frictional coefficient, (b) cutting temperature; Legends: - TiAlN-0: without coating, TiAlN-1: 1 µm coating thickness, TiAlN-2:
2 µm coating thickness [82]. © Elsevier. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Fig. 8. Dual textured tool: (a) macrograph and (b) SEM-SE image of the tool rake surface [94]. © Elsevier. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

keep the tool wear under the predicted level [115,116]. Most of the versus the conventional method [140]. They indicated that the con­
cutting fluids used in flood systems are water-based, and they are much ventional method provided the best results for many machining outputs
more convenient for the growth of bacterial organisms, causing addi­ along with a compressed air jet. Settineri et al. performed turning and
tional problems [117]. Fumes created and oil particles suspended in the milling experiments under flood-cooling conditions using both coated
air can also cause respiration problems and health issues. From the point and uncoated carbide tools [141]. In Fig. 12a, tool wear rate as a
of view of industrial companies, flood machining is costly and can reach function of cutting speed and various machining conditions is given for
up to 17% of the total costs of a machined component [118,119]. The titanium alloy. Flood cooling was considered as a reference. It was
production of long ribbon-type chips during machining can create a nest apparent that high-pressure coolant reduced wear by about 43%, and
of tangled chips that prevents the cutting fluid from reaching the cutting wear was increased by MQL by about 56% [142]. It is clear to observe
area properly, causing severe problems in the tool’s performance. In this that flood cooling provided better tool wear conditions than MQL. When
case, near-dry machining is preferable [120]. In this perspective, the looking at the cooling effect on surface morphology and roughness
advantages and disadvantages of flood cooling are listed in Table 6. evaluation for Ti-6Al4V in Fig. 12b, cryogenic cooling gave the best
Since wet machining is a relatively old technique, observing the differ­ findings at high cutting speeds. In addition, at high speed, flood cooling
ences between new methods is essential. In this way, in detail, the provided the worst surface conditions. At lower and modest cutting
comparison of near dry and wet machining is demonstrated in Fig. 10. speeds, hybrid and flooding produced similar surface morphologies
It was noted that conventional cooling technique requires extra floor [143]. Fig. 12c shows the rake faces of the carbide inserts after
space and additional systems and cause water and soil pollution [138]. machining 15–5PH stainless steel under different mediums. As seen, a
Compared to the MQL application, due to the usage of conventional catastrophic failure occurred during dry turning after some amount of
pumps, energy consumption increases, and nonstop fluid flow continues crater wear had been developed. Crater wear values were detected as
in the working area [115]. According to a research report, flood cooling 0.019 mm, 0.086 mm, and 0.014 mm in the flood, MQL, and cryogenic
can be effective at lower cutting speed conditions, and relatively low machining, respectively, showing that flood cooling provided very close
cutting temperatures are created [12]. However, at high cutting speeds, results to cryogenic machining for crater wear [117]. Ridges and ravines
limited liquid transfer to the cutting zone and interfaces causes insuffi­ on the surface morphology of Inconel 718 after turning operation under
cient cooling and lubrication. Despite flood cooling producing better dry and flood cooling can be seen in Fig. 12d. The smoother and more
machining outputs for several materials and cutting situations, this regular texture is observed for flood conditions when looking into 3D
method is only preferable for some kinds of machining. However, in morphologies.
some situations, with particular cutting tool types, cutting parameters, In Table 7, several materials and operation types are listed according
or material structure, promising results can be obtained [91]. This to different cooling mediums. Also, the results of conventional cooling
pushes the researchers for further investigation of machining lubrica­ on machining characteristics are explained. Apparently, flood cooling
tion. Fig. 11 demonstrates a comprehensive comparison of dry, flood, shows better results in general for a variety of machining characteristics;
MQL, and solid lubricants with compressed air in the machining of however, it falls behind several types of MQL and cryogenics in terms of
hardened steel. According to it, flood cooling is not acceptable in any performance. One of the critical deductions from the literature review of
respect of sustainability [139]. Flood cooling is comparable to the other flood cooling on several materials is the inefficiency and gradually
cooling methods only with respect to the cutting temperatures and decreasing efficiency of modern materials. Except for some exceptional
surface roughness outputs. situations, tool wear, tool life, cutting forces, and energy consumption
Searching for improvements in machinability for the latest technol­ typically have no advantage for superalloys and hardened metals under
ogy materials, flood cooling was compared to a variety of cooling stra­ flood machining.
tegies for titanium alloys, Inconel series, and hardened steels. Recently, As outlined, flood machining of several types of work materials can
to avoid adhesion wear during the grinding of Inconel 718, the authors be successfully operated, sometimes even better than or equal to cryo­
have tried an air jet nozzle approach with a particular inclination angle genic and MQL conditions. However, in general, successful results for

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Table 5
Summary of selected research papers in the area of dry machining of superalloys.
Work material Author (s) Machining Cutting Tool Tool coatings and Outcomes
Process texturing)

Ti-6Al-4 V Lindvall et al.[87] Turning PCD, pCBN - PCD offered increased tool life due to the
formation of a tool protective layer.
Ni-Co-Cr Shalaby et al.[89] Turning Pure alumina with the addition - SiAlON ceramic outperformed other
precipitation of ZrO2; Mixed alumina ceramic tool materials at different cutting
hardened (CC650); Alumina matrix speeds due to the formation of many
superalloy (Inconel reinforcedwith SiC whiskers; mullite tribofilms on the tool face, which
100) SiAlON serves as a thermal barrier layer.
Inconel 718 Zhao et al.[98] Turning Al2O3-based ceramic tool - 50% enhanced tool life for the proposed
(Al2O3/SiCw/TiCn) ceramic tool material.
GH2132 iron-based Tian et al.[99] Turning Si3N4/(W, Ti) C graded ceramic - Proposed ceramic tools showed longer tool
superalloy tools life at the cutting speed of 150 and 200 m/
min as compared with the homogenous
and commercial ceramic tools.
Ti-6Al-4 V Mishra et al.[97] Turning WC-Co AlTiN and AlCrN coated, Reduced cutting force, thrust force, and
laser-textured chevron- flank wear due to texturing of coated tools.
shaped tools
Ti-6Al-4 V Li[100] Turning WC-Co Multilayer AlCrN andAlTiN Reduced cutting force and improved
coated;Submillimeter scaled friction properties on the rake face due to
texturing on rake surface minimized tool-chip contact and the
plowing effect.
Selective laser Ji et al.[75] Micro milling WC NAlTi coating Micro-milling induced lesser residual
melting (SLM) stresses in the SLM workpiece as compared
based- and to the wrought one. Further, lower tool
wrought- Inconel wear and better surface finish were
718 observed in the case of SLM-produced
workpiece milling.
Ti-6Al-4 V Xie[101] Turning WC-Co Uncoated; Micro-groves on The micro-grooves significantly reduced
rake surface cutting temperature and force.
Inconel 718 Thakur et al.[102] Turning WC Multilayer TiN/TiAlN tool; TiN/Al2O3/TiCN coated tool had superior
and Multilayer TiN/Al2O3/ performance than that of TiN/TiAlN tool.
TiCN tool
Inconel 718 Zhang et al.[103] Turning WC/Co TiAlN hard-coated tools with Reduced cutting forces, cutting
laser-textures and WS2 soft- temperatures, friction coefficient, and tool
coatings wear.
Inconel 718 Pang and Wang[104] Drilling WC Three textured geometries Micro-textures enhanced dry drilling
viz. grooved micro-texture, performance by lowering thrust force,
convex micro-texture, and drilling temperature, and tool wear.
pit micro-texture
Nimonic 80A Swain et al.[105] Micro- Solid carbide Uncoated and TiAlN-coated TiAlN-coated micro-drills improved the
drilling micro-drills hole accuracy and reduced wear, surface
roughness, and burr generation.
Inconel 718 Ezugwu and Tang Turning Ceramic round and rhomboid-shaped Round inserts generated a superior surface
[106] tools finish.
Inconel 718 Arunachalamet al. Turning WC Single layer TiAlN and Reduced residual stresses were found in
[107] multilayer coating TiCN/ the case of round-shaped inserts with small
Al2O3/TiN;Varied cutting nose radii.
edge and nose radius
Inconel 718 Arunachalamet al. Turning CBN, mixed ceramic tools Varied insert shape, cutting- Insert with round shape, honed cutting
[108] edge preparation, and nose edge, negative type and large nose radius
radius decreased surface roughness.
Inconel 100 Arisoy et al.[109] Face Turning WC/Co Different cutting-edge radii Grain size depends on edge radius.
of 5 µm, 10 µm and 25 µm
Inconel 718 Pawade et al.[110] Turning PCBN insets with different cutting- Insert with chamfer and honed edge
edge geometries having generated higher micro-hardness and yield
chamfer and honed edges strength profiles.
Inconel 718 Sugihara[111,112] Turning CBN Textured flask face with Considerable reduction in the cutting-edge
micro-grooves chipping and notably enhanced tool life.
Ti-6Al-4 V Arulkirubakaran and Turning WC Various textured geometries Groves parallel to chip flow direction
Senthilkumar[113] resulted in the highest reduction in cutting
force, temperature generation, and
reduced tool wear.

