General Navigation

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 INDEX
1. SHAPE OF EARTH 3
2. DIRECTIONS, CIRCLES AND DITANCE 6
3. DISTANCE 23
4. DEPARTURE 28
5. CONVERGENCY 33
6. DIRECTION 41
7. FLIGHT COMPUTER PROBLEMS 48
8. SCALE 60
9. MAPS AND CHARTS 60
10.PILOT NAVIGATION TECHNIQUE 94
11.TIME 106

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 Chapter 1 – SHAPE OF THE EARTH

Shape of earth is called as OBLATE SPHERIOD. It is slightly flattened at Poles

and bulged at the equator.

Due to this compression of the earth at the poles, the Polar Diameter and
Equatorial Diameter are different.

Equatorial Diameter = 6886 nm 12760 km

Polar Diameter = 6864 nm 12719 km
Difference 22 nm 41 km
This difference can be expressed as in terms of compression ratio.
This value is approximately 1/297, taken as 1/300 or 0.33%

𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑒𝑞𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

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GEOID: it means earth shape.
In order to obtain the position on earth surface, various models of Geoid were
produced by different authorities.
ICAO HAS ADOPTED THE MODEL OF EARTH FOR POSITION FIXING IS – WGS84
(WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984)
This model is used in GPS and FMS (Flight Management System)
From here on, we consider earth as a perfect sphere because the difference of
22 nm is very small and can be neglected for navigation purpose.

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QUESTIONS
1. What is the approximate compression of the Earth?
a. 3%
b. 0.03%
c. 0.3%
d. 1/3000

2. Given the compression value of Earth is 1/297 and the semi-major axis of
earth measured at the axis of equator, is 6378.4 km, what is the semi minor
axis of earth measured at poles?
a. 6399.9 km
b. 6356.9 km
c. 6378.4 km
d. 6367.0 km

3. The compression factor of the earth:’

a. Is so small that it may be ignored when making ordinary maps and chartd
b. Makes the difference between polar and equatorial diameter about 22nm
c. It is about 1:300
d. All three answers are correct

4. The earth may be referred as:

a. Round
b. An Oblate spheroid
c. Elliptical
d. A globe

ANSWERS

1. C
2. B
3. D
4. B

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 Chapter 2 - Directions , Circles and Distance on Earth

THE POLES

Earth rotates about an invisible Axis passing through Earth and cuts the surface
at two points called as North Pole and South Pole.
This axis is tilted but for now assume that it is straight
At North pole all directions South
At South pole, all directions are North

DIRECTIONS
To define directions, a datum must be selected, on Earth North pole is selected
as reference datum meridian and three other points 90° to it in clockwise
direction are called as EAST, SOUTH and WEST

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Cardinal Points
N, E, S and W are known as Cardinal points /Direction

Quadrantal Points
Points midway in easc quadrant
NE, SE, SW and NW are known as
quadrantal points/ Directions.

SEXAGESIMAL/TRUE DIRECTION

System of cardinal and quadrantal system and further sub dvision was widely
in use in maritime industry but the need for precise Navigation gave rise use of
Sexagesimal system for defining directions .

000°/360° refers to North

090° refers to East
180° refers to South
270° refers to West

Reference is taken from True

North and these directions are
called as True directions.

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RECIPROCAL DIRECTION
It is obtained by adding or subtracting 180° to a given value.
000°+180° = 180°
270°+/- 180°= 090°
250°-180°= 070°

ROTATION OF EARTH

when viewed from the North pole, Earth

appears to to rotate in anti-clockwise
direction (west to east) or in easterly
direction.

When viewed from South pole, earth

appears to rotate in clockwise direction,
east to west or in westerly direction

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CIRCLES ON SURFACE OF EARTH

Great Circle

1. A circle on
surface of earth whose
centre and radius are
same as of earth.
2. It divides the
earth into two equal
halves
3. A shorter arc
between two points
provides shortest
distance on surface of
earth

4. If two points are diametrically opposite, infinite number of Great

Circles can be drawn between them.
5. If two points are not diametrically opposite, only one Great circle can
be drawn.
6. Great circle cuts the successive meridian at different angle

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Vertex of a Great Circle

Vertex is the most Northerly or

Southerly point on a Great Circle.
Properties:
These points are antipodal points,
which means those points are
diametrically opposite.
Distance between two points is
10800 nm
At vertex, the direction of GC is either 090° or 270°
A great circle crosses the equator at 90° from vertex Longitude.

SMALL CIRCLE

A circle whose centre and radius are

not same as earth and which will
not divide earth into two equal
parts.
In Fig, Circle A represents SMALL
CIRCLE

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EQUATOR

It is an imaginary line that

divides earth in to two equal
parts ie Northern Hemisphere
and Southern Hemisphere.
Its plane cuts the axis of rotation
(polar axis) at 90°
It is the reference line for the
measurement of Latitude

It is an example of Great circle on

earth’s surface

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MERIDIANS

It is half of a great circle that joins

North and South poles.
It runs in N-S direction
It cuts the equator at 90°
It has an Anti-meridian, which
forms a complete great circle.
Prime Meridian:
It is a meridian passing through
Greenwich, known as 0° meridian
and forms reference line for
measurement of Longitude

RHUMB LINE

A regularly curved line on earth’s

surface that cuts all the meridians at
the same angle.

Unlike great circle it provides a line of

constant direction however distance
travelled is longer.
It is also called as Loxodrome.
With the exception of equator, or any
east west track, any rhumb line track, if continued will reach to the pole in
direction of travel.
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POSITION ON SURFACE OF EARTH
For Navigation it is essential to know your own position at all times in order to
arrive at your destination safely and efficiently.
Position can be obtained by intersection of minimum two Lines of
Position(LOP/PL) and the same can be obtained by one of the method
mentioned below.
1. Geographical Co-ordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
2. Range and Bearing
3. Bearing and Bearing
4. Range and Range

LATITUDE

It is the Arc along the meridian

between the equator and at the
point of the observer
OR
It is the angle at the center of the
earth contained between equator
and the parallel of latitude passing
through the place of the observer.

Measures from 0° at the equator

to 90° North and South.
Lines of Latitude are horizontal on
a globe or Chart or we can say that
these lines run in East-West
direction.

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PARALLEL OF LATITUDE
Those lines whose plane is parallel to the lane of equator and they form small
circle and their function is to provide latitude North or South of the equator.

GEOCENTRIC AND GEODETIC LATITUDE

Geodetic or Geographic latitude is on actual shape of earth which is Oblate

Spheriod or Ellipsoid.
Geocentric Latitude is on assumed shape of earth which is spherical.
When a Normal is drawn on a geocentric Latitude, it does not necessarily pass
through the centre of sphere.
Maximum difference occurs at 45°N/S and it is Zero at equator and poles.

