HR

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HUMAN RESOURCE AND ORGANISATION the
DEVELOPMENT HRM 414 fra
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The Concept of Human Resource Development k
for
Human resources development is a continuing process comprising hel
three interdependent components: pin
g
• Investment in human resources to enhance productive capabilities. em
plo
• Utilisation of those human resources to produce increased output. yee
• Participation of the human beings who have improved resources s
(better education, better skills levels etc.) dev
elo
At a organisational level, investment in human resources must be p
turned into effective utilisation of those human resources if thei
organisational output is to be increased on a sustainable basis. r
pers
At an individual level, investment in human resources improves ona
earning capabilities. Therefore individuals and families have more l
money to do many things including pay for their own further skills and
development. There is a very strong link between investing inhuman org
resources development and improvements in the quality of life anis
atio
HRD=Learning of new skills ,knowledge,talents etc by employees in nal
an organisation skil
ls,
Organisation level -empower empolyees kno
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National level
dge
At organizational level HRD help motivate employees to and
acquire/develop technical managerial and behavioural knowledge, abil
skills and attitudes and mould values, beliefs, attitudes necessary to ities
perform present and future roles by realizing highest potential with a .It
view to contribute positively to organizational, group, individual and incl
social goals. ude
s
Human Resources are a source of competitive advantage if you utilise care
them fully. The need to be guided by McKensey ‘s 7 S model of er
shared vision-value, skills staff, structure, systems, style of leadership, dev
strategy. elo
pm
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that from ent,
reinforce org
anis
practices and experiences
atio
Learning is society focussed nal
dev
Development takes the form of learning activities that prepare people elo
to exercise wider or increased responsibilities. pm
Development is career progression-person focussed
Training is the use of sytematic and planned instruction activities to
promote learning.(Armstrong M (2010)
Training is job focussed

Components of Human Resource Development

1
ent. HRD is managerial oriented or aims at developing managers’ 3.
abilities. H
R
HRD helps organizations to provide learning related to the goals of
D
the organization and to its employees. This learning is accomplished
by providing training, education, and development. According to
s
Leonard Nadler, author of Developing Human Resources, Training is
y
a learning activity provided by employers to employees, to help them
s
perform, their current jobs more efficiently; • Education focuses on
t
learning designed to prepare an individual for a job different than the
e
one currently held; and • Development focuses on providing
m
knowledge or skills within a specified area, but is not necessarily job
s
related.
s
h
History of Human Resource Development o
u
The term HRD was coined by Nadler in 1970. The concept of HRD l
was three folding ie addressing training issues, education and d
development. It represents organisaed learning to provide
performance change. It emphasised the need for adult learning in the h
work place. e
l
1983, McLagan reflected a shift in HRD work where HRD was p
defined as ‘ the intergrated use of training and development, career
development and organisation development to improve individual
effectiveness’
1989-the focus moved from what is performed to what is produced.
The thrust was on the systems approaches in HRD. There was also a
shift from individual learning to organisational learning as the primary
activity. The definition moved from training and development to HRD
responsiveness and relevance.

Rao T.V. 1985 defines HRD as a process by which employees are

helped to continuously sharpen their capabilities required to perform
present and future roles,develop their general capabilities as
individuals and discover and exploit their own potentials for their own
and organisational purposes and develop organisational culture in
which supervisor subordinate relationships, team work and
collaboration among sub-units are strong and contribute to
professional well being, motivation and pride of employees.

HRD systems should help the company to increase enabling

capabilities. The capabilities report include:

1. development of human resources in all aspects,

organizational health, improvements in problem solving
capabilities, diagnostic skills, capabilities to support all the
other systems in the company, etc;

2. HRD systems should help individuals to recognize their

potential and help them to contribute their best towards the
various organizational roles they are expected to perform;

2
 maximize individual autonomy through increased 10.
responsibility; Use
d to
4. HRD systems should facilitate decentralization through red
delegation and shared responsibility; uce
cost
5. HRD systems should facilitate participative decision-making; s
6. HRD system should attempt to balance the current 11.
organizational culture with changing culture; and Imp
rov
7. There should be a continuous review and renewal of the e
function. perf
orm
The Integrated HRD systems approach of Pareek and Rao
anc
(1975):
e
(i) A separate and differentiated HRD department with 12.
full time HRD staff. inn
ova
(ii) Six HRD subsystems including OD,
tion
(iii) Inter-linkages between the various subsystems,
Obj
(iv) Linked to other subsystems of Human Resource ecti
Function. ves
of
HR
D
1.
Use
d as
a
tool
(v) linked to other subsystems of Human Resource to
Function. achi
eve
a
nu
mb
er
of
thin
Justifications of HRD in organisations gs
like
1. The need for organisations to develop and retain staff Qua
lity.
2. The need for organisations to manage careers of employees Qua
lity
3.The link between HRD and Organisational goals
lies
4.The need to achieve excellence through people in
peo
5Empowerment of employees ple/
em
6.Quality lies in people/employees, plo
yee
7. Used to create a climate of learning .Each employee has a potential
s,
to do better
8.Used as a tool to manage change-if there is conflict engineer HRD
9. Used to achieve position of competitive advantage. HRD used as a
weapon to beat/lead an

3
2. Used to create a conducive working environment Mu
st
3. Used as a tool to achieve a number of Objectives lead
the
way
Role of HRD in
div
a). Design systems across the entire organisation to encourage erse
learning(systems approach) mgt
&
b). Avoid prescriptive recipes in learning (training calenders bloc new de
ideas) mo
c). Develop structured learning- learning that evaluates nstr
systems,skills,values,attitudes ate
wh
d). Get top management to support learning y it
is a
e). Adopt titles that reflect the need to learn sou
rce
of
Enhancing the HRD Role within the Organisation co
mp
Ensure that HRD assume a crucial role in the board meetings etiti
ve
Demonstrating that written & verbal communication are key aspects adv
of HRD functions. anta
Funding & Staffing of HRD depts lsat levels that reflects its ge.
importance Co
Finding HRD solutions to individual & orgnal performance probl me
up
wit
h
THEMES IN HRD poli
cies
1. Improve relationship btn corporate strategy, people, to
technology & processes that drive the organisations con
2. Due to globalization HRD practitioners are challenged to fron
attract, build, retain, use technology in order to compete t
effectively pro
cess
3. Manage constant change to contain costs, to improve quality es
and quantity of the product of
the
4. People & Organizational practices have become pivotal to co
business success & emphasis is on how winning companies mp
build & retain their organizational capability of HRD any
practioners .
5. Employees have to be viewed as business partner
6. Employees have to be viewed as business partners & HRD
program should have a role.
7. HRD professionals should be design organizations
8. HRD staff should appreciate the changing
markets,legislation,current productivity, policies etc.

Must actively promote innovation & take the role of intergrating the
HR strategy with business strategy

4
The Concept of Organizational Development

Definition of OD Ma
jor
OD is defined as a long range effort to improve an Ai
organisation’s ability to cope with change and its problem ms
solving and renewal processes through effective management of
of organisation culture. OD
Pro
These are planned systematic approaches to change. gra
ms
To
What is not OD incr
OD is not micro approach aimed at addressing individual behaviour eas
like Management Development or Training and Development; instead e
OD is macro goal of developing an organisation wide improvement in pro
managerial style. duc
tivit
OD is more than any single technique (use of various techniques) y

OD does not include random or ad hoc changes To

incr
OD is aimed at more than raising morale or attitude as it aim to eas
address overall organisation health and effectiveness. This may e
include participant satisfaction as one aspect of change effort, but resp
includes other effectiveness parameter as well. onsi
ven
ess
Characteristics of OD to
clie
1. Planned Change: the change aims at addressing specific objectives nts
Collaborative: It includes involvement and participation of the To
organisation members that are mostly affected by change. imp
rov
Performance: OD programs aims at improving and enhancing e
performance and quality (TQM). co
Humanistic: OD relies on mp
etiti
humanistic values about people and organisation that aims at ve
addressing effectiveness by opening up new opportunities for posi
increased use of human potential. ( Relationship among elements and tion
excellence) ing
(inc
Systems: Systematic appro It is concerned with interrelationship of reas
various divisions, departments, groups and individuals as e
interdependent subsystems of the overall organisation pro
duc
Scientific: OD is based on scientific approaches to achieve tivit
organisation effectiveness. y/d
ecre
ase
Justification of OD cost
s)
The level of competition is too high hence conventional training
techniques not sufficient to address it.
Survival: Organisations may cease to exist if they don’t continually
change
Improved Performance: Without OD organisational performance may
decline.

5
To increase employee involvement and participation

To increase employee morale

To develop new managerial skills and strategies
Capabilities, Competend Processes of HRD and OD
Professional values and ethics
Values and Mission of Organisation Development ( French and Bell)
A development outlook in which the needs and aspirations of human
To increase employee morale
To develop new managerial skills and strategies

Organizational analysis and diagnosis

The process of reviewing the development, work environment,

personnel and operation of a business or another type of association.
Performing a periodic detailed organizational analysis of a company
can be a useful way for management to identify problems or
inefficiencies that have arisen, but have not yet been addressed, and
then develop strategies for dealing with them.

The development of a strategy for systematic improvement of an

organisation demands an examination of the present state of things.
Such an analysis usually looks at two broad areas. One is a diagnosis
of the various subsystems that make up the total organisation. These
susystems may be natural “teams such as top management, the
production department, or a research group; or they may be levels
such as top management, middle management or the work force.