flood cooling conditions are not guaranteed, primarily because of the thermal fatigue can be the leading cause of tool wear, as observed by
significant influence of the cutting parameters on the quality charac­ Sen, Gupta, Mia, Pimenov, and Mikołajczyk [155]. These authors found
teristics. In summary, the vagueness of the optimal solutions for these an optimum balance using mixtures of castor and palm oils in the milling
characteristics requires further investigations into the performance of of Inconel 690 alloy under the MQL regime. Due to superalloys’ rela­
flood cooling today. tively low thermal conductivity, the heat transfer during machining can
significantly raise the interface temperature [156].
3.3. Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Some associated techniques have been tested, especially nanofluids
[157], solid lubricant-assisted MQL [158], cryogenic MQL [159], and
The application of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) to machine vortex tube-assisted MQL (VMQL) [160] to overcome an estimated
superalloys has been investigated in impressive growth [93]. However, average reduction promoted by MQL application (~10%) when

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

compared to flood cooling [161]. [162] machined Inconel 718 and

achieved up to a 15% improvement in surface quality using graphene
nanofluids compared to flood cooling. In terms of temperature, adding
hBN nanoparticles to base-fluid represented a significant decrease in the
cutting temperature during the turning of Inconel 625 [157]. In this
investigation, comparisons of the nano-MQL (1 vol%) with dry cutting
and pure MQL showed an improvement of the temperature of 30.25%
and 12.45%, respectively. Although this finding is relevant, it did not
significantly reduce the surface roughness and tool life. Makhesana,
Patel, and Mawandiya [158] did not present results for the cutting
temperature during the turning of Inconel 718. However, solid lubricant
assisted (MQSL) resulted in the lowest surface roughness and tool wear,
mainly when MoS2 was used. Additionally, [163] conducted tests with
WS2 solid lubricants during the turning of Inconel 718, revealing a
reduction in roughness of approximately 35% compared to pure MQL.
The study by [164] investigated the impact of using solid lubrication
with MoS2 in a minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) system on
machining Inconel 718 alloy. The results indicated that the combination
of solid lubrication with MQL significantly reduced tool wear, rough­
ness, and cutting force compared to dry machining. According to [165]
Fig. 9. Representation of flood cooling in machining [113].
solid lubricants assist in reducing cutting forces and increasing tool life
because they can penetrate the interface between the chip and the tool,
Table 6 effectively performing the lubrication function. The ability of solid lu­
Advantages and disadvantages of conventional fluids. bricants to penetrate the micro-fissures and cavities on the tool surface
results in the reduction of friction and wear caused by direct contact
Advantages Ref Disadvantages Ref
between the tool and the workpiece material. Moreover, the presence of
Providing significant [121,122] Extreme consumption of [123–126]
these solid lubricants creates a protective layer on the tool surface,
temperature lubricants increases the
reduction at the total machining cost preventing direct contact with the workpiece material and consequently
cutting zone reducing tool wear over the machining time. Another strategy to reduce
Relatively good results [127–130] Harmful chemicals cause [127] the cutting temperature is associating cryogenic cooling with MQL
for some machining health issues and [166]. Turning Inconel 625, using CryoMQL, the temperature was
characteristics environmental problems
reduced by 24.9% compared to the pure MQL. Again, this did not
Effectiveness on [144] Extra space and occupation [126]
finishing process requirements immediately reduce tool wear since pure MQL was more effective in
Better machinability [125,127, Insufficient conveying of [123] protecting the PVD-TiAlN/TiN coated carbide tool than CryoMQL. On
environment 130–137] the lubricant leads to waste the other hand, Stephenson et al. [159] noted a significant improvement
compared to dry- of time, supply, transfer,
in tool life and material removal rate when applying supercritical
cutting and cost
CO2-MQL during the rough turning of Inconel 750. The last hybrid
technique to be cited is the vortex tube assisted VMQL [160]. In the
turning of Ti-Grade2 alloy, the VMQL technique showed reductions in

Fig. 10. Macro and micro level comparison of wet and near-dry machining.

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Fig. 11. Environmental and machinability effect of different cooling conditions [121].

the surface roughness that varies from 15% to 18% and in the cutting diamond, and hexagonal boron nitride (hBN). Besides, it is worthwhile
force of nearly 16% lower than the MQL method. Besides discussing the to employ assistant techniques together with nanofluids. The main
surface integrity aspects of each assisted technique, the application of techniques are cryogenic cooling [176], airflow-assisted electrostatic
MQL to different grades of superalloys is also described. Searching in the [177], textured tools [178–180], and ultrasonic techniques [181].
Scopus database for manuscripts addressing the topic of "MQL and Table 9 summarizes the findings obtained in these investigations.
nickel-based superalloys" in titles, abstracts, and keywords, a notable The benefits of technology combinations presented in Table 9 are not
predominance of studies involving Inconel alloys can be observed a consensus. Anand, Kumar, and Paul [183] tested alumina and hBN
(Fig. 13). This predominance can be attributed to the application areas nanofluids in turning using MQCL as an associated technique. However,
of these alloys, such as in the oil and gas industries [167], where they are different from reference [184], nanofluids have failed to provide
often used in highly demanding environments, as well as in the aero­ acceptable performance compared to pure MQCL. Similarly, reference
space sector [168], where resistance and durability are critical proper­ Kumar Mishra et al. [179] used textured tools to machine Ti6Al4V, but
ties for various applications. The concentration of studies on Inconel when nanoalumina was applied, all productivity outputs decreased in
alloys suggests significant interest and a growing demand for research quality. The authors explained that the nanofluid was helpful only in
related to machining these materials using the MQL technique, reflect­ machining at low speeds. Increasing speed resulted in the impact of
ing the importance of these advancements for industries. droplets on the tool surface, breaking the droplet film and creating
Selecting relevant investigation for each alloy family, except Inconel, agglomeration of nanoparticles in the textured space. The benefits of
which was discussed before, Table 8 illustrates how the surface integrity texturizing are clearly to reduce the friction between the tool and the
varied with the different assisted techniques under the MQL regime. workpiece. Khan, Hussain, Alkahtani, Alzabidi, Abidi, and He [178]
From the literature mentioned above, there is no direct relationship significantly reduce the friction coefficient when turning Ti6Al4V using
between reducing cutting temperature and the other aspects related to laser-textured tools. Even though the performance of alumina-graphene
the surface integrity of machined superalloys. Hybrid techniques reduce nanofluid did not increase the productivity terms significantly, as veri­
surface roughness and increase tool life while machining different fied in other studies presented in Table 9. It was also a surprise that the
family alloys. However, there are few investigations on the use of surfactant was not considered in many Ti-alloys investigations. It
microstructure-deformation relationship to understand these beneficial was studied by Musavi et al. [185] for A286 alloy. Using surfactant after
effects. A test rig (Pendulum-based Cutting Test) used by Chen et al. [30] two hours improved the surface quality to approximately 14% compared
could be handy to describe the deformation maps for machined super­ to conventional cutting fluid. These authors presented the principal
alloys using different coolants, as performed by Alabort et al. [31] for action of surfactant, which is to increase the distance S, indicated in
8640 steels. Fig. 14. Reducing the distance of the nanoparticles implies increasing
the probability of aggregate formation. The aggregation changes all
3.3.1. Application of nanofluids-assisted MQL conditions relevant properties, such as viscosity and thermal conductivity, which
The use of nanofluids associated with MQL is impressive to improve are responsible for the superficial mechanisms of nanofluids. In this
the machinability of titanium superalloys, covering turning, grinding, sense, one example of a few works that paid attention to aggregation
milling, and drilling processes. Twenty-eight references from possibility was conducted by Hegab, Umer, Soliman, and Kishawy
2015–2021 have been found in the Science Direct database, dedicated to [186], which measured the zeta potential. These researchers found a
the most relevant Ti alloy, Ti6Al4V. A single reference [175] received minimal difference among four nanofluids prepared with 2 and 4 wt%
nearly 170 citations on the Scopus platform in a visit made in January MWCNT or alumina particles. The values were in the range of moderate
2022. The materials employed to constitute nanofluid are very diverse. stability.
Within these references, the following 14 nanoparticle materials were Hegab et al. [187] modeled the nanofluids’ interaction with
described: Al2O3, Fe3O4, CuO, rutile-TiO2, multi-walled carbon nano­ machined surfaces of Inconel 718 and Ti6Al4V alloys. They verified a
tubes, MoS2, MoO3, SiO2, SiC, graphite, graphene, graphene oxide, significant reduction in the maximum residual stresses and cutting