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SPECIAL CASES OF PARALLEL OF LATITUDE

LONGITUDE

It is the angular distance between

the Prime meridian and the
meridian passing through the point
of observer.
OR
It is the shorter arc of the equator,
between the Prime Meridian and
the Meridian passing through the
point of observer.
Measured between 0°to 180°East
or West of Prime meridian.
These lines run North South in direction and are vertical on Map or chart

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We can see on the above chart that East longitudes are drawn towards the
right of Prime meridian and West longitudes are drawn towards the Left of the
Prime meridian.
However if we have to view a chart with respect to 180° (Greenwich anti
meridian) the appearance of Longitude will change.

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GRATICULE
It is the network or grid of Latitude and Longitude drawn on a Chart or Map.

DIFFERENCE IN LATITUDE – D’LAT

It is the shortest arc along a meridian between two latitude. Measured in
degrees and minutes along with direction of travel.

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MEAN LATITTUDE-M’LAT
It is the mid - point between two latitude, or arithmetical mean of two latitude.

DIFFERENCE IN LONGITUDE – D’LONG

Difference between two longitudes measured at the pole along with direction
of travel.
Note: mean longitude is not used in navigational calculation.

From knowledge of D’lat and D’Long, we shall be able to calculate the new
position arrived or we shall be able to calculate the values of D’Lat and D’long
between two positions.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A correct definition of longitude is:
a. The difference between the Greenwich Meridian and the meridian
of the place, measured at the centre of Earth.
b. The Arc at the equator between the Greenwich meridian and the
meridian of the place, measured in degrees, minutes and seconds,
named east or west
c. The angle between the Greenwich meridian and the meridian of
the place

2. A Great circle is:

a. A line which crosses meridians at a constant angle.
b. A straight line joining two points on charts
c. A line that defines the shortest distance between two points on
the surface of earth

3. A parallel of latitude is a:
a. Small circle
b. Great circle
c. Rhumb line

4. A Rhumb line is:

a. The shortest distance netween two points on earth surface
b. Any straight line on a Lamberts projection
c. A line on surface of Earth cutting all the meridians at the same
angle

5. A small circle:
a. Will always cross equator
b. Has plane parallel to the earth’s axis of rotation
c. Has a plane that do not pass through the centre of the earth

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6. At what Latitude does the maximum difference between Geodetic and
geocentric latitude occurs:
a. 45 degrees
b. 60 degrees
c. 90 degrees

7. Consider the following statement on Longitude

a. Longitude is stated in degrees up to 360°
b. The largest value of longitude is 180°
c. The value of longitude will never exceed 90°

8. Generally what line lies closer to the poles:

a. Great line
b. Rhumb line
c. The rhumb line or great line depending on the chart use

9. Latitude may be defined as:

a. The angular distance measured along a meridian from the equator
to the parallel of latitude, measured in degrees, minutes and
seconds and named North or South
b. The distance from equator to a place on the surface of earth
c. The angle between the plane of equator and the plane of parallel
of latitude

10.Parallels of latitude except the equator are:

a. Neither rhumb line or great circle
b. Great circle
c. Rhumb line

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11.Calculate the value of D’ Lat and D long between the following position

1. 25°25’N 029°30’E and 55°00’N 045°39’E

2. 05°29’N 045°39’E and 01°12’N 002°00’E
3. 05°29’N 045°40’E and 18°15’S 045°40’E
4. 10°10’S 010°10’E and 09°00N 010°10W
5. 35°00N 173°20’E and 35°00’N 173°20’W

12.Find the value of position arrived from the following data:

1. Initial lat: 25°00’N, Initial long: 050°50’E
D Lat: 20° 20’N. D long: 060°00’W

2. Initial Lat : 30°30’S, Initial Long: 175°35’W

D lat: 20°25’N, D Long: 014°45’W

3. Initial Lat: 12°00’N, Initial Long: 005°10’W

D lat: 12°00’S, D long: 005°10’E

4. Initial Lat: 75°15’N, Initial Long: 160°49’E

D Lat: 45°40’S, D Long 90°00’E

5. Initial Lat 00N/S; Initial Long 180E/W

D lat: 90°N : D long 180°W

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Answers:
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. C
6. A
7. B
8. A
9. B
10.C
11.
1. 29°35’N 016°09’E
2. 04°17’N 043° 39’W
3. 23°58’S 000°00’
4. 19°10’N 020°20’W
5. 00°00’ 13°20E

12.
1. 45°20’N 009°10’W
2. 10°05’S 169° 40’E
3. 00°00’ 000°00’
4. 29°35’N 109° 11’W
5. 090°00’N 000°00’E/W

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 CHAPTER 3 - DISTANCE

KILLOMETER: it is the length of 1/10000th of the average distance

between equator and pole.

STATUTE MILE: it is a land mile, measure of 5280 feet

NAUTICAL MILE: On a perfect sphere, it is the length of arc of 1’ at

centre of curvature of that place.
OR
Length of arc of meridian between two geographic latitude
OR
Length of 1’ of latitude.

ICAO definition states that a nautical mile is a measure of 1852 mtrs.

However earth is not perfect sphere and length of nautical varies

Standard nautical mile- 6080 feet (1852 mtrs) at 45°N/S
At poles – 6108 feet
At equator – 6046 feet
So we can see that length of actual nautical mile increases from
equator to poles

KNOTS: It is NM per Hour.

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CONVERSIONS OF DISTANCES

1 NM = 6080 FEET
=1.85 KM
=1.15 SM

1 SM =5280 FEET
=0.868 NM
=1,6 KM

1 KM = 3280 FEET
=0.539 NM
=0.621 SM

1 MTR =100 CM
1CM =10mm
1MTR =3.28 FEET
1FEET =12 INCH
1 INCH =2.54 CM

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DISTANCE CALCULATION
We know that we can fly between two points by either of two methods i.e.
Great circle track or Rhumb Line track.

GREAT CIRCLE TRACK RHUMB LINE TRACK

It is the shortest distance between two It is comparatively longer distance
points on Earth
Its track changes throughout the Its track is constant throughout the
passage because a GC cuts the passage because a Rhumb line cuts the
successive meridian at varying angle successive meridian at same angle

It is inconvenient to follow unless we It is convenient to follow

use some automatic system
Equator and Meridian with their anti- Small circles or parallel of latitude are
meridian are examples of GC on Earth examples of rhumb line on Earth,
however Equator and meridians are also
Rhumb line as they form line of constant
direction

GREAT CIRCLE/ SHORTEST DISTANCE CALCULATION

Case 1: Both position in the same hemisphere

1. Find out the shortest distance between A 64°35’N 010°00’W and B
53°15’N 010°00’W
Since both position on same meridian, we can calculate the D lat and
multiply by 60 to get the distance.
64°35’N -53°15’N = 11°20’
11°20’ X 60=680 nm

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2. Both Position on meridian and anti-meridian in the same hemisphere
In such case the shortest distance is achieved lying over the pole.
Find the shortest distance to travel from A to 64°35’N 010°00’W to B
53°15’N 170°00’E

90°- 64°35’ = 25°25’ X60= 1525nm

90° - 53°15’ = 36°45’ X 60= 2205 nm
Distance = 3730 nm

3. Both Position on meridian and anti-meridian in the different hemisphere

Find the shortest distance to travel from A to 64°35’N 010°00’W to B

53°15’S 170°00’E

If we travel over the North Pole –

90°- 64°35’ = 25°25’ X 60 = 1525nm
90° + 53°15’ = 143°15’ x 60 = 8595 nm
Distance = 10120 nm

!! Try to fly over the South Pole and compare the distance.