The second area of diagnosis is the organisation processes that are

occurring.These include decision-making processes, communication
pattern and styles,
relationships between interfacing groups, the management of conflict,
the setting of goals and planning methods.Thus organisational
analysis may either focus on the structural aspects (subsystems,
various components etc.) or on processes.

The link between Human Resource Development and

Organizational Development

Important HR issues in achieving OD

i. Aligning business strategy with HR strategy
ii. Knowledge management and creating learning
organisation
iii. Developing moral excellence through managing ethics and
culture
iv. Skills and competency development

6
 v. Developing mutual trust and synergy of work teams Wh
at is
stra
Relationship between HRD and OD tegi
c
abo
ut
Both deal with problems of attitude, behaviour as well as dev
interpersonal relations in an organisation set up elo
OD link with HRD to address the whole organisation issues pin
g
Both OD and HRD are involvement, communication, team-building, em
plo
training and development which lead to high morale, commitment yee
among people, increase in utilisation of resources, high employee job s-
The
satisfaction and team work. OD and HRD found in high productivity, val
organisation effectiveness, cost reduction, profits and improvement of ue
in
organisation image. These ultimately lead to high quality of work life, em
growth and competitive edge for organisations. plo
yee
Deminson 1962 argues that HRD contribute to organizational s?

development and economic development of a country through raising The

nee
the quality and productivity of labour and accelerating the rate at d to
which society ‘s stock of knowledge advances. und
erst
and
Economist perception of HRD/ HRD, OD and Economic Growth sou
rces
The economists view employees as human assets and of
em
development of human resources is an investment. Economists plo
explain that development of employees increase labour yee
productivity. val
Education has been viewed as crucial factor in economic ue
development. It is argued that improvement in education is the Gai
backbone of any strategy of HRD and economic growth. Education n
contribute towards improvement in productive life and hence plays an
important role in HRD. app
reci
Theoretical Foundations of HRD atio
n of
the
Human Resource Development and Management imp
orta
nce
Management is concerned with exposing and exploiting the creative of
ability of an individual. Management deals with various managerial hu
procedures such as planning, implementing, monitoring and ma
evaluation through extracting work from an individual. HRD is the n
instrument to reach that goal. HRD functions and systems are carried capi
out through the organisation systems and sub-systems. tal

Human Capital Theory

7
Understand how competitive advantage can be achieved through Leadership Abilities
developing
What is strategic about developing employees- The
value in employees?
 The need to understand sources of employee value
 Gain an appreciation of the importance of human Yo
u
capital nee
d
 Understand how competitive advantage can be
aC
achieved through developing employees A
Cul
 Understand the obstacles that prevent organisations
ture
from investing in their employees whe
re
 That success of the organisations lies in the way em
employees are managed- treated as associates plo
yee
valuable assets s
are
con
side
red
val
Why is it important for organisations to Develop uab
Employees? le
asse
ts
Nee
TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE d to
asse
Markets Customers ss
the
Processes Environment cost
&
ben
ABILITY TO LEARN AND GROW efit
(ris
Openness to new ideas ks
&
Acquisition of knowledge and skills retu
rn)
inv
olv
ed
DECISION MAKING CAPABILITIES in
dev
elo
pin
MOTIVATION
g
this
asse
COMMITMENT t.
Hu
ma
TEAMWORK n
asse
Interpersonal Skills t

8
 can-not be duplicated and therefore can help provide competitive The
advantage beh
avi
In the global village the skills required are becoming less manual and our
al
pers
Important Organisational Assets pect
ive
on
HR
Financial - equity, securities in investment and account receivables D
Physical - plant, land, equipment, raw materials arg
ues
Market - goodwill, branding, customer loyalty, product line, for
distribution work, patents, trade mark, copyrights. the
use
Operational - management practices, structure of work, technology of
HR
Human - education, knowledge, skills, competencies, work habits,
D
motivation, personal relations
pra
ctic
es
Value Chain of Organisational Assets as
tool
s to
Organisational performance can be measured through four outcomes sha
which are: pe
patt
Employees erns
of
Organisational beh
avi
Financial Accounting our
Market Based. that
hel
p
org
Human Resource Value Chain aniz
atio
EMPLOYEES ORGANISATIO FINANCIAL nsMARKET
achi
NAL OUTCOMES BASED
OUTCOMES eve
OUTCOME org
-expenses OUTCOMES
-attitudes aniz
-productivity
-revenues atio
-stock prices
-behaviour -quality nal
-profitability goa
ls
and
It can be proved beyond doubt that HR can influence the bottom line obj
ecti
HR can increase shareholder value ves.
SHRD’s success depends on the ability to scan the environment Diff
(changing enonomy, political, legal, market conditions, technology ere
and social environment) nt
org
aniz
atio
The Behavioural Perspective nal
goa
ls
and

9
objectives require different types of behaviours and therefore differnt inst
HRD practices (Snell, 1992). Factors that become relevant in this ituti
context include: organizational size, technology, ownership, sector ona
and location as important contingency variables. l
kno
wle
dge
Employee Involvement and Empowerment: Interpersonal
pos
Interventions
sess
Employee involvement and empowerment and buy-in management ed
are new techniques of unleashing human potential in organisations. by
the
Laboratory Learning Programmes have been said to increase self org
insights and awareness of impact upon others and that observable n.
changes in behaviour do occur on the job. ( Or
gan
Laboratory learning improves organisation productivity (inc isati
abseintism, profits and quality), technical and structural interventions. ona
l
capi
tal)

INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL It is
the
Armstrong 2001:53 kno
wle
Consists of the structures & frameworks of knowledge available to the dge
orgn. These are intangible resources which together with tangible like ,
money & physical assets improve contributions to the value skil
generating of a firm. ls
IC comprise the value of all relationship inside & outside the and
organization. abil
ities
IC covers values attached to intangible like goodwill, corporate image of
& brands indi
vid
uals
that
3 Elements of IC
crea
Human Capital te
val
Knowledge, skills & abilities of the employees in an organization. ue
whi
Social Capital ch
The structures & framework of knowledge derived from networks of is
relationship within & outside an organization. wh
y
Are the features of social life ie networks, norms ,values that the
encourage participants to come together to pursue effectively shared foc
vision. us
is
Organisational Capital on
mea
Institutional Knowledge- possessed by an organization, stored in
ns
databases, knowledge that the organization owns.
of
Can be referred to as structural capital attr
acti
Significance of IC ng,
The three elements of IC are interrelated. It is the individual who
generate, retain & use knowledge. (Human capital) this knowledge is
enhanced by the interaction between them(Social Capital) to generate

10
retaining, developing & maintaining the HC those individuals
represent.
Orgnal effectiveness depends upon making good use of HC, which
needs to be developed, captured & exchange knowledge mgt, inorder
to create orgnal capital.
4 It is important to note that individuals & go but organizations
preserve knowledge over time. OC stays behind when employees
leave.
HC is the intellectual capital asset that goes home every night with
the employee
Practical implication of the IC theory
1.Companies can grow by building on the capability of the people for
competitive advantage
2.SHRD should concern itself with matching people’s competencies
& talents, to the changing business & requirements
3.SHRD should concern itself in developing & maintaining of
knowledge, skills and abilities involved in every job within the
business & from outside & inside business environment.
4. Human capital issues are critical coz they are concerned with the
attraction,retention,dvpt & reward of the workforce inorder to
maintain a critical,commited & well motivated workforce.
5. SC issues are important coz they enhance the process of
developing, capturing & dissemination of knowledge
OC issues are concerned with knowledge mgt process with the aim to
obtain & reward explicitly & tacit knowledge for competitive
advantage.
The cutting edge of economic growth is knowledge

11
People Capability Maturity Model (1995). PCMM Approach.

Curtis and team (Curtis et. al, 1995) developed this approach for software organizations.
The People Capability Maturity Model (P-CMM) aims at providing guidance on how to
improve the ability of software organizations to attract, develop, motivate, organize and
retain the talent needed to steadily improve their software development capability. A
fundamental premise of the maturity framework is that a practice cannot be improved if
it cannot be repeated. In an organization’s least mature state, systematic and repeated
performance of practices is sporadic. The P-CMM describes an evolutionary
improvement path from an ad hoc one. Inconsistently performed practices, to a
continuously mature, disciplined, and continuously improving development of the
knowledge, skills, and motivation of the workforce. The P-CMM includes practices such
as work environment, communication, staffing, managing performance, training,
compensation, competency development, career development, team building, and
culture development. The P-CMM is based on the assumptions that organizations
establish and improve their people management practices progress through the
following five stages of maturity: initial, repeatable, defined, managed, and optimizing.
Each of the maturity levels comprises of several Key Process 8 Areas (KP As) that identify
clusters of related workforce practices. When performed collectively, the practices of a
key process area achieve a set of goals considered important for enhancing work force
capability.

CHALLENGES IN HRD

The future looks even more exciting and threatening. Organisations are gearing up for
the difficult times ahead by tapping all the resources on hand. Organisations realize that
their people or employees would be one of the prime resources for establishing a
competitive edge in the future. This requires, organisations to make workable strategies
to align the individual talents/strengths of their people towards business goals. This is
where Human Resources professionals can play a deciding role. They have to face newer
challenges, take up different, unprecedented roles and in the process help the business
achieve its goals.