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Fig. 12. Comparison of flood cooling with other methods for a) Flank wear [142] b) Surface roughness [143], c) Tool wear [117] and d) Surface topography [144].

temperatures. These effects can be considered as indirect proof of the austenitic steels. Touggui et al. [191] evaluated surface roughness,
rolling mechanism of lubrication. They calculated the friction co­ cutting force, cutting temperature, and flank wear in turning AISI 304
efficients (COF) from measured cutting and feed forces. For example, the austenitic stainless steel under various cutting parameters. They found
COF cutting Ti6Al4V using classical MQL was 0.51 and reduced to 0.31 an excellent improvement for the vegetable cutting fluid when the
using 4 wt% MWCNTs nanofluid. These authors considered it a possible nano-graphene-reinforced nanofluid-assisted MQL was employed,
improvement to their model, including other lubrication mechanisms, showing a promising technique for heat-resistant steels.
especially the plowing.
There is a window of opportunities to investigate the performance of
3.4. Cryogenic lubrication (CL)
sustainable machining methods for heat-resistant steels. In a detailed
review regarding different grades of steels, Ishfaq et al. [188] mentioned
Recently, the number of research in cryogenics has increased
heat-resistant steels, but the authors presented no practical result. In this
significantly, mainly due to the research of medical and aerospace
sense, the investigation performed by Das et al. [189] showed excellent
machining researchers due to the study of productivity and cleanliness
efficiency in using MQL as a cooling method to turn the Nitronic 60 steel.
in these processes [192].
They demonstrated that a tool life under MQL machining is 138%, 72%,
Machining through cryogenic temperatures (below − 150 ℃) is a
and 11% greater than dry, compressed air, and flooded conditions.
recent process that emerged around 1970. Probably the first research on
Similarly, Yang et al. [190] studied several experiments concerning
this technique was shown in [193]. According to [194], the application
milling high-temperature martensitic alloy steel. They evaluated four
of cryogenic refrigeration can significantly improve the cutting process,
different lubrication techniques through a numerical machinability
and be considered a "green" manufacturing technique. In contrast,
index, concluding that a developed MQL method reduced tool wear by
conventional cutting fluids lead to many environmental, social, and
17%, amongst other indicators.
health problems [195]. These cryogenic coolants are applied directly to
Otherwise, applying nanofluids also deserves attention when turning
the chip-tool interface and the flank surface, delivered through micro

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Table 7 Table 8
Studies about several materials machined under different cooling mediums and Summary of literature review for MQL application in superalloys.
related results of conventional flood cooling. Ref. No. Superalloy Process Cooling Surface integrity
Ref Material Cooling Mediums Results of Conventional Flood (workpiece) techniques remarks
Used Cooling
[169] Nimonic 80A Milling MQL & Hybrid Tool wear: lowest flank
[117] 15-5 PH Dry, flood, MQL, The best surface finish was cryogenic wear achieved using
Stainless and cryogenic CO2 obtained with flooding, better than MQL (CMQL) CMQL Surface
Steel MQL in crater wear. roughness: lowest Ra
[120] AISI H-13 Dry, flood, MQL Better than dry, worse than MQL values achieved using
on surface roughness, coefficient of CMQLResidual stresses:
friction, and cutting forces. highest compressive
[144] Inconel 718 Dry, flood, Better than dry, worse than stresses achieved using
internal flood internal flood for cutting force, CMQL Cutting
cutting temperature, and surface temperature: lowest
topography. temperatures achieved
[65] Tungsten and Dry, flood, and Worst tool life and cutting forces, using CMQL
niobium high-pressure similar to high-pressure for tool [170] Incoloy A286 Turning Mineral-based Tool wear: vegetable-
cooling wear. x Vegetable- based oil reduced the
[12] Titanium Flood and high- Worse than high-pressure for tool based oil surface
alloy pressure cooling life. roughnessSurface
[145] Inconel 718 Dry, flood, and Worst surface roughness, better roughness: vegetable-
MQL tool life for some certain tool based oil reduced the
coatings. tool wear
[142] Ti-5553 Flood, MQL, and Better than MQL on tool wear and [171] Waspaloy Milling Flood x MQL Tool wear: the lowest
high-pressure at certain conditions on cutting wear for all tools is
cooling forces and surface roughness. achieved by the MQL
[146] Inconel 718 Dry and flood Better than dry on tool wear and at system.Surface
certain conditions, better than dry roughness: the most
for energy and carbon emission. influential parameter
[147] Haynes 25 Dry, flood, and Worse than MQL and better than of surface roughness is
MQL dry for tool wear and surface identified by the
roughness. cooling method (71%).
[91] Incoloy 825 Dry, flood, and Give promising results for cutting [172] Haynes 25 Turning Nanofluid Tool wear: the hBN-
MQL forces, temperature, and tool wear (hBN, MoS2, NMQL has been
at certain conditions. and graphite) successful in limiting
[148] Inconel 706 Flood, Spraying Worse than spraying for cutting notch wear and nose
forces, temperature, and surface wear values;Surface
roughness. roughness: the
[149] Inconel 725 Dry, Flood Better than dry for cutting forces, minimum surface
worse for surface roughness. roughness was
[150] A286 Alloy Dry, flood and Better than dry worse than MQL for obtained from Gr-
MQL surface roughness and tool wear. NMQL;Cutting
[151] Inconel 718 Flood and MQL Worse than MQL for cutting forces temperature: it was
and surface roughness. reduced by 34.95%
[58] Nimonic 80A Cryogenic, MQL, Worse than cryogenic and MQL for with MoS2-doped
and flood cutting forces, surface roughness, nanofluids compared to
temperature, and flank wear. dry turning.
[152] Nimonic 90 Cryogenic and Better than cryogenic for cutting [173] Hastelloy Milling Nanofluid Tool wear: the
flood force and surface roughness, worse C276 (Al2O3 into optimum parameter
for tool wear and power vegetable- design for tool life was
consumption. based cutting a cutting speed of
[153] Inconel 800 Dry, flood and Better than dry, and worse than fluid) 60 m/min, feed rate of
MQL MQL for cutting forces and surface 0.10 mm/rev, and
roughness. Al2O3 nanoparticle
[154] Waspaloy Dry, flood and Better than dry and MQL for flank concentration of 1 vol
MQL wear. %;Surface roughness:
the optimum levels for
average surface
roughness were 90 m/
min for cutting speed,
0.10 mm/rev for feed
rate, and Al2O3/1 vol%
for nanoparticle
concentration.
[174] Udimet 720 Milling High-pressure Tool wear: MQL
flood x MQL showed a similar
performance to flood
lubrication under high
pressure with a tool life
of over 20 min at a
cutting speed of 50 m/
min;Surface roughness:
MQL cutting conditions
generally produced the
lowest levels of Ra;
Fig. 13. The number of manuscripts for seven nickel-based superalloys using Residual stresses: MQL
MQL during their machining ( produced for worn
Source: Scopus, title/abstract/keywords). (continued on next page)

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Table 8 (continued ) 48%.