4. Two position on the equator

Find the shortest distance A 00°00’N/S 012°00’W and B 00° 00’N/S
012°00’E

D long = 24°X 60 = 1440 nm

5. Two positions are on antipodal points

Find the shortest distance between 51°30’N 0000E and 51°30’S180°00E

Since these points are diametrically opposite i.e. 180° from each other
distance is 180° X 60 = 10800 nm.

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27
 CHAPTER 4 -DEPARTURE

it is the distance between the two meridians along a specified parallel of

latitude.

We can see that, between two meridians, D’long remains same regardless of
the latitude however due to the convergence of meridian from equator to the
poles, East-West distance decreases.
If we need to calculate the distance flown between two meridians at a
specified latitude, departure formula must be used.

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DEPARTURE(in NM) = D’LONG X COS LAT X 60

Assume 1 degree of D’long

a. At Equator

Departure = 1° x COS 0° X 60
= 60 NM

b. At 60°N/S
Departure = 1° x COS 60° X 60
= 30 NM

c. At Poles
Departure = 1° x COS 90° X 60
= 0 nm
We can see for the calculation that distance between meridians reduces from
equator to poles.
From the previous chapter we know that 1 degree of Latitude measures 60 nm
anywhere on the earth but 1 degree of longitude measures 60 nm only at
equator.

This distance is always along a parallel of latitude, it represents RHUMB LINE

distance
Note 1: whenever aircraft is flying along a meridian i.e. in North/South
direction, distance is calculated by

Dist = D’Lat x 60

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Note 2: whenever aircraft is flying along a parallel i.e. in East/West direction,
distance is calculated by
Dep = D’Long x Cos Lat x60

Note 3: if departure at one latitude is known, we can find out the value of
departure at any other latitude by formula:
𝐃𝐄𝐏 𝐀𝐓 𝐋𝐀𝐓 𝐀 𝐂𝐎𝐒 𝐀
=
𝐃𝐄𝐏 𝐀𝐓 𝐋𝐀𝐓 𝐁 𝐂𝐎𝐒 𝐁

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
1. A flight is to be made from A 49°S 180°E/W to B 58°S 180° E/W. find the
distance in kilometres from A to B
a. 1000
b. 540
c. 804

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2. An aircraft at latitude 2°20’ N tracks 180°T for 685 KM. On completion of
flight, the latitude will be:
a. 04°30’S
b. 04°10’S
c. 03°50’S

3. An aircraft at position 60°N 005°W tracks 090°T for 315KM. on

completion of flight the longitude will be
a. 005°15’E
b. 000°15’E
c. 000°40’E

4. An aircraft departing from A 40°00’N 080°00’E flies a constant true track

at 270 at groundspeed of 120 kts for 6 hrs. what are the coordinates of
the position reached?
a. 40°00N 064°20’E
b. 40°00N 070°30E
c. 40°00N 068°00E

5. An aircraft departs from position a 04°10’S 178°22’W and flies

northward following meridian for 2950 nm. It flies then westwards along
parallel of latitude for 382 nm to position B. the coordinated of position
B are?
a. 53°20’N 169°22’W
b. 45°00’N 172°38’E
c. 45°00’N 168°22,W

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6. An aircraft flies the following Rhumb line track and distance from
position 04°00N 030°00’W
a. 600 nm to South
b. 600 nm to East
c. 600 nm to North
d. 600 nm to West
The final position of the aircraft is:
a. 04°00N 029°58W
b. 04°00’N 030° 02W
c. 04°00’N 030°00’W

7. Consider the following statement on departure

a. Departure is independent of D’Long
b. As the D’long increasese, the departure is constant if latitude is
constant
c. As the latitude increases, departure between the two
meridians decreases

8. Position A 45°N ? E, position B 45°N15E, distance A to B is 280 nm. B is to

the east of A, What is the longitude of of A
a. 49°57E
b. 40°33E
c. 38°39E

9. Position A 60°N 020°W, position B 60°N021°W, position C 59°N 020°W.

what are the respectively the distance from A to B and A to C
a. 30 nm and 60nm
b. 60 nm and 52 nm
c. 60 nm and 30 nm

10.If an aeroplane was to circle around the earth following parallel of 60°N
at groundspeed of 480 kts, in order to circle around the earth over
equator in same amount of time, you should fly at ground speed of
a. 480 kts

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 b. 960 kts
c. 240 kts

11.The departure between position 60°N 160°E and 60°N ‘X”E is 900 nm.
What is the longitude of X
a. 175°E
b. 170°W
c. 145°E

12.The circumference of earth is approximately:

a. 21600 nm
b. 43200 nm
c. 5400 nm

13.The diameter of earth is approximately

a. 40000 km
b. 6350 km
c. 12700 km

14.What is the longitude of position 6 nm to East of 58°42’N094°00W:

a. 093°53.1 W
b. 094°12W
c. 093°48.5W

15.What is the time required to travel along the parallel of latitude 60°N
between the meridians 010°E and 030°W at groundspeed of 480kts
a. 02:30
b. 05:00
c. 01:15

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16.The following rhumb line track and distances are flown; starting from
the position E in latitude 50°N
 E to F 000°T 300 nm
 F to G 090°T 300 nm
 G to H 180°T 300 nm
What is the Rhumb line bearing and distance of H from E:
a. 090° 336 nm
b. 270° 336nm
c. 180° 340 nm

ANSWERS

1. A
2. C
3. C
4. A
5. B
6. A
7. C
8. C
9. A
10.B
11.B
12.A
13.C
14.C
15.A
16.A

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 CHAPTER 5. CONVERGENCY

Convergency is the angle of inclination between two selected meridians

measured at given latitude.

Convergency = D'Long x Sin Lat or

D' Long X Sin Mean Lat

Assume 1° of D long
1. At equator:
Convergency = 1° x Sin 0°
= 0°

2. At 45°N/S:

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 Convergency = 1° x Sin 45°
= 0.7°
3. At Poles:
Convergency = 1° x Sin 90°
= 1°

Form above we can determine that convergence between meridian

increases with latitude.

CONVERGENCE ANGLE
It is the angular difference between Great circle and Rhumb line at any
given point.

Convergence Angle = ½ of Convergency

Convergency and Great Circle Track:

Since the track direction is defined by the reference to the meridian, A
GC track changes by exact amount of convergency.