 Challenges such as continuous change on an uncertain and unclear path.

12
 Rapid changes in Technology: The world is facing a rapid change in technology
and so our the organsiations. The biggest and foremost challenge which comes
before HRD is to make its workers/employees equipped with the changing
technologies.
 Transnational suppliers and customers: Transnational suppliers and customers
have now to be given a new face, as they need to play a transformational role in
the changing scenario.
 Fierce competition: With the advent of globalisation, and entry of MNC’s & rapid
changes in technology the Indian organisations face a fierce competition. To
stand in the market and face the competition successfully has become one of the
important challenges of HRD.
 Innovation for survival: Nothing is permanent except change. The biggest
challenge, which comes before HRD professionals, is to provide development
opportunities, latest updation of skills to the present employees. To meet the
challenges and fierce competition Innovation is a key to success.
 World-class Quality-demand of customer: In today’s market Customer is the
King. The products are to be manufactured as per the need, demand, want &
desire of the customer. Every customer in the market looks for value of money.
With increase in competition, and awareness of the customer to maintain quality
at an affordable price is the need of an hour.
 Mergers, Takeovers and Acquisitions: With increase in competition, entry of
MNC’s mergers, takeovers and acquisitions are bound to take place. With cross
cultural mix, with diverse culture of various employees working in an
organisation the 11 HRD department is responsible for providing all kind of
developmental opportunities to its employees.
 High product differentiation achieved by very low manufacturing costs:
Providing a distinct and a different product in the market which can satisfy the
needs of the customer. With the increase in competition and ease in availability
of substitutes the product should be differentiated with low manufacturing
costs. Achieving a differentiation with low cost poses a challenge for HR
manages.
 Extremely short lifecycles of products/services: As the memory of people is
short so are now the lifecycles of product/services short.
 Quicker response to market. A good MIS accompanied with good HRD can enjoy
the quicker response to market. The new business environment also poses some
challenges to the HR Professional, which he/she should gear himself for:
13
 Countering Erosion of trust: The work place could become a very insensitive
place because of business-decisions like lay-offs, Golden Handshakes, etc which
might leave those lefts behind in a state of fright and suspicion. It is upon the HR
Professional to take up this challenge of bringing in some sensitivity and trust
into the work place.
 Re-humanising: The past decade saw major efforts in the direction of humanising
the work-place. The future might again require major efforts on part of the HR
Professional to make bonds which have got more or less severed due to the
onset of e-mail, telecommunication, flexitime etc. Employees would see less of
each other due to the convenience offered by modern technology.
 Managing the Contingent Work-force: The contingent component could
comprise of consultants, specialists, project teams, part-timers, temporary
appointee’s etc. and the HR Person needs to make them feel required and
appreciated.
 Double-income families: The trend already is towards both the husband-wife
going out of their homes in pursuit of their careers. This trend is only going to
increase which would require the HRD to be responsive to their needs. An HR
Department which could provide a in-house Liesureplanner, a Travel Manager,
and an entertainment adviser would be appreciated.
 Faster, Non-Fussier Response: The old bureaucratic ways of queries being replied
to after filling up scores of forms and of policies, procedures being kept away in
wraps should be challenged. A fresh air of transparency should be allowed to
blow across the HRD setup. Individual attention:
 As customizing is taking place in the services being offered and products being
manufactured keeping in mind the needs of the discerning customer, so should
the HR Professional handle the work force. Each individual is different from the
other and hence deserves to handled differently.
 Environmental-Scanning: The latest trends in business and in its own function
need to be known to the HR professional more than ever before for adding value
to the function. For this the HR professional needs to be in touch with the
external environment through any medium possible.
 The stringent and ever increasing demands of the discerning customer would
mean that organisations respond to the demands of the market before the
competitor does. The structure would have to be lean enough to create synergy
and dynamism for disseminating communication quickly across all levels. On the
other hand the organisation would require highly competent individuals who
14
 take the process of innovation and knowledge-enhancement seriously. The
business scenario would impact the Organisation structure and on its Manpower
Resources because of the change in existing and future

Organizational Development
Organizational development is a planned, systematic change in the values or operations of
employees to create overall growth in a company or organization. It differs from everyday
operations and workflow improvements in that it follows a specific protocol that management
communicates clearly to all employees.

Organizational change and development can be a long, sometimes overwhelming process, but
companies usually begin with several goals in mind among which are:

 Ongoing improvement. Changing company culture to view new strategies as a positive

growth opportunity allows for ongoing improvement and encourages employees to
become more open to change and new ideas. New strategies are introduced
systematically through planning, implementation, evaluation, improvement, and
monitoring.
 Better or increased communication. Organizational development that leads to increased
feedback and interaction in the organization aligns employees with the company’s vision.
Employees feel that they have more ownership in the company’s mission and may be
more motivated as a result.
 Employee development. In today’s business world, employees must constantly adapt to
changing products, platforms, and environments. Employee development comprises
training and work process improvements that help everyone keep up with shifting
demands.
 Product and service improvement. Organizational development leads to innovation,
which can help improve products and services. This innovation often comes as the result
of intensive market research and analysis.
 Increased profit. Organizational development helps increase profits by optimizing
communication, employee processes, and products or services. Each serves to increase a
company’s bottom line.

Steps in Organizational Development

The organizational development process is a systematic, research-based series of steps. Common
implementation steps include the following:

15
  Identifying an area of improvement. Organizational change begins with identifying a
need that aligns with business goals. Companies often know that need right away, but
they may consider a data-driven approach to identify problems through formal surveys
and feedback. This approach allows for a more thorough understanding of the area for
improvement. Companies should ask themselves what they want to change, and why that
change is necessary.
 Investigating the problem. Once the area for improvement is identified, companies
conduct an investigation to learn why the problem exists, what the barriers to
improvement are, and what solutions have previously been attempted. This step can also
include surveys or focus groups and individual consultations.
 Creating an action plan. The company then creates a plan with allocated resources and
clearly defined employee roles. This plan will include specific support for individuals
involved and identify a measurable goal. During this step, companies should think about
how they’ll communicate changes to staff and manage feedback.
 Creating motivation and a vision. Once the company has clearly defined and
communicated a plan, its leaders must motivate their employees to share in a vision. This
step involves leaders acting as enthusiastic role models while helping employees
understand the plan’s big-picture goals and desired impact.
 Implementing. While stability is necessary during implementation, supporting
employees during the transition with mentoring, training, and coaching is equally
important. When thinking about such support, management should consider what new
skills employees will need and what delivery methods will be most effective. Ongoing
feedback and communication can help make the change process easier.
 Evaluating initial results. Once the company has implemented a plan, its leaders may
create space for shared reflection, asking themselves and their employees if the change
effectively met the business goals. They’ll also evaluate the change management process
and consider what could be done differently. This step can’t be overlooked; if the
company doesn’t evaluate the changes, it won’t know whether interventions have been
effective.
 Adapting or continuing. Depending on the evaluation of the initial results, the company
may choose to adapt its plan. If the results show success, it may continue with the current
plan to keep improving.

Challenges to Organizational Change and Development

Common challenges that come with organizational development processes include the following:

 Fear of the unknown. Some employees are afraid to implement new plans because
they’re afraid of failure or reluctant to enter uncharted territory. They may be cynical
about change if past initiatives failed, or they may think the organization is fine as it is.
Employees may directly express this fear by complaining about new initiatives or
passively by neglecting their part in the process, for example, by arriving late to key
process improvement meetings.
 Conflicting goals. Sometimes, leaders disagree about a company’s ultimate goals. This
conflict often pertains to finances and allocation of resources, sometimes stemming from

16
 poor communication between management branches. These issues can be handled
proactively by instituting clear communication channels before beginning new initiatives.
 Burnout. Change can be exhausting, and employees may experience burnout if proper
supports are lacking. To avoid employee burnout, companies should keep the question “Is
this realistic?” at the forefront of all steps of the process and ensure that employees are
maintaining an appropriate work-life balance.
 Lack of leadership. Key leaders may leave an organization, forcing the remaining
employees to scramble to fill the gaps. Additionally, current leadership may lack
effective communication or teambuilding skills. Each scenario can make organizational
change more difficult.
 Lack of understanding of planned changes. Employees expect well-planned and
predictable changes, so when surprises or missteps occur, they can lose faith in the
process. Creating a timetable for the changes and clearly articulating the problems that
may occur can help avoid these issues.
 Difficulty changing the mission or values. During periods of change, some employees
may feel that the company’s mission doesn’t align with the new initiatives. This may
cause resistance to change.

Types of Organization Development Interventions

Often, organizational development interventions are categorized into the three types described in
the following sections.

Individual

Individual interventions relate to individual responsibility, habits, vision, improvement, or

workflow. Individual interventions may take the form of coaching or mentoring. For example, an
employee learning to use a new technology platform may be assigned a mentor experienced with
that platform to answer questions and provide support.

Often, individual interventions are offered to new employees or employees who are changing
roles in a company. Other times, they’re used with employees who present performance issues or
whose attitudes negatively impact team morale.

Group

Group interventions relate to a core team or branch, but not the entire staff. Group interventions
may be necessary because one part of a company is changing how it develops a product, for
example. These interventions may take the form of professional development, coaching, or
training conferences.

Group interventions may involve restructuring a department and communicating new job
responsibilities to the relevant employees. If the issue is interpersonal, these interventions may

17
consist of team building or conflict management training. Management typically carries out
group interventions, but occasionally an outside consultant is required.