Ref. No. Superalloy Process Cooling Surface integrity Shokrani et al. [200] studied the end-milling of Ti-6Al-4 V and found
(workpiece) techniques remarks that cryogenic cooling (LN2) resulted in lower surface finishes of up to
tools, tensile stresses of
39%. [201] compared dry cutting with cryogenic media CO2 and LN2 in
50-75 MPa, measured the turning Ti-6Al-4 V and observed significant reductions in cutting
close to the surface, temperature, force, flank wear, and surface finish under cryogenic
became ~400 MPa conditions (LN2 was more evident, except for flank wear).
compressive at a
According to Zhou et al. [202], when machining is carried out dry,
distance of ~80 µm
from the workpiece the cutting process is more aggressive, the surface can remain at high
surface. temperatures, along with the high cutting force, which collaborates with
a more accentuated wear of the tool and actuation on the workpiece,
causing deformation in the grain structure. The penetrating action of the
Table 9 cryogenic coolant in the cutting zone reduces both tool wear and plastic
Summary of literature review for nanofluid application in Ti6Al4V alloy. deformation of the workpiece, which can contribute to better surface
finishes [203].
Ref. No. Process Nanoadditives Assistant Benefits obtained
cooling using hybrid The cryogenic techniques can also significantly interfere with chip
technique techniques breakability. Aramcharoen et al. [203] studied the formation of chips
[182] Turning Al2O3 MoS2TiO2 Minimum Tool wear:
during milling of the Inconel 718 and demonstrated that, with cryo­
(Three quantity nanofluid aided genics, chip breaking is facilitated, compared to dry machining and
concentrations) cooling & MQCL delayed the conventional cutting fluids (Fig. 15). This can occur due to the reduction
lubrication attrition wear (not of friction and temperature, resulting in a lower material ductility of the
(MQCL) quantified)Surface
workpiece. In the machining of titanium alloys, cryogenics also proved
roughness: lowest
Ra values achieved to be efficient in chip breakability, showing improvements when
using compared to wet machining [204], especially when using CO2 [205].
Al2O3Cutting Although cryogenics, compared to dry cutting, improves the
temperature: machining process, some works that compare cryogenic techniques with
lowest
conventional lubri-cooling methods do not show satisfactory results.
temperatures
achieved using Iturbe et al. [206] studied the turning of Inconel 718 alloy under cryo­
MoS2 genic cooling + MQL and flooding conditions and compared their results
[177] Micro- Nanodiamond Airflow- Grinding force with [207], who performed tests under the exact dry cutting, MQL, and
grinding (two assisted ratios: some
cryogenic conditions and found a more prolonged life using flood
concentrations/ electrostatic reduction was
two particle sizes) (AF-ESL) observed using cooling compared to other conditions. [208] studied the high feed
hybrid techniques, turning process of Inconel 718 and Haynes 263 alloys in oil emulsion
but pure AF-ESL (~10%) and cryogenic (CO2), where better finishes were found for the
was worse than conditions that used oil emulsion. [209] also compared cryogenics with
dry grinding.
oil emulsion in the machining of Inconel 718 and gamma TiAl and did
Surface roughness:
low concentration not notice a difference between the methods for Inconel 718. However,
with high particle in the machining of TiAl, a significant increase in tool life was noticed.
size reduces 2.5X Even cryogenic cooling using liquid nitrogen (LN2) and liquid carbon
compared to pure
dioxide (CO2) controls the temperature of the cutting zone. This method
AF-ESL.
[180] Turning Graphene (1.0 wt Textured tool Tool wear: Gr-
still has a low lubrication efficiency, which is relatively low due to the
%) mixed in NMQL has been absence of lubricant. For this reason, several researchers have investi­
canola oil(Gr- successful in gated cryogenics using lubricants working as a hybrid process named
NMQL) limiting flank wear CryoMQL.
values;Surface
[210] turned Inconel 625 alloy using PVD-TiNAl/TiN coated carbide
roughness: the
minimum surface tool observed that using MQL showed more significant reductions in
roughness was wear of 50.6% and 13.8% in surface finish compared to cryogenic.
obtained from Gr- However, in tests where cryogenics were combined with the use of MQL,
NMQL;Cutting
the reduction in wear reached 79.6%, and the surface finish was 24.8%.
temperature: the
minimum was
In the turning process of the Inconel 718 [211] compared the dry,
achieved using Gr- cryogenic, MQL, and CryoMQL processes, it was observed that CryoMQL
NMQL. is most effective in reducing feed forces (up to 50%). [212] studied
various coolant conditions, dry, Ranque – Hilsh Vortex tube + MQL,
CryoMQL, and LN2 when turning Ti-6Al-4 V, and observed less wear
nozzles in the machining processes. Compared to dry cutting, cryogenics
flank and better surface finish under CryoMQL conditions.
on difficult-to-cut alloys brings better surface finishes and increased tool
[213] evaluated the milling process of Nimonic 80A using
life due to its cooling properties. [196] evaluated the turning of Inconel
PVD-TiAlN inserts under CryoMQL, MQL, flood, and cryogenics (CO2)
625 using PVD-TiAlN coated carbide inserts to improve the surface
conditions, and found lower cutting temperatures and roughness values
roughness by 50.5%. [197] studied the effect of cryogenic grinding in
by CryoMQL, with temperature differences of 41–53%, 29–46%, and
the machining of maraging steel printed under direct metal laser sin­
17–23% concerning wet, MQL and cryogenic environments, respec­
tering using cryogenic (LN2) and found that the surface roughness could
tively. The same is true for roughness Ra, where differences of 42–54%,
be reduced by about 87%. Using tungsten carbide inserts with the
34–45%, and 19–29% were seen. Flank wear has been reduced by about
multilayer PVD TiAlN/AlCrN grade ACK 300 in milling, the Inconel 718
48–71% for flood, 42–56% for MQL condition, and 22–40% for cryo­
[198] found surface finish improvements of up to 88%. In the drilling
genics. The CryoMQL hybrid technique also promoted considerable re­
process of Inconel 718 using TiAlN coated carbide twist drill, [199]
sidual compressive stresses compared to other cooling methods
found an increase in tool life of 87.5% and Ra roughness values up to
(Fig. 16), which are favorable due to increased strength. Using CryoMQL

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Fig. 14. Distance between two nanoparticles.

Adapted of reference [185].

Fig. 15. Chip Formation during milling of Inconel 718 under different cooling strategies [181].

for both LN2 and CO2 coolants in turning AISI 304 stainless steel, [214] Currently, another CryoMQL technique that has recently gained
found a 50% increase in tool life compared to dry machining, with CO2 prominence is the use of supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) cryogenic.
being the more effective. CO2 in the supercritical state (~ 74 bar and 31 ºC ([219]) has a much
A critical point for improving the efficiency of cryogenics in higher heat capacity than in the liquid and gaseous state. During
machining difficult-to-cut materials is how the cryogenic fluid is inser­ machining, when the scCO2 jet at a certain pressure and velocity pen­
ted into the cutting zone, which has been shown to vary significantly etrates the cutting zone, it turns into CO2 in the gaseous state and dry ice
when changing the nozzle geometry, its position, and the amount of in the solid state due to the phase change, which significantly reduces
cryogenic fluid. To improve machinability, [215] on turning Ti-6Al-4 V the temperature in the cutting zone [220]. Another property that scCO2
using a specially designed micro-nozzle noted that combining two has is its ability to solubilize other fluids when its solubility correlates
micro-nozzles enhances the cooling effect. [216] also compared the use with the density of the dissolving fluid [221].
of a single jet and two jets of cryogenic cooling (Fig. 17) delivered on According to [222], when comparing CO2 with LN2 in the super­
rake flank and flank surfaces and observed that the use of two jets is critical state, CO2 is much more advantageous, as it has lower produc­
more effective in reducing forces, surface roughness, and specific en­ tion and storage costs, is less harmful to global warming, has a low
ergy; however, no significant difference in chips was seen. In Ti-6Al-4 V respiratory effect, has a critical condition that is simple to reach (boiling
turning, [217] studied the effect of different coolant techniques on tool point of liquid nitrogen is – 196.6 ºC) and is capable of dissolving
life and chip morphology and observed that the dominant parameter lubricants.
was the nozzle position. While [218] sought to improve the method and Its first application in machining was shown in 2006 in the work of
developed a nozzle adapter for CryoMQL in milling Inconel 718 and [220] who found an improvement in torque values using soybean oil
observed an increase in tool life, from a technical point of view, the wet dissolved in scCO2 compared to pure soybean oil and different mineral
machining still proved to be more efficient in prolonging its useful life. oils and emulsions in a threading process. Years later, in 2012, [223]

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Fig. 16. Residual stress under flood, MQL, CO2, and CryoMQL environment [213].

Fig. 17. Used nozzle systems (a) mono-jet nozzle and (b) dual-jet nozzle system [197].

investigated the cooling and lubricating properties of scCO2 application tool life than the emulsion. However, when scCO2 is used as a hybrid
compared to other conventional aqueous fluids (flood) and gas-based technique (addition of MQL), the results are promising. In the same work
sprays in turning, milling, drilling, thread cutting, and thread forming. by [192] when scCO2 was used with MQL, the tool life was 2.6 times
The author not only used pure scCO2 but also used its application with longer than emulsion. The authors also studied the surface roughness
other lubricants (scCO2 +MQL) and observed that this technology may and obtained Ra values of emulsion a little above the other conditions.
have better lubrication and cooling capabilities than conventional However, it was not statistically significant. [225] studied the use of
lubrication-cooling methods. scCO2MQL (soybean oil) compared to water-based flood coolant
Among the research that involves the use of scCO2 in the machining (semi-synthetic cutting oil) in Inconel 750 turning and observed that
of difficult-to-cut materials, it was observed that when this component is scCO2MQL improves tool life compared to flood coolant. In the pe­
used pure (without the addition of lubricant), the results are not satis­ ripheral finish-milling process of Ti-6Al-4 V [226] studied in the same
factory in the preservation of the tool. [224] investigating the side environments as [224] and among the environments, the
milling of Ti-6Al-4 V, studied four different types of lubricating/­ scCO2-OoWMQL condition, compared with dry milling reduces
refrigerant environments, namely dry, scCO2, scCO2-based MQL with maximum cutting temperature, cutting forces, and surface finish due to
water (scCO2-WMQL), and scCO2-based MQL with oil-on-water its good lubrication/cooling properties as well as chip removal capa­
(scCO2-OoWMQL). They found a 67% reduction using bility. In milling AISI 304 stainless steel [227] compared the scCO2MQL
scCO2-OoWMQL in tool flank wear (VB) compared to pure scCO2 due to technique with flood coolant and found a better surface finish, around
lack of lubrication. [192] compared the use of pure scCO2 and 30% for scCO2MQL, and an increase in tool life in terms of cutting time
scCO2MQL with the flood coolant emulsion in the face milling of around 324%.
Ti-6Al-4 V, and using only scCO2, the authors observed a much shorter Table 10 presents the main results of the work carried out in this