Note: from previous chapter, we know that GC track between the place
of departure and place of arrival is different. This difference is the
convergency between the departure and arrival airfield

HEMISPHERE TRACK TRACK

EASTERLY WESTERLY
NORTHERN I D
SOUTHERN D I

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FIGURE DRAWING FOR CONVERGENCY PROBLEMS

1. NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

37
Questions
1. An aircraft departs form position A 160°00N 120º00 ' w) on route
to Position B (60°00N 140°30 ' W).what is the GC track on departure
from A
a) 261°
b) 279°
c) 281°

2. An approximate equation for calculation & conversion angle is

a) CA = 0. 5 x d ' long x sin Lat
b) CA = (dLong - dlat) x0. 5
c) CA = d long x Sin LAT x sin Long

3. GC from P - Q measured at P = 095°in SH. CA P - Q = 70°, what is the

RL track P - Q?
a) 109°
b) 081°
c) 088°

4. Given
A: 55°N000°E
B 54°N 010 ' E
the average true course of the a/c is 100°.The true course of Rhumb
Line at point A is
a) 0 096°
b) 104°
c) 100°

5. Waypoint 1 = 60°S 030' W

Waypoint 2 - 60°S 020’W

What will be the approximate latitude shown on the display Unit an

inertial navigation System (INS) at
longitude 025°W.

38
 a) 060°11 ' S
b) 060°06 ' S
C) 060°'00 S
6. The angle between the true great circle and true rhumb line track
joining the points:
A: 60°S 165°W
B: 60°S 177°E
At place of departure is:
a. 15.5°
b. 9°
c. 7.8°

7. Great circle bearing of B 70° 060°E from A 70°030°S is approximately:

a. 090°T
b. 315°T
c. 135°T

8. The GC Track X-Y measured at X is 319° and Y is 325°. Consider the

following statement:
a. Southern hemisphere, RL track is 331°
b. Northern Hemisphere, RL track is 322°
c. Southern hemisphere, RL track is 322°

9. The initial GC track from A 27°30S 017°45E to B 27°30S 029°15E is:

a. 087.35°
b. 092.65°
c. 091.61°

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 10.A GC track joins position A 59°141W and B 61°148°W. what is the
difference between GC track at A and B
a. Increase by 6°
b. Increase by 3°
c. Decrease by 6°

ANSWERS:
1. B
2. A
3. C
4. C
5. B
6. C
7. C
8. C
9. B
10.A

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 CHAPTER 6-DIRECTION

COURSE – it is the intended Track, between two places

HEADING: Direction in which fore and Aft axis of aircraft is pointing

TRACK - Flight path that aircraft has traced ones ground. It is also
known as TMG (Track Made Good)

TRUE DIRECTION: It is a reference to the direction of Geographic North Pole.

MAGNETIC DIRECTION: It is a ref. direction of Magnetic North pole

Earth's magnetic field acts as if there are two magnetic poles. These poles are
not co - located with Geographic poles, they move annually NGP & MNP are
separated by 900 nm and period of movement is 960 year cycle
Magnetic poles are not antipodal (unlike GP).

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Line of forces comes out of North (Red) pole and Goes into the South (Blue)
Pole

When a magnet is suspended, it indicates the direction of magnetic poles.

Note: Blue pole of Earth’s’ magnetic field lies Somewhere near North Canada

VARIATION
It is the angular difference The North and Magnetic North. It is measured
between 0º to 180º, East or West

VARIATION WEST = MAGNETIC BEST

VARIATION EAST = MAGNETIC LEAST

ISOGONAL: on all aeronautical charts, places have Equal variations are marked
by ISOGONAL lines. (Dashed blue line)

AGONIC: ZERO variation line

42
DEVIATION

Due to the inherent magnetism of aircraft, a compass cannot align itself to

magnetic north.
Deviation is angle between a Magnetic North and Compass North
measured East or West between 0°to 180°East or West

DEVIATION WEST - COMPASS BEST

DEVIATION EAST = COMPASS LEAST

43
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

44
ANSWERS

45
1. An isogonal is:
a. A line of equal wind speed
b. A line of equal magnetic variation
c. A line of equal magnetic deviation

2. An Agonic line joins places of:

a. Zero magnetic variation
b. Equal magnetic deviation
c. Equal horizontal force H

3. Deviation is:
a. An error to be added to compass heading to obtain magnetic
heading
b. An error to be added to magnetic heading
c. A correction to be added to compass heading to obtain magnetic
heading.

4. At a specific location, the value of magnetic variation:

a. Depends on true heading
b. Depends on magnetic heading
c. Varies slowly over time

5. when a magnetized compass needle is freely suspended in the earth’s

magnetic field, and affected by extraneous magnetic influence, it will
align itself with:
a. True North
b. Compass North
c. Magnetic North

46
 6. Which of the following statement is correct?
a. The magnetic pole is in Northern Canada
b. The indication depends on whether the Magnetic equator is North
or South of geographic equator
c. The maximum value of variation is to be found on the agonic line

Answers.
1. B
2. A
3. C
4. C
5. B
6. A

47
 CHAPTER 7 – FLIGHT COMPUTER PROBLEMS

Speed is rate of change of position or distance covered per unit time. There are
three main linear units.
1. KNOTS – Nautical miles per hour
2. MILES – Statute miles per hour
3. KILLOMETERS per hour

DISTANCE
SPEED =
TIME

AIRSPEED: Speed of aircraft through the air.

GROUNDSPEED: speed of the aircraft relative to the ground( to be used for all
ETA calculations)
RELATIVE SPEED: Speed of the aircraft to each other

AIRSPEED
1. Airspeed Indicator Reading (ASIR)
It is the measured by the Pitot Static system connected to
airspeed indicator without any correction.
2. Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
ASIR corrected for instrument error. Aircraft flown on IAS.

3. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) or Rectified Airspeed (RAS)

It is the IAS corrected for Position error

4. Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)

48
 It is the CAS corrected for compressibility error
5. True Airspeed (TAS)
It is the EAS corrected for density error i.e pressure altitude and
temperature)

Calculation of approximate TAS

2𝑋𝐶𝐴𝑆 𝑃𝐴𝐿𝑇
𝑇𝐴𝑆 = 𝐶𝐴𝑆 + ( )𝑋
100 1000

EXAMPLE: An aircraft is flying at 10000 feet CAS 150 kts, calculate approximate
TAS.
Answer = 180 kts.

49
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Also known as the ICAO Standard Atmosphere, ISA is a standard against which
to compare the actual atmosphere at any point and time.

The ISA is based the following values of pressure, density, and temperature at
mean sea level each of which decreases with increase in height:

 Pressure of 1013.2 millibar - Pressure is taken to fall at about 1 millibar

per 30 feet in the lower atmosphere (up to about 5,000 feet).
 Temperature of +15 °C - Temperature falls at a rate of 2 °C per 1,000 feet
until the tropopause is reached at 36,000 feet above which the
temperature is assumed to be constant at -56.5 °C. (The precise numbers
are 1.98 °C, -56.5 °C and 36,090 feet)
 Density of 1,225 gm/m3.