Organizational

Organizational interventions involve an entire organization or business. They may be necessary

if a company is rolling out new strategies, visions, or protocols that affect every employee. In
some cases, organizational intervention may involve boosting morale to create a stronger shared
vision.

These interventions may include instituting employee wellness programs or creating a

company’s new mission and vision statement. For companies rolling out a new business strategy,
they may take the form of restructuring responsibilities, forming a focus group, or finding new
systems to monitor output and success. Organizational interventions are often done through a
third party, such as an outside trainer or expert.

These interventions are often specific to an organization or a type of problem. As such, different
types of organizational development interventions require different implementation strategies.

Organizational Development Models

Lewin’s Three-Step Model

1. Unfreeze

In the first step, companies work to loosen current norms and procedures to prepare for change.

2. Change (or Transition)

In the second step, companies introduce a new strategy and implement it. During this step,
management support and communication are critical to keep employees motivated and focused.

3. Freeze (or Refreeze)

The third step solidifies the “new normal” and encourages reflection on how to sustain the
change.

Action Research

Lewin also created the action research model, which includes three phases.

1. Research on Problems and Theorizing Solutions

The research phase involves data collection, focus groups, and often hiring an outside consultant
or specialist. The goal is to identify a problem with an actionable, results-focused solution.

18
2. Action Phase

The action phase involves implementing the change. Similar to the change step in the three-step
model, this step is impossible without clear communication from leadership and strong support
in place for employees.

3. Input and Results Phase

The final phase involves gathering data to assess the strategy’s impact on the problem. This step
involves analysis and reflection and can lead back to step one if the action was ineffective.

Business Process Reengineering

The business process reengineering (BPR) model is much more radical and can involve
completely reimagining parts of a company. The phases in this model are described in the
following sections.

1. Map the Current State of the Organization’s Processes

Leadership documents current processes and procedures in preparation for analysis.

2. Analyze the Processes

Using the process map, committees or individuals analyze procedures to identify what’s working
and what’s not.

3. Identify Improvement Opportunities

Teams identify areas of need and brainstorm solutions.

4. Design a Process Map for Future Improved Processes

Employees and management work together to plan changes. This phase may include timetables,
delegation of workload, or new organizational structures.

5. Implement Changes to Attain Improved Processes

The initiatives are rolled out, and employees receive training and support.

McKinsey 7-S Framework

The McKinsey 7-S framework isn’t defined in steps, but organized into seven factors. To
implement this framework, companies analyze each of the seven S’s — shared values, strategy,
structure, systems, style, skills, and staff — and come up with solutions for improvement. The

19
key factor is shared values, which are the organization’s main priorities. The other six are
traditionally divided into two groups: hard S’s and soft S’s.

Hard S’s

 Strategy: the company’s overall direction

 Structure: the company’s organization, specifically regarding job descriptions and
responsibilities
 Systems: the processes and procedures that currently guide the company

Soft S’s

 Style: the leadership style of upper management

 Skills: the company’s capabilities, including those of individuals as well as the company
as a whole
 Staff: the company’s employees

HR role in OD
1. Business mastery ( financial capability and strategic capability)
2. Human resource mastery ( staffing, developing, performance appraisal, rewards,
organisation planning and communication)
3. Change and process mastery ( diagnosis of organisation, building relationships with
clients, articulate vision, leader change agent, proactive and implement goals)
4. Personal credibility ( accuracy in HR work, consistency, meeting commitment, emotional
intelligence thinking outside box, listening skills etc)
OD expects to pay attention to :
Managing resistance
Leadership style of employee involvement
Identify training needs precipitated by change in organisations
Staffing and career development issues
Develop collaborative atmosphere
Manage crisis situations like layoffs, plant closure etc
Develop reward systems which encourage team effort
Competencies of OD Consultant
Ability to tolerate ambiguity

20
Ability to influence
Ability to confront difficult issues
Ability to support and nurture others
Ability to listen and

Mechanic Systems Organic Systems

Exclusive individual emphasis Relationships between and within groups

emphasised

Authority-obedience relationships Mutual confidence and trust

Delegated and divided responsibility Interdependence and shared responsibility

rigidly adhered to

Strict division of labour and hierarchical Multi-group membership and

supervision responsibility

Centralised decision making Wide sharing of responsibility and control

Conflict resolution through suppression, Conflict resolution through bargaining or

arbitration and/or warfare problem solving

Categories of Consultant’s Role

Engineering or Purchase Models Clinical or process models

The client’s statement of the problem is The client’s statement of the problem is
either accepted at face value or varied by treated as information. The problem is
the consultant on the basis of his or her verified jointly by both client and the
technical expertise relative to the problem consultant

Little time is spent on developing The consultant/client relationship is viewed

consultant/client relationship. The as an essential ingredient in the process and
connection is generally short-term and considerable attention is given to this
problem-oriented development

The solution or prescription to the problem The major focus of the consultant is to help
is generally developed by the consultant and the client to discover and implement
implemented by the client appropriate solutions for themselves

21
 The consultant brings technical expertise to The consultant is an expert in how to
bear on client’s problem (s) diagnose and facilitate organisational
processes

The consultant is primarily concerned with The consultant is primarily concerned with
increasing the client’s knowledge and skill improving the client’s diagnostic problem
relative to the stated problems solving skills

In general the consultant does it for and to In general, the consultant helps the client to
the client do it for and to themselves

Selecting OD Interventions

Category Individual Team Intergroup Total Organisation

System

Behavioural Laboratory Learning Team Building Intergroup Goal Setting

Development
Career Planning Process Grid OD (Phase 4)
Consultation Third party
Managerial grid intervention Survey Feedback
Quality Control
Stress Management Organization Action Research
Role Negotiation mirror
Biofeedback Likert’s System 4
Role Analysis Process
Management by Quality of work life
Consultation
Objectives Grid OD
Total Quality
Grid OD (Phase
Goal Setting Goal Setting Management
3)
Quality of work life Third-party
Total Quality
intervention
Management

Structural Job Enrichment Job enrichment Job enrichment Grid OD (Phase 4)

Stress Management Team building Goal Setting Survey Feedback
Quality of work life Quality Circles Total Quality Action Research
Management
Management by Role Negotiation Likert’s 4 System 4
Objectives
Role Analysis Quality of work life

22
 Grid OD (Phase 2) Total Quality
Management
Self-managed work
teams Restructuring

Technical Job Design Job Design Job Design Grid OD (Phase

4,5,6)
Quality Control Grid OD (Phase
3) Survey Feedback
Grid OD (Phase 2)
Total Quality Action Research
Management
Likert’s 4 System
Total Quality
Management
Reengineering

23
INDIVIDUAL INTERVENTION STRATEGIES

Management Development Programs

Management Development

Is concerned with improving the performance of managers in their present roles and preparing
them to take over higher responsibilities in the future.
Mumford & Gold(2004) defines it as ‘an attempt to improve managerial effectiveness through a
learning process’

Abilities needed by managers

1.Empower & develop people-understand & practice the process of delivering through others
2. To manage people & perfomance-managers increasingly need to maintain morale whilst also
maximising perfomance
3.To work across boundaries,engaging with others,working as a member of a team
4. Develop relationships & focus on customer, building partnershiphs with both internal &
external customers
5. To balance technical & generic skills

Formal approaches to management development

1.Coaching & Mentoring
2.The use of perfomance management to provide feedback & satisfy development needs

24
3.Planned experience, which includes job rotation,job enhancement, taking part in project teams
or task groups, ‘action learning’ & secondment outside the organisation.
4. Formal training by means of internal or external courses
5. structured self development plan guided by a management development adviser
6. Competency frameworks used as a means of identifying & experiencing development needs &
pointing the way to self-managed learning programmes

Informal approaches to management development

1.Managers to understand their learning styles so they learn from experiences

2. Emphasising self-assessment & the identification of development needs – against agreed
objectives
3. Getting managers to come up with own personal development plan-self directed learning
programmes
4. Encouraging managers to discuss their own problems & opportunities with their manager,or
mentors to establish for themselves what they need to learn or be able to do.
Most management development does not involve outside classes or professional trainers. It
involves the employee's daily work, skill stretching assignments, leadership roles played,
mentoring by a manager, cross-training, and other development on-the-job.
Building the skills of managers through management development options is critical to the
effective functioning of your organization. This is because of the power of a manager to impact
the organization through his or her oversight of the work of other employees.
Especially middle managers are expected to communicate the company direction, goals, and
vision to their reporting employees. Only comfortable business communicators are likely to
perform their needed communication tasks effectively.
Yet senior company leaders depend on their communication because they can't easily
communicate with every employee themselves.
It is not surprising that the managers in your workplace are the single most important factor in
employee engagement, employee motivation and building a productive workplace
Managers are the key to employee retention and the main reason employees cite when they leave
their current employer.
So, the need for management development is significant and can provide a significant payback.