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

review on the different types of materials and processes in the machining Table 10
of difficult-to-cut materials subjected to cryogenic processes. Overall, it Studies about several materials machined under different cooling mediums and
was noted that the use of cryogenics compared to the dry process im­ related results of cryogenic.
proves the surface finishing, chip breakability, and also may favor the Paper MaterialUsed CoolingMediums Process Results of
tool wear rate. These effects can be further improved by applying the Cryogenic
MQL technique, as cryogenics has a shortage of lubrication. Comparing Comparison

CryoMQL using LN2 and CO2 in the non-critical state with conventional [196] Inconel 625 Dry, cryogenic Turning Better surface
lubri-refrigeration techniques, it was not possible to reach a concrete finish and low
wear
conclusion. However, in terms of machining performance, the use of
[208] Haynes 263 Oil emulsion, Turning Oil emulsion
supercritical CO2 proved to be a promising technique in tool preserva­ and Inconel cryogenic showed a better
tion for difficult-to-cut materials machining. 718 finish
[200] Ti-6Al-4 V Dry, flood, and Milling Better surface
3.5. High-Pressure Cooling (HPC) cryogenic finish
[198] Inconel 718 Dry and cryogenic Milling Reduction in
cutting forces and
The use of high-pressure cooling (HPC) to improve the machining better surface
process of superalloys is not, by any means, a new approach [228]. finish
However, due to the combination of high value and low machinability of [199] Inconel 718 Dry and cryogenic Drilling Improve tool life
and better surface
nickel and titanium alloys, this lubrication technique still ranks high as it
finish
can improve both tool life and chip breakability [229]. Da Silva et al. [203] Inconel 718 Dry, cryo, oil-based Milling Better chip
[230] found a 20-fold higher tool life when turning Ti6Al4V alloy with coolant breakability
PCD tools and a 20.3 MPa of fluid pressure. However, in the machining [212] Ti-6Al-4 V Dry, Ranque – Hilsh Turning Less wear flank
of nickel-based superalloy, disappointing tool life results were obtained Vortex tube + MQL, and better surface
CryoMQL and LN2 finish for
when the HPC accelerated prevailing notch wear, and flood cooling gave CryoMQL
better tool lives, as reported by [231]. In most applications, according to [211] Inconel 718 Dry, MQL, Cryo, and Turning Reduction of feed
W. Liu & Liu [232], the fluid volume and pressure are usually higher CryoMQL forces( up to 50%)
than 50 L/min and 10 MPa, respectively, and according to Nasr et al. in CryoMQL
[213] Nimonic 80A CryoMQL, MQL, Milling Lower
[233], the beneficial effects tend to increase directly with the coolant
flood, and cryogenic temperature,
pressure. One of the main advantages of the HPC is that it is easier to surface finish, and
direct the fluid flow to a specific region of the machining interface, as flank wear in
illustrated in Fig. 18. To improve chip breakability, positions A, B, and C CryoMQL
are usually used, with positions A and B directly breaking the chip by [209] Gamma TiAl Emulsion, CO2 Milling No difference for
and Inconel Inconel 718.
curling it and restricting its flow. Position C improves chip breakability 718 Improve in tool
by reducing the chip angle and has a secondary effect of improved life for gamma
lubrication in the slip zone between the chip and the tool, resulting in TiAl
lower crater wear [231]. Position D is usually used when the desired [214] AISI 304 Dry, MQL, LN2, CO2, Turning CryoMQL(CO2)
stainless steel CryoMQL(LN2), and showed longer
effect is lower friction between the workpiece and the clearance surface
CryoMQL(CO2), tool life
of the tool, usually in superfinishing operations, in which the chip is [218] Inconel 718 Dry, CO2, MQL, and Milling Wet machining
already tiny because of the low volume of removed material [234]. CryoMQL, wet was better than
Position E is generally the most expensive, as it requires a specific tool or cryogenic
tool holder, but it usually leads to better results as it leads the cutting techniques
[210] Inconel 625 MQL, cryogenic, Turning Better surface
fluid closer to the cutting interface [235]. The significant drawbacks of and CryoMQL finish and wear
this lubrication technique are the implementation costs, and high noise reductions in
generated [236], which nowadays reduces its overall usage compared to CryoMQL
other techniques such as MQL and dry cutting. Table 11 shows several [207] Inconel 718 Dry, MQL, and Cryo Turning Lower
Temperature,
combinations of materials and tools, where high-pressure cooling was
surface finish, and
used, and its main advantages. tool wear
[216] Ti-6Al-4 V Dry, Mono-jet (LN2), Turning Dual-jet (LN2) was
4. Role of different cooling lubrication methods in improving and Dual-jet (LN2) the best and the
the machining characteristics of nickel and titanium-based worst was Dry.
[197] Maraging steel Dry, Cryogenic Grinding Improvement in
alloys surface finish and
increase in fatigue
4.1. Nickel alloys life
[201] Ti-6Al-4 V Dry, LN2, CO2 Turning Improvement in
temperature,
Nickel alloys are among the most challenging materials for the ma­
flank wear,
chine since they present a combination of low thermal conductive, high surface finish, and
work-hardenability, and considerable mechanical properties even at cutting forces.
high temperatures [250]. This combination of properties leads to high [206] Inconel 718 Dry, CryoMQL, MQL Turning Flood showed a
specific cutting pressures and temperatures, and a very hard and abra­ Dry, Conventional, better tool life
flood
sive chip, leading to considerably low machinability [251]. [224] Ti-6Al-4 V Dry, scCO2, scCO2- Milling scCO2-OoWMQL
High-pressure cooling can act as an efficient chip-breaker method and WMQL and scCO2- showed less flank
reduce the temperatures near the cutting zone, as the higher fluid OoWMQL wear
pressure can lead to a fluid delivery closer to the cutting zone [252]. As [192] Ti-6Al-4 V scCO2, scCO2MQL, Milling Better tool life for
flood emulsion scCO2MQL
stated in Fig. 19, the nozzle position can be highly influential regarding
the machinability improvements of a system. Tamil Alagan et al. [253] (continued on next page)

evaluated the use of HPC in the workpiece/tool interface (position D

from Fig. 19) in the turning process of the Inconel 718, using cemented

18
D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Table 10 (continued ) carbide tools. The authors paid particular attention to the boiling and
Paper MaterialUsed CoolingMediums Process Results of cavitation phenomenon of the cutting fluid and its influence on tool
Cryogenic wear. The authors found that the boiling caused by the increased tem­
Comparison perature at the cutting interface caused the Liendfrost effect, forming
[226] Ti-6Al-4 V Dry, scCO2, scCO2- Milling scCO2-OoWMQL bubbles that act as a barrier to the coolant flow and lead to cavitation
WMQL and scCO2- showed lower wear. Fang & Obikawa [235] evaluated the effects of different config­
OoWMQL temperatures and urations of blind and through holes made by EDM (similar to the posi­
cutting forces and
tion E from Fig. 19) on TiAlN PVD-coated cemented carbide tools in
a better surface
finish turning of the Inconel 718. Those holes delivered coolant at high pres­
[227] AISI 304 L scCO2MQL, flood Milling Better surface sures to the cutting zone and improved the tool cooling capabilities. The
stainless steel finish and longer authors found that using internal high-pressure cooling channels
tool life for increased the tool life, and high-pressure cooling delivered by the tool
scCO2MQL
holes was more effective under lower depths of cut. Magri et al. [239]
evaluated the influence of nozzle position pointed towards the rake face,

Fig. 18. Usual directions of the high-pressure coolant.

Adapted from [246].