CALCULATION OF ISA TEMPERATURE

𝑷𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺𝑼𝑹𝑬 𝑨𝑳𝑻𝑰𝑻𝑼𝑫𝑬
𝐼𝑺𝑨 𝑻𝑬𝑴𝑷 = + 𝟏𝟓
𝟓𝟎𝟎

CALCULATION OF DEVIATION FROM ISA

ISA DEVIATION = OAT - ISA

50
MACH NUMBER
The ratio between the the true air speed (TAS) and the local speed of sound
(LSS). This ratio, which equals one when the TAS is equal to the LSS, is known
as the Mach Number (M) and is very important in aircraft operating at high
speed.

𝑻𝑨𝑺
𝑴𝑨𝑪𝑯 𝑵𝑶 =
𝑳𝑺𝑺

LSS is calculated using formula:

𝑳𝑺𝑺 = 𝟑𝟗√𝑻(𝒌𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏)

LSS under ISA condition at MSL is: 661 kts

LSS under ISA condition at 36000 feet is 574 kts.

51
TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES
Velocity is combination of speed and direction. Speed is a scalar quantity
whereas velocity is a vector quantity. It has direction as well as magnitude.
1. AIR VECTOR: it comprises of HDG and TAS
2. WIND VECTOR: it comprises of wind DIR and SPEED
3. GROUND VECTOR: It comprises of TRACK and GROUNDSPEED

Form the above six components, if we know four components, we can

determine other two by use of flight computer.

DRIFT ANGLE
It is the angle between HDG and TRACK.
In nil wind conditions, COURSE(required track), TRACK and HDG are same. In
order to follow a course, aircraft will fly that HDG that will make good same
track.
However seldom are those days when we have nil wind conditions therefore
aircraft track will be affected by the wind direction and speed. Which means
that aircraft will be blown away by the wind and will not be following the
required track.

HDG + DRIFT (STARBOARD/RIGHT) = TRACK

HDG – DRIFT (PORT/LEFT) = TRACK

if you are required to follow a track then you must compensate or counteract
the drift experienced.
By transposing the above equation we can find the heading to counteract the
drift so that TMG is equal to REQUIRED TRACK
HDG = TRACK – DRIFT(STARBOARD/RIGHT)
HDG = TRACK + DRIFT (PORT/LEFT)
52
Practice questions
1. 730 FPM equals to:
a. 5.2 m/sec
b. 1.6 m/sec
c. 3.7 m/sec

2. An aircraft has groundspeed of 510 kts and TAS of 440 kts. If the
distance A to B is 43 nm, time in minutes will be:
a. 5
b. 4
c. 6

3. True track is 048° TAS is 210 kts wind 350°/30. Find GS and drift angle
a. 225 kt 7L
b. 300 kts 3.5R
c. 192 kts 7R

4. An aircraft travels 100 SM in 20 minutes, how long does it takes to travel

215 nm
a. 50 min
b. 90 min
c. 80 min

5. An aircraft travels 2.4 SM in 47 seconds. What is the groundspeed:

a. 131 kts
b. 209 kts
c. 160 kts

6. Convert 70 m/sec into kts

a. 36 kts
b. 136 kts

53
 c. 146 kts

7. Mag HDG 060, Variation 8W, drift 4R, what is the true track?
a. 072
b. 056
c. 048

8. True Track 192°, variation 7°E, drift 5°L. what is the magnetic hdg
required to maintain the given track?
a. 204°
b. 194°
c. 190°

9. Course 040°T, TAS 120 Kts, wind speed 30 kts. Maximum drift angle will
be obtained for a wind direction of:
a. 145°
b. 130°
c. 120°

10. IAS 120, FLIGHT LEVEL 080, OAT 20°C WHAT IS THE TAS?
a. 132
b. 120
c. 141

11.Required course 045°M, variation 15°E, W/V is 190°/30 Kts, CAS is 120
Kts FL 55 in standard atmosphere. What are the HDG(M) and GS
a. 055° 147 Kts
b. 036° 151 Kts
c. 056° 137 Kts

54
12.TAS 132 KTS, HDG(T) 257°, W/V 095°T/35KTS. Calculate the drift angle
and GS
a. 4°R 165 KTS
b. 2°R 166 KTS
c. 3°L 166 KTS

13.TRUE COURSE 300°, DRIFT 8R, VARN 10°W, DEV -4°, CALCULATE
COMPASS HDG
a. 294°
b. 322°
c. 306°

14.TRUE COURSE 250°, DISTANCE 315 NM, TAS 450 KTS, W/V 200/60 ETD
from A is at 0650 UTC. What is the ETA at B
a. 0730 UTC
b. 0736 UTC
c. 0810 UTC

15.True track 070°, variation 30°W, deviation +1°, Drift 10R, calculate the
compass HDG
a. 100°
b. 091°
c. 089°

16.True track 180° drift 8°R, COMPASS HDG 195°, DEVIATION -2°
CALCUALTE VARIATION
a. 21°W
b. 5°W
c. 9°W

55
17. Course required 085°T, forecast W/V 030/100, TAS 470 Kts, Distance
265 nm. What are the true hdg and flight time
a. 075° 39 min
b. 096° 29 min
c. 095° 31 min

18. Given: FL 120, OAT ISA STD, CAS 200 KTS, TRACK 222°M, VARN
15°W.Time to fly 105 nm is 21 min. what is the W/V
a. 040°/105
b. 055°/105
c. 050°/70

19.IAS 120 KTS, FL 80, OAT 20°C , Calculate TAS:

a. 120 kts
b. 102 kts
c. 141 kts

20.Mach No 0.80, GS 490 kts, oat -50°C FL 330, VAR 20°W HDG 140M, Drift
11R, what is the true wind direction and speed:
a. 025°/47 kts
b. 200°/95 kts
c. 020°/95 kts

21.HDG M 255°, VAR 40W, GS 375 KTS, W/V 235T/120 KTS, What is the drift
angle?
a. 9°L
b. 16°R
c. 7°L

56
22.MAG TRACK 210°, MAG HDG 215°, VAR 15°E, TAS 360 KTS. Aircraft flies
64 nm in 12 min. what is the true W/V
a. 195/50
b. 265/50
c. 300/30

23. Required course 045°M, VARN 15E, W/V 190°T/30, CAS 120 KTS at FL 55
in standard atmosphere. What is the HDG M and GS
a. 055° 147 kts
b. 036° 151 kts
c. 052° 154 kts

24.TAS 125 KTS, HDG T 355°, W/V 320T/30. What are the true track and
ground speed:
a. 345° 100 kts
b. 002° 98 kts
c. 005° 102 kts