25
Internal Management Development Advantages
Internal management development has advantages over external seminars and classes. It presents
and reinforces needed skills and management techniques. It speaks a common language that
people in an organization will understand and gives them a common language that they can use
with each other.
Internal management development is presented around challenges and problems so it is
customized for the people who attend. It is offered on managers’ terms and at their preferred
times and at their preferred length.
Internal management development reinforces the organization's culture and addresses the norms
and expectations of the manager's workplace. It incorporates familiar workplace examples and
reinforces desired organization direction, values, and goals.
Done with care, internal management development also reinforces the application of the skills
learned in training back in the workplace. This significant ability to do the activities needed for
training transfer to the workplace, before, during and after the training is all the justification one
need to offer internal management development.
It can require weekly assignments, reading, and on-the-job training. Employees can work
together in study groups outside of the actual training. You can also provide management
development training as part of an ongoing, regularly-scheduled management meeting.
Internal Management Development options abound and can include the following opportunities
for employees' growth and ongoing development.
Employee training
Employee career paths
Coaching
Mentoring
Job rotation
Promotions
Performance Management and Development
Succession Planning
Benefits of On the Job Training
1. Employees look forward to coming to work because they are learning and growing; not
stagnant.
2. Helps your employees to become more rounded professionally by enriching your employees’
skill set. On the job training is an inexpensive professional development tool. Hands on learning
is one of the best ways to develop expertise.

26
3. Demonstrates your interest in staff development and your employees’ job satisfaction.
4. Increases productivity and job satisfaction. Employees that recognize that management is
supportive of their growth and enrichment are almost always more engaged and productive.
5. Contributes to company growth. Employees that are able to take on broader levels of
responsibility can only help your company to run more efficiently which saves time and money.

Management Development Options

Management development can include such external opportunities as university classes,

seminars, workshops, courses, conferences, and field trips. Employers can assist employees to
pursue these options by paying for classes and seminars.
They can also offer tuition assistance for employees attending college or university classes and
who plan to earn a degree.

Designing & Implementing MD programmes

1.In coming up with MD there is need to link organisational & individual goals HR should assist
by interpreting the needs of the business & advise on how management can play their part in
meeting these needs.
2.There is need to design MD programmes that builds on & develops the qualities,skills &
attitudes of participants. There is need to develop such programmes in conjuction with line
management competency frameworks that can provide a basis for MD
3.MD programmes should be motivating to those encouraged to participate in it. The HR & the
organisation should provide help & encouragement to manages in preparing & pursuing their self
directed learning activities. There Is need to encourage managers to carry out their
developmental activities & provide guidance as required.
4. The MD programmes should be supported by HR policies to do with recruitment, selection,
reward, talent management & succession planning.
5. There is need to plan & conduct formal learning events as part of programmes. It should also
have the full commitment of those responsible for the operation process.

Career Development and Succession Planning

27
Career Management & Development
If careers are managed well, employees become motivated & productivity increase and they are
able to meet organisational goals
Career management is the responsibility of the individual and the organisation’s role is to
provide assistance to the employee to facilitate the redirection of the person’s career growth.
It is important to note that each person should assess his/her own interest and take necessary
steps to fulfil them
Aims of CM
Give individuals the potential and guidelines & encourage individuals of the need to fulfil their
potential
To provide promising employees with a sequence of training and experience that will equip them
for any assignments in future
To ensure that the organisation’s needs for management succession are satisfied from within
Process of Career Management
Individual 2. Organisational Level
Planning takes place at individual level- individual CM is when individuals identify career goals
and this should begin by understanding oneself, decide what kind of person they are, skills they
have, likes and dislikes ,strengths & weaknesses and on the basis of this balance the individual is
able to identify his career path.
An individual should identify job opportunities or promotion by looking at the following
What are the prospects of promotion or transfer
What position have my peers reached within 5-10years
What is the compensation range
Which department has the fastest growth in providing promotion
Employees should study the trends in the economy where there are shortages, technological
development & how govt policy can change the future of the market.
Organisational Career Management.
Occurs when employers help employees to set realistic career targets.
Helps them to create career options within the organisation
Assist employees to inform the other organisational logistical requirements in pursuit of their
career

28
Employers can facilitate their
HRP and ensure that the right people are available when people retire, resign
Organisation to engage a sequence of developing activities which give individuals job experience
to enable him or her to step into more advanced posts should they
arise.
Can be implemented as a way of grooming employees for promotion.

Career oriented could be carried by employers to help assess strengths & weaknesses to establish
flexible career path
Through job rotation on a periodic basis-helps employees to establish realistic pictures of what
she is capable of doing
Mentoring opportunities provided by the employer both formal and informal by experienced
managers on career paths to follow are crucial & are informal opportunities that may arise from
diverse employees
Employers can hold career planning opportunities
The way employers handle transfers; promotion can make or destroy employees’ careers.
Promotion should be handled in a manner that shows fairness, transparency. The criteria should
be clear & rational.
Employers should clarify the following
Is promotion based on seniority or competence
How is competence measured
Criteria for vertical, horizontal promotions should be specific
It is important to note that transfers opportunities for employees and create opportunities to
experience growth in another area.
Counseling is a systematic process where someone whose employment has been terminated will
be assisted with counseling to help him/her to suit his abilities.
Pre-retiment Counseling – easing the pressure of employees into retirement by offering financial
& investment counseling
Traditional Career Management
Top

29
-Middle

-no career(had jobs only)

Nowadays the ladder is no more, most of the organizations have flat structures and wide avenues
that employees can explore.
Stages that people go through in career management
Exploration- ie assessment of alternatives avenues to take
Establishment Stage – some career that people rise through the ladder
Mid -career stage- where you have to review performance and then promote or review
performance or realize the need to change the career
Reasons for choosing careers
-Interests
-Capability
-Value
-Attitudes
-Needs
-Personality
-Motivation
Tips on Enhancing One’s Career(Decenzo & Robins) 2005:236
Know yourself
Work on turning weaknesses into opportunities
Be honest with yourself assessment
Manage your reputation- Achievements
Build & maintain a network of contacts
Attend conferences
Keep current, develop specific skills
Balance specific & general competences

30
Stay within your profession
Document your achievement
Career Anchors
These are talents that people have- and they help them make systematic choices
Types of anchors
Security- need a stable job eg in govt
Flexibility- eg academia
Creativity eg IT
Autonomy eg accountants need independence)
Technical expertise – eg motor mechanics
Managerial expertise-
Features associated Traditional Careers
Succession planning- the need to identify the individual
Targeted development- companies use to prepare employees for high post
Career path analysis –where the employee will have to identify pattern sequences for the events.
Change in Career Management
Companies now have new flat structures- pay difference is so small
Pay/Salary is no longer associated with level
No ladder climbing- people are now paid for performance
No job for life
Career is now perceived as a sequence of behavior that an employee carries over a period of time
The rationale for looking at behavior:
Career rust out- it is up to the employee to make themselves important and enjoy the career. Also
the need to make a change in one ‘s position
Career Development & Competitive advantage
It was used as a basis to lure employees to stay in the past but nowadays we talk about employer
of choice, there is need for satisfaction, the attitude of management all influence employees ‘
decision on career management.

31
The challenge of HRM today is to manage the knowledge worker – the need to match reward
with skills
-the need to give the worker autonomy & independence
-the need to give them recognition
-involve them in your management
-create environment for information sharing
- Employees want to be created free –agents allow them to be creative- to tap their knowledge
-hence it will be possible to be competitive through continous learning
Internal advice Senior Managers support,vision & mission
Within & across Of organisation
Career
Organisation
Development

HRD conducive Individuals commitment, openness &

communication
Environment

Line managers help in coming up with career development plans & provide information for
career prospects.
NB. In this case career development is used to improve performance and organizational goals.
Succession Planning

Succession Planning is the process of identifying & preparing suitable employees

(talent),through mentoring, coaching, planned training & development interventions as well as
job rotation, to replace key players such as the CEO within an organisation as their terms expire.
From a risk management perspective provisions are made in case no suitable internal candidates
are available to replace loss of any key person. It is usual for an organisation to ensure a key
person so that funds are available when he dies (insurance), this practice is rampart in SA &
these funds can be used by the business to cope with the problems before a suitable replacement
is found or developed . A recent example of sound succession planning is the case of how
General Electric found a succession for its CEO J Welsh. The board of directors engaged in a
lengthy & systematic review of potential successions prior to his retirement

32
The discipline of SP in the USA has risen in importance as a corporate governance issue under
the Sarbanes Orxley Act of 2002. A careful and considered plan of action ensure the list possible
destruction to the Person’s responsibilities & therefore organisation’s effectiveness eg such a
person who is
a)suddenly & expertly is willing to continue their role with the organisation
b)Accepting an approach from another organisation or external opportunity which will terminate
his current employment.
c) Indicating the conclusion of a contract or time limited project or
d) Moving to another position & a different set of responsibilities within same organisation
A succession plan clearly sets out factors to be taken into account & the process to be followed
in relation to retaining the person or replacing the person.
The Process of Succession Plan
Steps in designing SP
There are perspectives that the organisation can utilise in designing an SP program
It involves a systematic company wide SP approach which aims at Ensuring that employees in
their various positions are competently developed & ready to occupy the next position
immediately above their current rates. The idea here
Is to ensure that all vacancies are filled from within every time they arise & this serves the
organisation in money terms.
3.It aims at targeted positions at senior management level in organisation
Individual Development Plans for succession Planning(Competence maps)

Name Grade Job Totle Current Job Personal Interventions

Roles Qualifications

Name Grade Summary of Interventions Remarks

33
The goal here is to ensure that the organisation has got suitable employees available within the
talent pool to occupy as and when they fall vacant.
Targeted SP involves the following basic steps

To identify key positions in all departments in the organisation for which a pool of candidates
must always be on standby to fill when they fall vacant. This process can be done easily if there
is a succession planning committee in place.