Table 11
Studies about nickel and titanium alloys machined under high-pressure cooling.
Ref MaterialUsed CoolingMediums Cutting Tools Results of High-Pressure Cooling

[237] Inconel 718 HPC in both rake and flank faces Uncoated WC-Co with and Combining HPC and surface texture reduced the flank wear by
without surface textures 45%.
[238] Inconel 718 HPC using an L-shaped nozzle at the flank face Five patterns of textures at 10 µm-deep pit array textureresulted in the best performance,
TiAlN PVD coated WC-Co reducing flank wear up to 80% compared with non-textured tool
[239] Inconel 625 HPC at rake, flank, and both faces simultaneously WC-Co PVD coated with HPC improved tool life compared to flood, but the direction did
TiAlN/AlCrO not have an influence, and using both faces slightly reduced tool
life
[240] Inconel 625 Flood and HPC at the rake face SiAlON ceramic tools Do not significantly affect tool life but increase chip breakability
[241] Inconel 718 HPC at rake surface WC-Co PVD coated with (Ti,Al) HPC significantly reduced residual stresses
N + TiN
[235] Inconel 718 Dry and HPC with blind and through channels in WC-Co PVD coated with TiAlN Blind and through improved tool life, albeit blind only improved
the tool at lower depths of cut (0.3 mm)
[242] GH4169 Flood and HPC in the rake face PCBN HPC resulted in a decrease in cutting force and an increase in chip
breakability compared to flood
[243] Ti555-3 Dry, Flood, and HPC in the rake face WC-Co CVD coated Improved chip breakability, tool life, and surface integrity
(TiCN+Al2O3 +TiN)
[142] Ti555-3 Flood, MQL, and HPC in the rake face Uncoated WC-Co HPC leads to reduced machine-induced phase transformation,
lower cutting forces, and improved chip breakability.
[244] Ti6Al4V Combinations of Flood, HPC cooling in the flank WC-Co PVD coated with TiCN HPC and ultrasonic vibration cutting outperformed the other
face, and ultrasonic vibration cutting alongside + TiN combinations, leading to a lower contact time between the tool
the feeding direction and the workpiece and increasing machinability.
[245] Ti6Al4V Dry machining and HPC at the rake, flank, and WC-Co CVD coated (TiCN/ Dual HPC jets improved tool life by reducing cutting forces and
both surfaces simultaneously Al2O3/TiN) improving chip breakability.
[246] Ti6Al4V Flood and HPC at the rake face PCD Tool life and chip breakability increased directly with the HPC
pressure used.
[247] Ti6Al4V Flood and HPC at the rake face with net oil and Uncoated WC-Co HPC with water-soluble oil drastically outperformed the other
water-soluble oil conditions regarding tool life
[248] Ti6Al4V Flood and HPC CBN and Uncoated WC-Co WC-Co tools outperformed CBN tools regarding tool life for all
evaluated conditions
[249] Ti17 Flood and HPC Uncoated WC-Co HPC improved tool life in both roughing and finishing conditions,

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Fig. 19. Micro-textured tool and HPC cooling apparatus.

Adapted from Fang & Obikawa [217].

flank face, and both positions (similar to the positions C and D, 4.2. Titanium alloys
respectively, in Fig. 19) in the turning process of the Inconel 625 alloy,
using PVD coated (TiAlN/AlCrO) cemented carbide inserts. The authors Titanium-based superalloys present similar challenges to nickel-
found that the tool life significantly improved when the fluid was based superalloys since both materials have low thermal conductivity,
directed for the rake or flank face compared to conventional flood high refractoriness, and high work-hardenability. However, titanium
cooling. However, the authors noted a decrease in machinability when alloys have one more challenging point to overcome: their high chemical
the coolant was directed on both surfaces simultaneously, as it severely reactiveness at high temperatures, such as those at the cutting interface,
hindered the hardness loss from the heat generated by the machining leads to chemical reactions with many ceramics, drastically reducing the
process. The use of high-pressure cooling is one of the best alternatives pool of possible high-efficiency cutting tool materials [259]. Those re­
to combine lubrication methods and ceramic tools in the machining strictions led to cemented carbide tools being the primary way to ma­
process of nickel-based superalloys. Sørby & Vagnorius [240] evaluated chine titanium alloy [260]. Mia & Dhar [245] evaluated the use of HPC
the use of HPC in the turning process of Inconel 625 using SiAlON directed in the rake and flank faces of TiCN/Al2O3/TiN coated cemented
ceramic inserts. Despite the HPC increasing the chip breakability, this carbide inserts in the turning process of the Ti6Al4V alloy. The authors
type of lubrication did not significantly change the tool life compared to found that, contrary to that observed by Magri et al. [239] in the
dry machining. Li et al. [254] evaluated the use of HPC in the machining process of Inconel 625, the use of twin jets resulted in
end-milling process of the GH4169 nickel alloy using SiAlON ceramic improved machinability of the Ti6Al4V alloy, decreasing machining
tools. The authors found that adhesion and diffusion were the main wear forces and temperatures and increasing tool life. One possible explana­
mechanisms under HPC conditions, despite the cycles of impact char­ tion is that the decrease in temperature also decreased one major factor
acteristic of the milling process still leading to tool breakage. in the tool wear when machining titanium alloys: its high chemical
Along with ceramic tools, PCBN is often stated as an alternative to reactivity at higher temperatures. As Da Silva et al. [246] reported, HPC
obtain more extended tool lives in nickel-based superalloys’ machining is an efficient way to use PCD tools in the high-speed machining of ti­
process compared to the coated cemented carbide tools [255]. Wu et al. tanium superalloys in special Ti6Al4V. According to the authors,
[256] evaluated PCBN tools under HPC at position C from Fig. 19, high-pressure cooling was efficiently improved the chip breakability
aiming to decrease chip curvature radius and thus increase chip break­ (Fig. 20), with the machinability increasing proportionally to the in­
ability in the machining process of the GH4169 nickel alloy. The authors crease in fluid pressure. Ezugwu et al. [261] found similar results, with
found that the use of HPC increased the lubrication near the cutting zone the authors stating that the use of HPC improved the surface and sub­
by increasing the fluid penetration and, as a result, decreasing the cut­ surface integrity of the workpiece substantially due to the more efficient
ting force. Another effect observed by the authors was a significant in­ heat dissipation provided by HPC cooling. Ezugwu et al. [248] stated
crease in the chip breakability, which, combined with the lower that, despite the CBN tool’s high hardness and chemical inertness, the
machining forces, improved machinability when using HPC compared to cemented carbide presents a higher cost-benefit in the machining pro­
conventional flood cooling. Li et al. [242] found similar results in similar cess of the Ti6Al4V using HPC. It is because the lower temperatures that
fluid delivery and machining setups, corroborating the improvement in provide lower chemical reactions to the cemented carbide tools do not
machinability provided by HPC. have much impact on the already highly chemically inert CBN, leaving
Another possible way to improve the performance of HPC is using only the adverse effects of lower cutting temperature in the form of
surface textured tools since those textures generally increase the tribo­ higher mechanical properties during the material shear, leading to the
logical behavior of the system [257]. Fang & Obikawa [238] evaluated CBN underperform in HPC conditions when compared to the much less
the cooling performance of a grove micro-textured flank face of a TiAlN expensive cemented carbide.
PVD-coated cemented carbide tool (Fig. 19) in the turning process of the Nandy et al. [247] compared conventional cooling with HPC using
Inconel 718. The combined effects of surface texture and HPC improved neat and water-soluble oils in the turning process of Ti6Al4V alloy, using
heat transfer (measured by tool-workpiece thermocouple) due to better uncoated cemented carbide tools. The authors found that, despite both
lubrication and improved contact area at the chip flow interface. Tamil HPC cooling fluids improving the machinability, especially regarding
Alagan et al. [258] obtained similar results in the turning process of chip morphology, water-soluble oil outperformed all the other condi­
Inconel 718 using round cemented carbide tools with micro-dimples, tions since it provided better cooling to the cutting interface. In a similar
with the HPC system applied in position B of Fig. 19. However, these way to the Ti6Al4V, improvements in machinability of the HPC in the
authors did not find any improvements by surface texturing regarding machining process of other titanium alloys such as Ti17 [249] and
tool-chip contact area but found improvements up to 30% in tool life Ti5553 [142] were also reported, with significant gains concerning
compared with regular inserts. lower tool wear when using cemented carbide tools due to improved
cooling performance of the system when compared to flood lubrication
and the greater chip breakability, as shown in Fig. 21.