25.TAS 130, TRACK T 003°, W/V 190/40, What are the HDG T and GS
a. 359° 166kts
b. 002° 173 kts
c. 001° 170 kts

26.TAS 235, HDG T 076°, W/V 040/40. What are the drift angle and GS
a. 5R 207
b. 7R 204
c. 5L 255

27.TAS 270 KTS, HDG T 270°, ACTUAL WIND 205T/30. What are the drift
angle and ground speed:
a. 8R 259 KTS
b. 8L 256 KTS
c. 6R 259 KTS

57
28.HDG T 133°, TAS 225 KTS, TRACK T 144°, GS 206 KTS. What is the W/V
a. 070/45
b. 070/40
c. 075/45

29.How long will it take to travel 284 nm at speed of 526 KPH

a. 1.6h
b. 1h
c. 45 min

30.If true track from A to B is 090°, TAS is 460 kts, W/V 360/100, VARN 10°E,
Dev is -2°. Calculate the compass hdg and ground speed:
a. 078°/250 kts
b. 068° and 460 kts
c. 069° and 448 kts

58
Answers:
1. C
2. A
3. C
4. A
5. C
6. B
7. B
8. C
9. C
10.C
11.A
12.A
13.C
14.B
15.C
16.A
17.A
18.C
19.C
20.C
21.C
22.B
23.A
24.C
25.C
26.B
27.C
28.C
29.C
30.C

59
CHAPTER 8 – SCALE

Scale is defined as the ratio of the length on a chart to the length it represents
on the Earth’s surface.
Scale can be defined in three ways.
1. Statement in words : 1 inch equal to 10 nm

2. Graduated Scale line :

Such lines are normally shown on the bottom of the chart.

3. Representative Factor:
It is the statement in words expressed into mathematical equation.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 =
𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Chart length is always expressed as 1 and earth distance is converted

into similar unit so it becomes a dimensionless quantity.
This is the most common method of expressing the scale of chart.

60
Large Scale Chart: such chart will cover smaller area but greater details. RF of a
such chart may be e.g 1:5000

Small Scale Chart: such chart will cover larger area with lesser details. RF of
such chart may e.g 1:5000000

Scale Problems:
Example : a chart has scale of 1: 1 000 000. How many nautical miles does 10
inches on the chart represent?
Solution:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝐹 =
𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
𝑅𝐹 =
1000000 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ

So we need to convert 1 000 000 inch into nautical miles and multiply by 10 to
get to the answer.

1000 000 = 13.70 nm (use the conversion table given in “distance” chapter)
Therefore 10 inch represents 137.06 nm

61
Practice Questions:
1. The chart scale is given as 1 cm = 1 km. What Is the scale of the
chart?

2. Where the chart scale is 1: 250 000, what is the distance in

kilometres represented by 10 cm?

3. Where the chart scale is 1: 400 000, how many inches represent
100 nm?

4. The chart length of 4 inches represents 150 nm. What is the scale?

5. The chart scale is 1: 1 750 000. How many kilometres does a chart
length of 6 inches represent?

6. The scale is 4. 75 cm to the kilometre. What is the distance in

centimetres that would represent the distance flown by an aircraft in
30 seconds at a groundspeed of 300 knots?

7. The chart scale is 1: 3 600 000. How many kilometres does a chart
length of 5 inches represent?

8. An Earth distance of 220 km is represented by a line measuring 2. 9

inches. What is the scale of the chart?

9. An aircraft flying at a constant groundspeed obtains two fixes 40

minutes apart. The distance between the fixes is 28 cm on a chart
with a scale of 1: 2 000 000. What is the groundspeed in knots?

10. The chart scale is 1: 4 000 000. How many statute miles does a line
of 41. 7 cm represent?

62
Answers:
1. 1: 1 00 000
2. 25 KM
3. 18.24 inch
4. 1: 2 736 000
5. 266.7 KM
6. 21.99 cm
7. 456.9 KM
8. 1: 2 987 000
9. 453 kt
10. 1036

63
 Chapter 9- Maps and Charts
 INTRODUCTION
A map or chart is a representation of a part of the Earth’s surface. Certain
factors have to be taken into account when constructing a map or chart.
 A map is normally a representation of an area of land, giving details that are
not required by the aviator, such as a street map or road atlas.
A chart usually represents an area in less detail and has features which are
identifiable from the air. In the following chapters, the text refers only to
charts. Aviators are interested in:

1. What the chart is to be used for

2. What scale is required?

To represent the spherical Earth on a flat sheet is difficult. It is important to

understand how different areas are displayed. A map projection is the method
the cartographer uses to display a certain portion of the Earth ' s surface.

PROPERTIES OF THE IDEAL CHART

The ideal chart would have the following properties:
1. Constant scale over the whole chart
2. Areas of the Earth correctly represented (Conformal - see definition later)
3. Great circles should be straight lines
4. Rhumb lines should be straight lines
5. Position should be easy to plot
6. Charts of adjacent areas should fit exactly
7. Each cardinal direction should point in the same direction on all parts of the
chart
8. Areas should be represented by their true shape

The ideal chart is an impossibility. For navigation it is important that:

1. Bearing and distance are correctly represented
2. Both bearing and distance are easily measured
3. The course that is flown is a straight line
4. Plotting of bearings is simple

64
To obtain these properties, other properties must be sacrificed.
On any chart, certain properties cannot be achieved over the whole chart:
1. Scale is never constant and correct over large areas
2. The shape of a large area can never be fully correct.

SHAPE OF THE EARTH

The Earth ' s surface is too irregular to be represented simply. Approximations
have to be made by using less complicated shapes.
VERTICAL DATUM
The vertical datum, or zero surface, to which elevation is measured, is normally
taken as mean sea level. When measuring elevation, three terms are used:
Terrain, Ellipsoid, Geoid

TOPOGRAPHIC SURFACE/ TERRAIN

This describes the actual surface of the Earth, following the ocean floor,
mountains, and other features of the terrain.

ELLIPSOID
This is a regular geometric representation of the shape of the Earth. This is also
referred to as the spheroid, an abbreviation of the term oblate spheroid.

GEOID
An equipotential surface of the Earth ' s gravity field. It closely approximates
mean sea level and is irregular Any zero surface can be used as the datum to
measure height.

CHART CONSTRUCTION
Before the chart can be constructed, three processes must be completed:
1. The Earth needs to be reduced in size to the required scale. This is known as
the reduced Earth.
2. A graticule needs to be constructed to represent latitude and longitude.
3. The land area is then drawn on the chart.

65
 ORTHOMORPHISM
Orthomorphism is a Greek word meaning correct shape. Only on small areas of
charts is this possible. The term is rarely used in context with maps and charts
today.

CONFORMALITY
The word conformal is a more modern term used to describe the property of
orthomorphism. It is associated with many of the charts described in the next
few chapters.

Where charts are concerned, the terms orthomorphism and conformality

mean that bearings are correctly represented.