Position Grade No of people in Department Pontential

Position Successions

This step involves identifying suitable talent from the pool of successions for the identified key
positions in all departments.
3.Develop competence maps for each of the candidates in the succession pool & extrapolate
chart to show their readness to fill the targeted positions.

Name Jan Feb Mar Apr May

Sibanda #######

Banda ********* ****** *******

Ndlovu //////////////// /////////// //////////// ///////////

Sande wwwwwwwwww wwwwww wwwwwwwwww wwwwww wwwwwww

.4 Develop a rank orderly of a succession pool

.5. Implement development interventions in line with the rank order

34
Coaching and Mentoring

Coaching-focuses on achieving specific objectives, usually within a preferred time period.

Coaching helps an employee get the best performance out of themselves – the potential for
which was already there.

There are two types of coaches: an internal coach or a professional external

coach.

Internal Coach
Specially trained internal coach

Champions of coaching within the organization In alignment with organizational talent

development agenda

Cost effective, especially when coaching large numbers of employees.

External Professional Coach
Works outside of the organization
Offers value of wider experience and independent approach
Maintains confidentiality

Can provide fresh ideas and knowledge

Often offer more experienced coaching skill set

Mentoring-follows an open and evolving agenda and deals with a range of issues.

35
Mentoring is an incredibly powerful tool for individuals who want to learn and grow within an
organization. Moving or preparing to move into a new role, taking on new responsibilities,
building confidence to develop your career further, or working in a new environment all seem
much easier with a mentor to support you
.
There are different schools of mentoring ranging from non-directive to sponsor mentoring.
In a non-directive model, the mentor acts as a sounding board, a catalyst for the individual’s
learning and perhaps a role model. In a sponsor model, a more senior person promotes, oversees
and takes control of a junior protégé’s career.
Having an understanding of both schools of mentoring can be very helpful when choosing what
type of mentoring to use in talent development.
Often a mixture of developmental and sponsorship mentoring can provide the most effective
methods to support your organizational talent across all
Benabou and Benabou, 2000. Coach Vs Mentor

Coach Mentor
Protégé’s learning is primarily focused on abilities Learning is focused on attitudes

Technical or professional focus Focus on personal and professional

development

Effective use of the protégé’s existing competencies Helps the protégé realise his/her potential

Professional interaction with the protégé More interaction with an affective

component

Inspires respect for his/her professional competencies Is a role model

Coaching is a little bit like having the professional equivalent of a fitness trainer – a specialist
dedicated to working with you on specific goals and objectives you would like to achieve for
whatever reasons.
36
Mentors, on the other hand, are more likely to have followed a career path similar to the one on
which you are embarking. They are, therefore, charged with passing on their knowledge and
expertise. Importantly, the knowledge transmitted in this way will contain invaluable details
about organisational values, beliefs and culture that are hard to acquire through formal training
Mentoring is more of relationship based, knowledge sharing in multiple ways peer to peer, senior
to junior or even junior to junior.

Mentoring programs have a longer time horizon than coaching and concentrate more on career
development, leadership development, and knowledge transfer versus individual skill
development or immediate performance improvement.
Mentoring is used most often to help people transition between career stages. It is invaluable as a
tool to support individuals who are being fast tracked or accelerated into more senior leadership
roles, particularly as it can focus on developing the whole person and has a wider-angled lens
than coaching.
Coaching is concerned primarily with performance and the development of definable skills. It
usually starts with the learning goal already identified. The most effective coaches share with
mentors the capability to help the learner develop the skills of listening to and observing
themselves, which leads to much faster acquisition of skills and modification of behaviour.
Coaches also share with mentors the role of critical friend – confronting executives with truths
no one else feels able to address with them.

GROUP INTERVENTIONS

Team Development Interventions

Teamwork is work done by members of a group. The coordination of individual effort into task
accomplishments is most important when members of a team are interdependent. Team building
or team development are used to increase communication, cooperation, cohesiveness of units so
that they become more productive.
Team building is a data based intervention where a work group examines such things as their
goals, structure, procedures, cultures, norms and interpersonal relationships to improve their
ability to work together effectively and efficiently.
Types of Teams

Cross-functional teams These teams are made up of individuals from various departments or
functional specialties. Success of the cross-functional teams depends on the following factors: 1.
Selection of suitable members
2. Clarity of purpose of the team
3. Fair understanding of group functions by each member

37
4. Team-building
5. Achievement of noticeable results

Virtual teams are groups of people who work interdependently with shared purpose across space,
time and organizational boundaries, using Information Technology to operate and collaborate
without face-to face interactions with each other. Tools that they use include e-mails, chat-room,
virtual community/group etc.

Self-managed teams A self-managed team is a group of employees who are responsible for
managing and performing technical tasks that result in a product or service being delivered to an
internal or external customer. Self-managed teams are empowered to hire, organize and purchase
equipments without prior approval of the management.
And outcomes at both the companies are indeed very flattering.
A number of empirical studies indicate that self-managed teams have led to increased job
satisfaction, higher productivity, better customer service, and organizational commitment

How to make teams more effective?

Team building (GE Model)
Team building
1. Establish credibility: the trainers must establish their knowledge and credentials
2. Allow ventilation: the trainees should be provided with ample opportunities to clear off their
anxieties and unresolved issues before the training begins
3. Provide an orientation: the trainers should give specific verbal directions and provide clear
expectations and models of behaviour
4. Invest in the process: help the team in identifying its problems and concerns
5. Set group goals: let the trainees create their own mission statement and then set specific goals
and specific activities and behaviour to accomplish these goals
6. Facilitate the group process: let trainees learn how group functions
7. Establish intra-group procedures: help trainees set up a meeting format that might include
reporting minutes, making announcements, discussing problems, proposing solutions, taking
action and making new assignments
8. Establish inter-group processes: let the trainees select a leader to interact with other teams
9. Change the role of the trainers
10. End the trainer’s involvement

Benefits of Team Building

Provide for the effective management of complexity
Rapid response to ever changing environment and work demands

38
Results in high level motivation for the individuals within the team and increased levels of task
accomplishments
Improved levels of job satisfaction and camaraderie result in higher levels of motivation
Higher quality of decision results from mature teams who are capable of making better decisions
than even the most brilliant individual.
Characteristics of Effective Teams
Energy and enthusiasm
Members are in the team because they can contribute
If team wins each individual wins
If team loses each individual loses
Members of a team are bound together by a vision

Effectiveness of teams (Fred Luthans)

1. Establishing a sense of partnership

2. Attractive work arrangement
3.Sharing of collective intelligence
4. Well-defined goals
5. Creating a learning organization
6. Developing a bond among the team-members
7. Collaboration

Techniques for Team Effectiveness

Role Negotiation:- (Roger Harrison) views it as a technique used to control role negotiations of
team members. Team members discuss what they want from each other. The outcome of role
negotiation is a set of written agreements and concessions which each member find satisfactory.
Role Analysis:- a technique used to clarify role expectations ( French and Bell 1978). Group
norms influence each member’s behavior and members have expectations from each other. Role
analysis is used to clarify the role discrepancies about each other which leads to team
effectiveness.
Role Conflict:- occurs when there is a discrepancy of a role expectation and a role conception.
Team members always have expectations of attitudes and behaviors of each other. However
these may not always tally.
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Role ambiguity: refers to the role a team member being unaware of or lacking sufficient
knowledge of the expectations of others.
The employee needs to know his/her role set and their different expectations; his/her rights,
duties and responsibilities
One should know what kinds of activities would fulfil those responsibilities.
One should know the possible consequences of role performance or non-performance for
himself/herself as well as for his/her role set
The employee needs to know the kind of behaviours which are satisfying or frustrating for
his/her personal needs and values.

Challenges faced by work teams

Goals

Size Mentor
TEAM OPERATING Needs
PROBLEMS

Norms
Leadershi
p

Decision
Making

Intergroup Development Interventions

Collaboration
The process of collaboration involves learning how to improve interpersonal interactions in
group settings while committing to a common agenda. Collaboration is a structured, recursive
process where two or more people work together toward a common goal—typically an
intellectual endeavor that is creative in nature—by sharing knowledge, learning and building

40
consensus. Collaboration does not require leadership and can even bring better results through
decentralization and egalitarianism. In particular, teams that work collaboratively can obtain
greater resources, recognition and reward when facing competition for finite resources.
Competencies for Collaborative Partnerships

Know thyself. Many realities exist simultaneously. Each person's reality is based on self-
developed perceptions. Requisite to trusting self and others is in knowing your own mental
model (biases, values, and goals).
Learn to value and manage diversity. Differences are essential assets for effective collaborative
processes and outcomes.
Develop constructive conflict resolution skills. In the collaborative paradigm, conflict is viewed
as natural and as an opportunity to deepen understanding and agreement.
Use your power to create win-win situations The sharing of power and the recognition of one's
own power base is part of effective collaboration.
Master interpersonal and process skills. Clinical competence, cooperation, and flexibility are the
most frequently identified attributes important to effective collaborative practice.
Recognize that collaboration is a journey. The skill and knowledge needed for effective
collaboration take time and practice. Conflict resolution, clinical excellence, appreciative
inquiry, and knowledge of group process are all life-long learning skills.
Leverage all multidisciplinary forums. Being present both physically and mentally in team
forums can provide an opportunity to assess how and when to offer collaborative
communications for partnership building.
Appreciate that collaboration can occur spontaneously. Collaboration is a mutually established
condition that can happen spontaneously if the right factors are in place.
Balance autonomy and unity in collaborative relationships. Learn from your collaborative
successes and failures. Becoming part of an exclusive team can be as bad as working in isolation.
Be willing to seek feedback and admit mistakes. Be reflective, willing to seek feedback, and
admit mistakes for dynamic balance.
10.Remember that collaboration is not required for all decisions. Collaboration is not a panacea,
nor is it needed in all situations.