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the higher cutting speed, mainly due to cratering abrasion and attrition.
The surface roughness was slightly lower for the SLM alloy at the lower
cutting speeds but almost double at the higher, probably due to the
increased tool wear. Under all cutting speeds, the depth of plastic
deformation was around two times higher for the SLM alloy, probably
due to its more inhomogeneous structure. Similar results were reported
by Polishetty et al. [267] in the dry-turning process of the same mate­
rials and manufacturing conditions under cutting speeds of 45, 90, and
180 m/min. The authors reported that as the cutting speed increased,
the cutting forces decreased for the wrought and increased for the SLM
materials. Polishetty et al. [267] further reported that the surface
roughness decreased with the cutting speeds for both materials and was
consistently lower for the SLM when compared to the wrought, opposing
the results found by Shunmugavel et al. [266].
Kallel et al. [268] compared the machinability of the Ti6Al4V alloy
manufactured by laser metal deposition (LMD) to a conventional
wrought sample. The machining trials were made in the face milling
process at a 55 m/min constant cutting speed, feed rates ranging from
0.05 to 0.25 mm/tooth, and cutting depths ranging from 0.5 to 2 mm.
The authors reported that LMD resulted in up to 40% higher cutting
forces and, similarly to what was found by Polishetty et al. [267]. the
AM samples presented a higher plastically deformed subsurface than the
wrought material, resulting in residual stresses up to 30% higher. Hoye
et al. [269] evaluated the machinability of Ti6Al4V manufactured by gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) compared to the wrought counterpart.
The machining trials were conducted under the milling and drilling
process. Contrary to what was shown previously by the other authors,
the AM material resulted in lower cutting forces in the milling trials
(13–21%), leading to higher surface roughness. However, the authors
Fig. 20. Chip morphology produced when machining Ti6Al4V with PCD tools. reported that the cutting forces at the drilling process were higher for the
(a) Flood cooling. (b) HPC. AM sample (10–15%), explaining that the AM material presented
Adapted from [225]. around 8% higher hardness than its wrought counterpart.
Periane et al. [270] prepared Inconel 718 alloys by conventional
According to Lu et al. [244], a current trend is the combination of route cast and wrought (C&W) and by selective laser melting (SLM) to
hybrid machining processes, especially the combination of HPC with study their surface integrity after milling experiments. Two consecutive
ultrasonic vibration-assisted machining. The authors used cemented heat treatments should have been applied to the SLM condition to
carbide tools and fluid delivery. This combination of techniques aims to achieve similar properties of C&W. MQL cooling was tested beside dry
reduce temperature using HPC and decrease tool contact time using and flood conditions. They concluded that wet machining was better for
ultrasonic-assisted machining. As is common in the hybrid process, the all speed levels and feed rates. Besides, the tool wear was higher in
improvement in lubrication caused by the high-pressure fluid flow conventional alloy than in SLM one, and the reason for that probably
during non-contact times also helped to improve lubricity in the cutting was the presence of a TCP phase. Using MQL to machine additive
zone. The authors found that the synergy of the methods significantly manufactured alloy presented an interesting result for Ti alloy [271,
improved tool life in relation to cutting temperatures, tool wear, and 272]. Microstructural aspects play a fundamental role in determining
surface integrity, compared to traditional HPC. The literature provides the surface integrity after machining when conventional alloys are
scientific research on machining hardened steel (iron-based superalloys) compared to AM. Ming et al. [271] compared the machinability aspects
using a high-pressure coolant supply, which justifies the absence of re­ of Ti6Al4V prepared by forging and SLM. The microstructure of forged
sults on this relevant material here. Ti6Al4V is mainly a Widmanstatten structure with a large grain size,
while the microstructure of SLM Ti6Al4V is mainly martensite α with a
5. Machining of traditional vs. additive manufactured alloys small grain size. These microstructural aspects result in a great sensi­
tivity of SLM conditions to high temperature and strain rates. Surpris­
The traditional processing of superalloys can be very laborious due to ingly, they observed a slight increase in compressive residual stresses
the lack of ductility and toughness of intermetallic phases at room using MQL and no effect on cutting forces compared to dry machining.
temperatures [262]. Additive manufacturing can surpass this difficulty, Practically the same conclusions were obtained by Bruschi et al. [272]
producing low-porosity products with suitable high-temperatures per­ for electron beam melted Ti6Al4V. Therefore, the use of MQL for
formances [263,264]. The possibility of forming topologically com­ additive-manufactured superalloys should receive more attention since
pacted phases (TCP) is challenging during manufacturing or the few available results are not promising yet.
high-temperature service for many superalloys. Yu et al. [265] pro­ Khaliq et al. [85] studied SLM Ti-alloy under dry and MQL milling.
posed controlling TCP phases using Cr-like elements to Ni-base alloys They verified that MQL presented better results regarding flank wear
using laser additive manufacturing. Shunmugavel et al. [266] evaluated and surface roughness; nevertheless, dry milling showed better results
the machinability of the heat-treated Ti6Al4V titanium alloy workpieces regarding burr formation and residual stresses. Considering all possi­
manufactured by selective laser melting (SLM) with casted and wrought bilities associated with MQL cooling described for conventional alloys,
samples. The trials were conducted in the dry face milling process under we can consider a challenge to applying the nanofluid technique to
60, 120, and 180 m/min cutting speeds. The authors reported that the machine AM superalloys. Defining nano-additive as the “nanoparticle
SLM presented considerably higher tool wear under 60 and 120 m/min. + surfactant” combination, Fig. 22 presents what characteristics should
However, the SLM alloy resulted in almost three times more tool wear at be considered to achieve suitable productivity in this application.
The changes in microstructural aspects are the most critical factor in

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Fig. 21. Generated chips under various machining conditions and cutting speeds [124].

Fig. 22. Variables to consider for increasing the productivity in machining AM superalloys using the nanofluids technique.

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

applying nanofluids to AM superalloys. The wear resistance promoted whole interface with lubricant oil. The problems, however, are the
by some microconstituents [273] indicates the poor machinability of very high compressive stresses and the cutting fluid must row against
these alloys; the combination of all factors is decisive in reaching the the tide, as the chip tends to expel the fluid rather than pull it into the
best results. Bruschi et al. [274] evaluated the use of cryogenic cooling interface, opposite to what occurs with journal bearings. In this
in the machining process of electron beam melting and wrought Ti6Al4V sense, MQL and high-pressure coolant supply (HPC) methods are
titanium alloy. The tests were performed in the turning process, under better than flood cooling for obvious reasons. The air under pressure
dry and cryogenic atmospheres, and two levels of feed rate (0.1 and of the MQL method drives the drops of oil further into the interface.
0.2 mm/rev) and cutting speeds (50 and 80 m/min). The authors re­ Similarly, the high-pressure jet of coolant of the HPC method gets the
ported that at lower cutting speeds, the cryo atmosphere resulted in the lubricant closer to the cutting edge. So far, the only method that
EBM cylinders presenting higher surface hardness than the wrought manages to deliver lubricant at the seizure zone of the chip-tool
counterparts. The increase in feed rate resulted in softer surfaces for the interface is by adding lubricant particles into the work materials,
EBM and harder surfaces for the wrought workpieces. For both mate­ like lead, bismuth, tin, tellurium, calcium, and sulfur. However, they
rials, cryogenic atmospheres improved the workpiece residual stresses. are not welcome as superalloys since they affect the main properties
Sartori et al. [275] compared the machinability of Ti6Al4V titanium of the material. A unique method that makes the oil reach the cutting
alloy produced by direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), heat-treated edge is a challenging still alive.
DMLS, and EBM with its wrought counterpart. The machining experi­ • When machining nickel-based superalloys, particularly in contin­
ments were performed in the turning process, using dry and liquid ni­ uous cutting like turning and boring, ceramic tools (whisker, sialon,
trogen as machining atmospheres. Under dry conditions, the DMLS alloy and mixed ceramics) are usually the best choice. However, a problem
resulted in higher values of crater wear, the EBM the lowest values, and with the use of ceramic tools is the low thermal shock resistance of
the wrought and heat-treated DMLS presenting similar crater wear these refractory materials, which restrains the use of cutting fluids,
volume. Under cryogenic conditions, the wear was significantly reduced imposing the dry-cutting operation. Therefore, physicists have the
for all materials, and the wear ranking was similar to the dry condition, challenge of developing ceramic tools with enough thermal shock
with the DMLS material still underperforming concerning the other resistance to allow the application of cutting fluids and consequently
materials. Bordin et al. [276] compared the dry, wet, and cryo atmo­ boost the productivity of this vital work material.
spheres in the machining process of EBM and wrought Ti6Al4V titanium • Cryogenic machining is encouraging because of its efficient cooling
alloys. action and minimal environmental damage. However, associated
The machining trials were performed under semi-finishing condi­ problems (storage, pressurized, flow control, etc.) must be overcome
tions at 50 and 80 m/min cutting speeds and feed rates of 0.1 and before it can be popularized. When machining nickel-based super­
0.2 mm/rev. Regarding the tool wear, the cryogenic atmosphere out­ alloys, the results showed better performance for flood cooling,
performed both dry and wet conditions for both feed rates, which pre­ probably because of the lack of lubrication of the cryogenic system.
sented a similar behavior. Concerning the average surface roughness Hybrid machining (Cryo+MQL) also did not outperform flooding.
(Ra), the cryogenic atmosphere again outperformed the other conditions Therefore, searching for an excellent lubricant for a hybrid technique
for most machining conditions and time. Again, both wet and dry is challenging. When machining titanium superalloys, however,
machining presented similar behavior. However, those conditions were cryogenic machining has shown promising results. In this case,
more significantly outperformed by cryogenic machining at the higher diffusion is the prevailing wear mechanism, and the efficient cooling
machining parameter (80 m/min and 0.2 mm/rev). Bordin found action favors the cryogenic system.
similar results using FEM simulations and turning experiments of the • The huge benefits that come with dry machining are clear. It avoids
turning process of EBM and wrought Ti6Al4V alloy under similar health hazards, environmental pollution, costs related to cutting
machining parameters at dry and cryogenic atmospheres. The authors fluid management, etc. However, cutting fluid is essential in the
reported a significant decrease in the machining temperature (measured machining of superalloys unless ceramic or ultrahard cutting tools
using an IR camera) under a cryogenic atmosphere and slightly lower are used, and tool lives are concise. To enhance tool lives, improved
cutting and feed force under dry conditions for EBM and wrought cutting tool materials or insert design alterations are necessary,
materials. therefore challenging for tool makers.
• Flood cooling is a highly utilized method in the most awkward
6. Challenges and future trends machining processes, including the machining of superalloys. How­
ever, the conventional wet method brings enormous potential for
The following challenges and future trends are noted in this review environmental pollution, and consequently, the development of
paper: greener fluids is vital. Fluid companies are changing the polluting
mineral oil for the more environmentally friendly vegetable-based
• Overall, the main challenging problem related to superalloy oils. However, the chemical additives necessary for an efficient
machining is their high mechanical resistance maintained at elevated product are still a threat; thus, a genuine green cutting fluid remains
temperatures, including those reached during machining. It opposes a dream.
the shearing process necessary to form the chip. Low thermal con­ • The use of nanoparticles in the cutting fluids is a practice that has
ductivity and work hardening are also huge problems. With low proven efficient in reducing friction at the chip-tool interface.
thermal conductivity, the workpiece and the chip do not carry away However, many problems must be tackled before this technique is
the heat generated at the shear zones, maintaining the tool under coined. The nanoparticles’ size, shape, volume concentration, and
high temperatures that accelerate tool wear. High work hardening agglomeration need to be optimized. Another issue of great impor­
ability implies enhanced energy demanded for chip formation. tance is the possibility of people involved in the preparation of the
• The usual practice to enhance machinability is the use of a cutting nanofluids inhaling the nanoparticles and consequently having
fluid. However, along with this practice, problems related to oper­ health problems. Practical application of nanofluids must, therefore,
ator’s health, fluid storage, and disposal and environmental threats overcome the pointed challenges.
rise, and fluid manufacturers must develop less aggressive and more • Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) and nanofluid-assisted MQL
environmentally friendly cutting fluids to tackle the relevant issues, (NMQL) techniques show promise in overcoming many challenges in
which are still significant challenges. machining difficult-to-machine alloys. MQL provides an
• An efficient cutting fluid must enter the chip-tool interface and work environmentally-friendly alternative to flood cooling while still
as a lubricant. Ideally, it could reach the cutting edge, filling the achieving good lubrication. NMQL further enhances MQL by