For a chart to be conformal and to have bearings correctly represented:

1. Meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude must cut at right angles.

2. The scale must be correct in all directions and if it changes then it should
change at same rate

Perspective " and " Non - perspective " Charts

Charts produced directly from a projection are called perspective or geometric
projections. Charts produced by mathematical methods are called non –
perspective charts. Most of the charts we use are in this latter, non -
perspective category but they can be thought of as perspective projections
which have been modified mathematically.

The " Reduced Earth "

The term " Reduced Earth " (RE), means the scale model of the Earth on which
the projection of the chart is based. To make a 1: 1 000 000 chart, a one
millionth scale model of the Earth will be used.

66
PROJECTION :
Method of reproducing reduced earth on a flat piece of paper.
Types
1. CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION

2. CONICAL PROJECTION

67
3. AZIMUTHAL PROJECTION

68
MERCATOR CHART

It is a cylindrical projection where the flat sheet of paper is wrapped

around the reduced earth and a light source placed at the centre of the
globe.

69
 PROPERTIES OF MERCATOR CHART

Type of projection Cylindrical

Orthomorphic Yes but non perspective
Scale Correct at eqator
Elsewhere increases with SECANT OF
LATITUDE
Within 1% up to 8° N/S of equator
Graticule Meridians are straight lines, equally
spaced
Parallels are staright lins, unequally
spaced. Distance between them
increases from equator to poles
Chart convergence Zero throughout the chart.
Equal to earth convergency at
equator
Elsewhere it is less than earth
Rhumb Line Straight line

Great Circle Equator and meridians are straight

lines.
All other GC tracks curve concave to
equator or convex to poles.

LIMITATION
Mercator chart has a limitation of 70°N/S. after this latitude the value of
Secant increases in large proportion reaching to infinite at poles. Chart
expands very rapidly.

Type equation here.

70
Formula for calculation of Scale:

A typical exam question will involve calculation of scale at any given latitude
with RF mentioned for a specified latitude. We know that scale of a Mercator
chart expands with secant of latitude, however the use of below mentioned
formula is simpler to use.

𝑫𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒂
=
𝑫𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒃
Da = Denominator of Initial Lat
Db = Denominator of Final Lat
Cos a = initial Lat
Cos b = Final Lat

71
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A direct Mercator graticule is based upon a projection that is:

a. Concentric
b. Cylindrical
c. Conical

2. In producing chart projections, the following projection surface may be

used:
a. Cylinder, sphere, plane
b. Plane, cylinder, cone
c. Cone, plane sphere

3. On a direct Mercator chart, a great circle will be represented by

a. Curve concave to equator
b. Complex curve
c. Curve convex to the equator

4. On a direct Mercator chart, meridians are:

a. Parallel, unequally spaced, vertical spaced lines
b. Inclined, equally spaced straight lines that meet at the nearer
pole.
c. Parallel, equally spaced, vertical straight lines.

5. On a direct Mercator chart, Rhumb lines are:

a. Straight lines
b. Curve concave to equator
c. Curvr concave to poles

6. On a Mercator chart, the scale is:

a. Constant throughout the chart
b. Varies as sine of latitude
c. Varies as 1/cosine of latitude

72
 7. Parallels of latitude on a Mercator chart:
a. Parallel, straight lines, unequally spaced
b. Parallel straight lines, equally spaced
c. Arcs of concentric circles, unequally apaced

8. At 60°S on a Mercator chart, chart convergence is:

a. Less than erath convergency
b. Equal to earth convergency
c. Greater than earth convergency

ANSWERS

1. B
2. B
3. A
4. C
5. A
6. C
7. A
8. A

73
SCALE PROBLEMS

1. A chart has sacle of 1: 1 000 000. From A to B on chart measures 1.5

inch. What is the distance of A to B in NM
a. 20.6
b. 54.2
c. 38.1

2. A Mercator chart has scale at equator 1: 3 704 000. What is the scale at
Latitude 60°S
a. 1:85200
b. 1: 852000
c. 1: 7408000

3. A straight line on chart 4.89 cm represents 185 nm. The scale of this
chart is approximately:
a. 1: 7 000 000
b. 1: 350 000
c. 1: 5 000 000

4. Approximately how many nautical miles corresponds to 12 cm on a map

with the scale of 1: 2 000 000
a. 43
b. 150
c. 130

5. On a Mercator chart the distance between A and B, located on a same

parallel of latitude is 6 cm. scale at this point is 1: 9260 000. What is the
latitude of A and B
a. 45N/S
b. 60N/S
c. 30N/S

74
6. At 47°N, chart distance between meridians 10° apart is 5 inched. Sace of
the chart at 47°N ia
a. 1: 8 000 000
b. 1: 250 000
c. 1: 6 000 000

7. At 60°N, the scale of a Mercator chart is 1: 3 000 000. What is the scale
at equator
a. 1: 3 000 000
b. 1: 150 000
c. 1: 6 000 000

8. At latitude 60°N, the scale of a Mercator projection is 1: 5 000 000.

Length of this chart between “C” 60°N 008°E and D 60°N 008°W is:
a. 19.2 cm
b. 17.8 cm
c. 35.6 cm

9. Mercator chart at latitude 15°S, certain length represents distance of

120 nm on Earth. The same length on chart will represent an Earth
distance of:
a. 124.2 nm
b. 122.3 nm
c. 117.7 nm

10.On a direct Mercator chart, between 180°W TO 180°E at parallel of

latitude 53°N is 133 cm long. What is the scale of chart at 33°S
a. 1: 27 000 000
b. 1: 18 000 000
c. 1: 3 000 000

11. The total length of 53°N latitude on a Mercator chart is 133 cm. what is
the approximate scale at 30°S
a. 1: 25 000 000
b. 1: 21 000 000
c. 1: 18 000 000

75
 12.What is the chart distance between longitude 179°E and 175°W on a
direct Mercator chart with a scale of 1: 5 000 000 at the equator is:
a. 133 mm
b. 72 mm
c. 167 mm

ANSWERS

1. A
2. B
3. A
4. C
5. B
6. C
7. C
8. B
9. B
10.A
11.A
12.A

76
LAMBERT’S CONFORMAL CONICAL PROJECTON

Due to limitations of Mercator chart pertaining to Great Circle appearing

as curved line and rapid expansion of scale, a chart was needed
overcome those limitations.

In simple conical projection, where a cone was placed over reduced

earth and was made tangential at a parallel of latitude.

Standard Parallel is the latitude at which the cone is made tangential.

Even in simple conical projection , scale expands rapidly away from the
standard parallel.

Lambert modified this projection in the following manner

77
By making cone to be tangential at two points, expansion of scale even
out and gave us nearly constant scale chart.

Now this chart has two standard parallels and line mid-way between
standard parallels are called as parallel of origin.