Intergroup Development Interventions

Characteristics of inter-group conflict: Inter group conflicts are characterized by perception of

the other as the “enemy”, stereotyping, constipated, distorted and inaccurate communication and
stoppage of feedback and data input. Each group begins to praise itself and its products more
41
positively and believes that it can do no wrong and the other can do no right. There might even
be acts of sabotage against the other group.
Sub optimization: when a group optimises its own goals at the expense of the overall
organisational goals.
Intergroup competition: when groups have conflicting purposes or objectives.

Perceived Power Imbalance between groups: occur when power is not balanced especially when
some previously established relationship is shifted.

Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity: when directives are vague or incompatible and individuals
not clear of their functions, purposes and goals in the organization.

Personality: differences between members emanating from conflicting functions, objectives,

career aspirations or personalities.eg two managers competing for promotion, rewards or
resources.
It is when the performance of one group is interdependent on the performance of the other group.
Your success depend on others cooperation. When two groups are interdependent
misunderstandings, low coordination and conflicts may arise. Groups in conflict with one
another spend much time focussing on the conflict instead of accomplishing the goals. OD
programs are then needed to deal with these intergroup problems, use joint problem solving,
correct misconceptions and reopen channels of communication.

Inter-group interventions are integrated into Organizational Development programs to

facilitate cooperation and efficiency between different groups within an organization. For
instance, departmental interaction often deteriorates in larger organizations as different divisions
battle for limited resources or become detached from the needs of other departments.
Conflict Resolution meetings (Blake and Mouton’s Approach) are one common inter-group
intervention. First, different group leaders are brought together to get their commitment to the
intervention. Next, the teams meet separately to make a list of their feelings about the other
group(s). Then the groups meet and share their lists. Finally, the teams meet to discuss the
problems and to try to develop solutions that will help both parties. This type of intervention
helps to gradually diffuse tension between groups caused by lack of communication and
misunderstanding.
Intergroup Techniques-Managing Conflict
The styles are determined on the desire to satisfy self or others

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1 .Avoiding: the style involves a low concern of both self and others, avoids conflict by
withdrawing, buck passing or passive agreement.
2. Obliging: with a low concern for self and high concern for others, more concerned with
people satisfaction, harmony and smoothing over conflicts.
3. Dominating: with high concern for self and low concerning for others, focusing on attaining
personal objectives and often ignore the needs for others, forcing win-lose situation
4. Compromising: with moderate concern of self and moderate concern for others, tending to
seek out compromise between conflicting parties or elements
5. Integrating: with high concern for self and others, this style is concerned with problem
solving, uses openness, sharing of information and the examination of differences to reach a
consensus solution.

Rotating membership: Such interventions are used by OD consultants to minimize the negative
effects of inter-group rivalry that result from employee allegiances to groups or divisions. The
intervention basically entails temporarily putting group members into their rival groups. As more
people interact in the different groups, greater understanding results. Organizational
Development joint activity interventions serve the same basic function as the rotating
membership approach, but it involves getting members of different groups to work together
toward a common goal. Similarly, common enemy interventions achieve the same results by
finding an adversary common to two or more groups and then getting members of the groups to
work together to overcome the threat. Examples of common enemies include competitors,
government regulation, and economic conditions.
Third Party Consultation: (Walton’s approach) usually an outside third part intervenes to
resolve conflict. Two conflicting sides confront each other in his presence, better understanding
of issues, open communication, discovering alternative goals. 3rd party help equalising power and
confronting problems.
Organization Mirror: designed to give work units feedback on how other elements or
customers of the organisation view them. This helps identify problem and search specific
improvements of operating efficiency
Intergroup Team Building: conflicting groups meet to work on issues/ interface. Need for a
consultant to intervene and balance power so as to move from a hostile to problem solving
confrontation.

Cooperation VS Competition (Richard Beckhard )

While conflict can-not be avoided it is important to cooperate and collaborate as success will
depend on the interdependence of the two

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Groups should adopt the ‘boundary less approach’ where an open trusting, sharing of ideas
atmosphere prevail. There should be willingness to listen, share ideas, debate and take the best.
Honest feedback, win-win situation to problem solving,
Intergroup competition has been said to give self esteem to the competing group, give task
orientation in the group, and give more pressure on the group to work and cooperation within the
competing group and sometimes productivity. However competition has been said to give
degradation in the internal cohesion with the whole organisation, communication decreases,
hostility increases.
ORGANISATION INTERVENTIONS

Goal Setting
Goals give direction to individual‘s life and provide purpose and direction to the organisation.
OD is planned change. Team building and inter team building have set a foundation of trust and
cooperation that are important in the establishing of goal setting.
Goal setting theory/MBO

Goal setting is a process intended to increase efficiency and effectiveness by specifying the
desired outcomes towards which individuals, teams and organizations should work. Goals
include deadlines, budgets and other standards for behaviour and performance.
Major findings about goal settings
More difficult goals produce better performance: goals must be difficult and challenging.
Specific hard goals are better than ‘do your best’ goals:
People may abandon goals if the goals become too hard: if goals become impossible people may
be discouraged and abandon the goal.
Participation in setting goals increases commitment and attainment of goals: goals should not be
imposed.
Feedback and goals improve performance: information concerning on how to adjust in order to
accomplish better. Frequent relevant feedback necessary.
Individual differences tend to affect goal setting;
Support of top management is critical in goal setting.
MBO used for setting goals. Help in planning, organizing, problem solving, motivating and other
important management activities.
MBO Process (Refer to HRPP notes)

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Criticisms of MBO

MBO requires more time, resources and effort of successful adaptation.

Top down communication, focussing on specific targets while ignoring some other
responsibilities, manipulative approach, inefficiency and weakness in application.

Total Quality Management: Quality and Production Interventions

Total Quality Management: Quality and Production Interventions

Definitions: TQM –the management of activities involving improving the quality of the
organization’s product or service. TQM involves moving towards corporate excellence by
integrating the desires of individuals for growth and development with organizational goals.
TQM is a philosophy and a set of guiding principles for continuous improvement.

TQM applies human resources and analytical tools to focus on meeting or exceeding customer’s
current future needs. It integrates these resources and tools into management efforts, by
providing planned, systematic approaches to improving organization performance. This involves
everyone in programs aimed at improving the total organization so that it is more customer
oriented, quality conscious, flexible and responsiveness. The purpose is to increase effectiveness
of an organization through planned improvements which influence the quality and productivity
of the organization.

TQM Values
Trust- TQM values trust and respect for each individual
Integrity- places importance on self-motivated workers who are committed to eliminating defects
and wastage. TQM also designed to promote uncompromising integrity in all internal and
external activities.
Teamwork- is also a major value in TQM. The involvement of every individual is promoted in
teamwork.

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Characteristics of TQM
TQM is organization wide
Top management to support it
TQM is ingrained as a value in the corporate culture
Partnership with customers and suppliers
Everyone in an organisation has a customer
Reduced cycle time
Techniques of TQM range in scope (statistical quality control, job design, empowerment, self-
managed work teams)
Do it right the first time
Corporate citizenship
No single formula works for everyone

Steps in Implementing TQM

Make it clear that management is committed to quality
Form quality improvements teams with representatives from each department
Determine the current and potential quality problems
Evaluate the cost of quality and explain its use as a management tool
Raise quality awareness and person concern of all employees
Take actions to correct problems identified
Establish a committee of zero defects programme.
Train supervisors to actively carry out their part of the quality improvement programme.
Hold a ‘zero defects day’ so all employees realise that there has been a change.
Encourage individuals to establish improvements goals for themselves and their groups
Encourage employees to communicate to management the obstacles they face in attaining their
improvement goals.

46
Recognise and appreciate those who participate
Establish quality councils to communicate on regular basis.
Do it all over again to emphasize that the quality improvement programme never ends.

Compatibility of TQM and OD.