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D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

leveraging the superior thermal and tribological properties of nano- • No relationship was found between the cutting temperature and the
additives. However, challenges remain around optimizing nanofluid surface roughness in the machining of nickel-based superalloys, but
formulation, mitigating health risks, and understanding interactions hybrid cooling techniques effectively reduce the surface roughness.
between nanofluids and complex alloy microstructures. Continued • When machining superalloys, conventional flood cooling, even the
research is needed to fully realize the potential of MQL and NMQL as most popular cooling method, needs further investigations to ensure
sustainable, high-performance lubrication solutions for difficult optimized performance compared to other cooling techniques and
materials. dry cutting.
• High-pressure coolant supply (HPC) is a very effective method for • Additive manufacturing superalloys have shown better machin­
breaking the chips. It is interesting in continuous cutting (like ability than conventional manufactured superalloys. This conclu­
turning and boring) of superalloys since the chips are generally sion, however, might not be generalized because the process is
difficult to control. However, not all superalloys have shown positive recent, and many more investigations are needed before this can be
results with the HPC regarding tool life. In the machining of nickel- taken for granted.
based superalloys, when the notch wear is predominant, the high • MQL is a popular lubri-cooling method and has shown improved
pressure of the fluid accelerates the wear. On the other hand, when performance in machining superalloys, particularly when lubricant
titanium-based superalloys are machined, tool lives are enormously nanoparticles are added to the oil. Hybrid systems, that is, MQL
increased, particularly with PCD tools, because the prevailing + cryogenic technique, have also shown improved results in the
diffusion wear mechanism is retarded by the HPC. One challenging machinability of superalloys.
point here is to understand the actual effect of the coolant jet in • Cryogenic machining has shown promising results in machining
machining both alloys. Another challenging point is applying this titanium-based superalloys, but the same was not valid for
system to the machining of hardened superalloy steels. References to machining nickel-based superalloys. However, cryogenic machining
such applications were not found in the consulted literature. efficiently improves chip breakability and surface finishing of the
• Although additive manufacturing (AM) is a reality to date, when workpiece.
superalloys are considered, the many aspects that involve the tech­ • High-pressure coolant supply is a very efficient chip breaker and
nique need detailed investigation to overcome many problems coolant. It has significantly improved tool life in machining titanium
associated with it (porosity, phase distribution, optimization of the alloys when the diffusion wear mechanism was predominant. How­
parameters involved in the AM process, etc.). AM alloys have shown ever, this system could have been more efficient in machining nickel-
positive results in the machining compared to the conventional route based superalloys and the prevailing wear mode was notching.
alloys.
• The review’s findings on advanced lubricating and cooling tech­ The results of this comprehensive analysis reveal several important
niques in machining difficult-to-machine alloys suggest several av­ outcomes. Firstly, the study identifies the potential for technological
enues for future work. Firstly, there is a need for further research into advancements that can significantly improve manufacturing processes
the development of new alloys and composite materials that are for industries utilizing difficult-to-machine materials. This includes the
optimized for easier machining without compromising their me­ capability to produce higher quality components with greater precision.
chanical properties. This could involve exploring the synergistic ef­ Secondly, the analysis highlights the environmental benefits that can be
fects of different cooling and lubrication methods on these new achieved through reduced chemical waste, emissions and overall in­
materials. dustrial impact on the environment. Economically, the findings suggest
• Additionally, future studies could focus on the long-term environ­ adopting advanced machining techniques may lead to substantial cost
mental impacts of adopting these advanced machining techniques. savings through extended tool life, reduced tool wear and downtime.
While preliminary findings indicate a reduction in chemical waste Additionally, the analysis indicates improved occupational health and
and emissions, a comprehensive life-cycle analysis could provide safety is a key outcome by minimizing worker exposure to hazardous
deeper insights into their overall environmental footprint. fluids and chemicals. Moving forward, future work identified will build
• Economically, more detailed cost-benefit analyses of implementing upon these contributions by exploring new machinable alloys, con­
these advanced techniques in various manufacturing settings would ducting life cycle assessments, performing cost analyses, and examining
be valuable. This includes assessing the upfront costs of adopting workforce implications. The overall results provide valuable data for
new technologies against the long-term savings in tool wear, energy pushing boundaries towards more efficient, sustainable and safer
consumption, and production efficiency. manufacturing practices.
• Lastly, there is a scope for investigating the broader implications of
these advanced machining techniques on the manufacturing work­ Statements and declarations
force. This includes evaluating the training requirements and po­
tential shifts in job roles that may arise from the adoption of new Funding Not applicable.
technologies. Conflicts of interest/Competing interests: The authors have no
financial or proprietary interests in any material discussed in this review
By addressing these areas, future research can build on the current article.
study’s contributions, further advancing the field of machining and Availability of data and materials: Not applicable.
manufacturing towards more efficient, sustainable, and worker-friendly Code availability: Not applicable.
practices. Ethics approval: This article requires informed consent of the au­
thors, it does not have any disclosure of potential conflicts of interest and
7. Conclusions does not involve human and/or animal participants.
Consent to participate: The authors declare that they consent to
After reviewing the literature on the machining of superalloys, participate in this paper.
mainly titanium, nickel, and iron-based, both conventionally manufac­ Consent to publish: The authors declare that they consent.
tured and additively manufactured, with the focus on improving the
machinability by using different cutting fluids strategies, such as flood CRediT authorship contribution statement
cooling, MQL, cryogenic cooling, and high-pressure coolant supply, the
following main conclusions can be drawn. Mustafa Kuntoğlu: Writing – original draft, Software, Funding
acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation. Grzegorz M. Krolczyk:

24
D.Yu. Pimenov et al. Tribology International 196 (2024) 109677

Writing – original draft, Supervision, Investigation, Conceptualization. review. 2021 119:1 Int J Adv Manuf Technol 2021;119:3–40. https://doi.org/
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Giuseppe Pintaude: Writing – original draft, Resources, Investigation,
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Formal analysis, Data curation. Deepak Rajendra Unune: Writing – Optimisation of process parameters to address fundamental challenges during
original draft, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis. selective laser melting of Ti-6Al-4V: A review. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 2018:128.
Danil Pimenov: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2018.01.003.
[19] Azarniya A, Colera XG, Mirzaali MJ, Sovizi S, Bartolomeu F, St Weglowski MK,
Conceptualization. Pedro Henrique Pires França: Writing – original et al. Additive manufacturing of Ti–6Al–4V parts through laser metal deposition
draft, Visualization, Resources, Formal analysis, Data curation. Leo­ (LMD): Process, microstructure, and mechanical properties. J Alloy Compd 2019:
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