TQM and OD share similar values like both are organisation-wide, depend on planned change,
believe in empowerment and involvement, self renewing and continuous, base decision making
on data-based activities and they view people as having the inherent desire to contribute to
meaningful ways.
However OD consultant should avoid becoming TQM expert as there could be other OD
interventions to solve problems besides TQM.
Evaluation of HRD programmes
Effectiveness of HRD Programs
The degree to which HRD programs achieve its intended purpose, measure how well the desired
goal is achieved.
1. Identify strengths and weaknesses
2. Determine cost benefit ratio
3. Identify who benefited most or least
4. Identify future participants
5. Provide information for improving HRD programs
6. Is HRD a revenue contributer or a revenue user
7. Is HRD credible to line and upper level managers
8. Are benefits of HRD readily evident to all
Acknowledhge other factors that influence performance than HRD like economy, resources and
policies
Provide metrics for HRD where possible
Demonstrate value added approach for HRD
Demonstrate accountability for HRD activities

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Evaluation Models

HRD budgets are receiving more scrutiny than ever before, hence, human resources has to look
for more solid evidence to justify the investment in their programs. Chong (2005) argues that
there seems to be widespread agreement that systematic evaluation is the least well carried out
training activity. HRD evaluation models are used to assess the cost benefit, effectiveness and
the success of human resources development processes. There are myriad of training models,
namely, Multi-Rater Feedback System, Competence-based Approach, Phillips ROI
Methodology, Return on Expectation (ROE) and too many numerous to mention. These models
are Eurocentric in nature, outdated and majority are linear in nature such that they are not
iterative, as such, they need to be used with caution. However, models simplify reality and
provide the starting point in the evaluation processes. Clegg (1987) asked 43 chief training
officers at Fortune 500 companies why evaluation is not done and the responses were: (ranked in
order of importance): a) lack of time, b) lack of adequate methodology, c) lack of standards and
yardsticks, d) lack of money, e) lack of necessity to evaluate, and f) lack of expertise. Grider et
al. (1990) in some cases firms evaluate training without any particular reference to a model
because such models are not known by the human resources practitioners.

Tyler (1949) in Chong (2005) defines evaluation as a process of determining to what extent the
educational objectives are actually being realized by the curriculum and instruction. Boyle and
Jahns (1970) defined evaluation as the determination of the extent to which the desired
objectives have been attained or the amount of movement that has been made in the desired
direction. Further study by Provus (1971) in Chong (2005) conceptualized the need to have a
certain standard of performance as an objective-based criterion to judge the success of the
program. Boyle and Jahns (1970) in Chong (2005) defined evaluation as the determination of the
extent to which the desired objectives have been attained or the amount of movement that has

48
been made in the desired direction. Stufflebeam (1971) in Chong (2005) mentioned that
evaluation is the process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging
decision alternatives. Further study by Provus (1971) in Chong (2005) conceptualized the need to
have a certain standard of performance as an objective-based criterion to judge the success of the
program. It can be noted that the scholars are in agreement that evaluation judges the worth or
value of the program and ensuring training objectives are met. There is need to evaluate the
training methods, leaning process, impact of training, trainee’s participation or involvement and
whether training objectives were met. The question is “Was training worth it? This means that
we should evaluate to discover whether the learning activities add value and enhance employee
capability (Martin et al., 2010).

Return on investment (ROI)

Return on investment (ROI) has been used in determining the value of an investment in financial
terms, thus, evaluating training by comparing the overall economic benefits of training with the
cost of the training. The objective of ROI calculations with training programs is to determine
program impact on organizational performance, verifies training methodologies and allows staff
to gauge their progress. This evaluation model is a self-assessment to measure learners’ comfort
level with the material pre and post training. The benefits and demerits of training are converted
into monetary values (in dollars). Learning opportunities result in higher levels of employee
promotion, increased sales, improved employee performance appraisals retention, satisfaction,
skills and knowledge, and this translates to better organizational performance. For example, time
saved or increased output (or both) as a result of improved performance following participation
in a development program can then be compared to a dollar figure (Lang, 2012). Cost worksheet
for ROI analysis normally includes, e-learning technology license enrollment costs,
materials/technology fee, salary of trainer and staff, post program evaluation, lodging, per diem
and travel expenses. ROI is important tool of strategy that builds competitive advantage and
commitment of financial resources. The formula for ROI metric is;
ROI% = Benefits – Costs X 100
Costs

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Phillips’s framework is comparable to Kirkpatrick’s, but Phillips expanded Kirkpatrick’s four-
level framework by adding a fifth level, ROI. Return on investment is calculated in order to show
value, in financial terms, of a training investment (Phillips, 1991). The levels of Phillips’s
framework are (1) reaction and planned action; (2) learning; (3) job application; (4) business
results; and (5) return on investment. Communicating and reporting ROI results aids in the
improvement process for the training program and demonstrates accountability for the program.
Level five evaluation converts the qualitative data from a level four evaluation into monetary
values. At level five, both qualitative and quantitative data are used to determine the financial
impact of the training program. The monetary benefits of the program are compared to the cost
of implementation to determine the return on investment (Phillips, 1996, 11)

ROI of training validates training and justifies the training costs. ROI also assists in selecting the
methods of instruction that are effective, the cost in terms of lost opportunity of undertaking
training and benefits of training in financial terms. The methodologies used in evaluating ROI
are control groups, Internet with the online survey tool, modelling and estimation. Examples of
ROI evaluation criteria in some organisations could be output, quality, time, cost, work habits,
work climate and attitudes, development and promotion, and innovation in dollar terms. A
successful ROI hinges on rigorous planning and disciplined approach to keep the process on
track, strict implementation schedules of training, evaluation targets, ROI analysis plans,
measurement and evaluation policies and follow-up schedules. Besides for it to be operational
there is firm sponsorship from the HR function, Board level sponsorship, partnership with other
functions and discipline in planning.

CIPP Evaluation model

CIPP model is an evaluation model for curriculum evaluation and quality of training courses
offered. The checklist proposed by Stufflebeam (1983) has the following components,
Contractual agreements, Context evaluation, Input evaluation, Process evaluation, Impact
evaluation, Effectiveness evaluation, Sustainability evaluation, Transportability evaluation, Meta
evaluation and the final synthesis report. HRD evaluation is done to determine whether the
training and development objectives were met, determine the effectiveness of the different
components of training and development programme (e.g. contents, training aids, facilities and

50
environment, programme schedule, etc.), determine whether the training and development
programme justifies the cost, decide who should participate in future programme, gain practical
insight in order to design, develop and deliver more effective future programmes, conform to
policy guidelines and documentation of training and development efforts, To check the extent of
transfer of learning i.e. the extent to which a trainees applies to his/her job and determine if the
training programme maps to the needs the trainees.

On the context evaluation an organization can do the training and development needs analysis
and formulating objectives in the light of these needs. This is used to determine the extent to
which the goals and objectives of the programme matched the assessed training needs of the
organisations. On the Input Evaluation, an organization should assess the extent to which
programme strategies, procedures, and activities support the goals and objectives identified in the
needs assessment and context evaluation. It also involves evaluation of determining policies,
budgets, schedules and procedures for training programmes. Process Evaluation: A process
evaluation is the critical aspect of programme implementation. It involves evaluation of
preparation of reaction sheets, rating scales and analysis of relevant records (Prasad, 2005).
Process evaluation is a continual assessment of the implementation of the action plan that has
been developed by organisation. It is an ongoing and systematic monitoring of the programme.

The process evaluation provides a guide to implementation of training programme strategies,

procedures and activities as well as a means to identify successes and failures. The objectives of
process evaluation done by an oragnisation are to; provide feedback to organisation and their
employees about the extent to which the activities on schedule are being carried out as planned
and using time and resources in an efficient manner; provide guidance for modifying or
explicating the programmes action plan as needed, particularly since not all aspects of the plan
can be anticipated or planned in advance; assess periodically the extent to which programmes
personnel are performing their rules and carting out their responsibilities and to provide an
extension record of the programmes.

Lastly, for the Product evaluation an organization should measure and interpret the attainment of
training and development objectives. Asadi, Raza, Akbari, and Ghafor (2016) explain that

51
product evaluation deals with how well a student is learning in a specific context and how well
the objectives are achieved; process on the other hand, includes the experiences and activities
organized in the learning situation. In other words, product evaluation measures, interprets and
judges the extent to which an organisation’s improvement efforts have achieved either short term
or long term goals. Haddock (2015) argues that this model addresses the utility of the data
captured, but is criticised for being administrative and managerial rather than involving a range
of stakeholders in a participatory way.

Kirkpatrick ‘s Evaluation

It is widely acknowledged that the Kirkpatrick (1994) 4-level evaluation model has been
providing the most basic thoughts on training evaluation, to establish if leaning activities were
successful, what worked well and was the cost justified by the outcome of HRD activity.

Reaction
 Did the trainees like the development/training
 Did the training seem useful to the trainees
Learning
 How much did they learn
Behavior
 What behavior change occurred
Results
 What were the tangible results?
 What was the return on investment ?
 What was the contribution to the organization?

Other Methods

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Interviews
Advantages Limitations
Flexible High reactive effects
Opportunity for clarification High cost
Depth possible Face to face threat
Personal contact Labour intensive
Trained observers needed
Questionnaires
Advantages Limitations
Low cost to administer Possible inaccurate data
Honesty increased Response conditions not controlled
Annonymity possible Respondents set varying paces
Respondents sets the pace Uncontrolled return rate
Variety of options

Direct Observations
Advantages Limitations
Nonthreatening Possibly disruptive
Excellent way to measure behavior change Reactive effects are possible
Maybe unreliable
Need trained observers

Written tests
Advantages Limitations
Low purchase cost Maybe threatening
Readily scored Possibly no relation to job performance
Quickly processed Measures only cognitive learning

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Easily administered Relies on norms
Wide sampling possible Concern for racial/ethnic bias

Simulation/Performance tests
Advantages Limitations
Reliable Time consuming
Objective Simulations often difficult to create
Close relation to job performance High costs to development and use
Includes cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains

Archival Performance Information

Advantages Limitations
Reliable Criteria for keeping/discarding records
Objective Information system discrepancies
Easy to review Indirect
Minimal reactive effects Not always usable
Records prepared for other purposes

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