CONVERGENCE = D LONG X SIN OF PARALLEL OF ORIGIN

CONSTANT OF CONE = SIN OF PARALLEL OF ORIGIN

78
 PROPERTIES OF LAMBERT’S CHART

Type of projection Conical

Orthomorphic Yes but non perspective

Scale Correct at the standard parallels

Contract within the standard
parallels and expand outside it.
It is least at Parallel of origin
Graticule Meridians are straight line, slightly
diverging.
Parallels are arcs of concentric circle
centred at the pole of projection.
Pole is always off the chart.
Chart convergence It is constant across the chart.
Chart Convergency = D’Long X
Parallel of Origin
Rhumb Line Meridians are straight lines. All other
RL concave to the pole of projection
Great Circle Meridians are straight lines. At
parallel of origin – near straight line
and at any other latitude they are
concave to the parallel of origin

79
PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. A lambert’s conformal chart with two standard parallels:

a. Scale is only correct at the standard parallels
b. Scale is only correct at parallel of origin
c. Shows all great circle as straight ines

2. A straight line on a lambert chart for normal flight planning purposes:

a. Is a loxodromic line
b. Is approximately a great circle
c. Can only be a parallel of latitude
3. On a lambert chart with standard parallels at 37°N and 65°N, w.r.t the
straight line drawn on chart between A(49°N030°W) and B(48°N040°W)
the:
a. Gc and RL to the south
b. GC and RL to north
c. GC to north and RL to south

4. On a lambert chart, earth convergency is most accurately represented at

the:
a. Parallel of origin
b. Standard parallel
c. Equator

5. On a lambert conformal conical chart, Great circle that are not meridians
are:
a. Curves concave to parallel of origin
b. Curves concave to pole of projection
c. Straight lines within standard parallels

6. On a Lamberts chart, scale is least at:

a. Standard parallels
b. Parallel of origin
c. Poles

80
 7. The angular difference between arrival and departure track, on a
lamberts chart is equal to:
a. D’long
b. Conversion angle
c. Map convergence

8. The scale on a lamberts chart

a. Varies as function of latitude and longitude
b. Constant along a meridian
c. Constant along a parallel of latitude

9. Where on a lambert chart, will a GC will be represented as a perfectly

straight lie:
a. Meridians
b. All Great circles
c. Equator

ANSWERS

1. A
2. B
3. A
4. A
5. A
6. B
7. B
8. C
9. A

81
NUMERICALS

1. A lambert conical chart has a constant of cone of 0.75. The initial course
of a straight track drawn on this chart form A(40°N050°W) to B is 043°T
at A; course at B is 055°T. what is the longitude of B
a. 36°W
b. 34°W
c. 38°W

2. Constant of cone 0.80, a straight line drawn on te chart from

A(53°N004°W) to B is 080° at A, course at B is 092°T, what is the
longitude of B
a. 019°E
b. 011°E
c. 009°E

3. On a lambert chart, the distance between meridians 5° apart along

latitude 37°N is 9 cm. the scale of the chart at parallel is approximately:
a. 1:6 000 000
b. 1: 5 000 000
c. 1:2 000 000

4. The constant of cone of a Lambert chart is 0.3955.

At what longitude on the chart is earth convergency correctly
represented?
a. 21°35’
b. 66°42’
c. 23°18’

5. Constant of cone, on a lambert’s chart where the convergence between

longitudes 010°W and 030°W at 30°S is:
a. 0.40
b. 0.64
c. 0.75

82
 6. Standard parallels of Lamberts chart are 07°40’N and 38°20’N. constant
of cone for this chart is:
a. 0.39
b. 0.60
c. 0.42

7. A course of 120°T is drawn between X(61°30N) and Y(58°30’N) on a

Lambert chart with the scale of 1: 1 000 000 at 60°N. chart distance
between X and Y is
a. 66.7 cm
b. 33.4 cm
c. 36.0 cm

ANSWERS
1. B
2. B
3. B
4. C
5. C
6. A
7. A

83
POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC CHART

Previous of the two charts were unable to project the polar areas. In polar
stereographic chart, when the flat sheet of paper is made tangential with one
of the poles, it becomes possible to create charts for polar regions.

84
PROPERTIES OF PLAR STEREOGRAPHIC

Type of projection Plane or Azimuthal

Orthomorphic Yes and perspective (only chart)
Scale Correct at poles, elsewhere expands
as SEC²(1/2Co-lat)
Within 1%(90-78°)
Within 3%(78-70°)

Graticule Meridians are represented as straight

lines radiating from poles
Parallels are concentric circles drawn
from the poles
Chart convergence Correct at poles, constant across the
chart.
Convergence = D’Long
Convergebnce factor n=1
Rhumb Line Curves concave to pole of projection
Great Circle Curves concave to pole of projrction
but with less curvature than Rhumb
line.
Can be taken as straight line greater
than 70°

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. The chart that is generally used for navigation in polar areas are based
upon:
a. Stereographical projection
b. Lamberts projection
c. Direct Mercator projection

85
2. Polar stereographcal projection is:
a. Cyliderical projection
b. Conical projection
c. Conical projection

3. What is the value of convergence on a polar stereographical chart?

a. 0.866
b. 0.000
c. 1.000

4. Which one of the following describes the appearance of Rhumb line,

except meridians, on a polar stereographic chart
a. Curves convex to poles
b. Curves concave to poles
c. Ellipses around the pole

5. Which one of the following describes the appearance of Great circle,

except meridians, on a polar stereographic chart
a. Any straight line is GC
b. The higher the latitude, the closer they approximate to a straight
line
c. They are convex to pole

6. A straight line drawn on North polar stereographical chart joining point

A (7000N 06000W) to point B(7000N0600E). what is the initial track
direction of the line at a (going eastwards)
a. 090T
b. 330T
c. 030T

7. On a polar stereographic chart showing south pole, a straight line joins

position A(70°S065E) to position B(70°S025W). the true course on
departure from position A is approximately
a. 315°
b. 225°
c. 135°

86
 8. Two position plotted on a polar stereographic chart, A(080N00E/W) and
at B(070N102W) are joined by a straight line whose highest latitude
reached at 035W. at point B the true course is:
a. 023°
b. 247°
c. 203°

ANSWERS
1. A
2. C
3. C
4. B
5. B
6. C
7. b
8. c

87
TRANSVERSE MERCATOR CHART

This projection is cylindrical but it does not use equator as point of

tangency on the reduced earth.

On a direct Mercator, the scale was correct only at equator and was within
1% up to 8°N/S of equator (band of 1000 nm approx.)

On Transverse Mercator chart, point of tangency is a meridian and the

quoted scale is correct along the chooses/datum meridian and ot is within
1% within a band of 8° each side(1000 nm approx.)

This type of chart is suitable for projecting countries having large North
South extent because scale is constant in N-S direction.

88
 PROPERTIES OF TRANSVERSE MERCATOR

Type of projection Cylindrical

Orthomorphic Yes but non perspective
Scale Correct at the datum meridian.
Expands away as SECANT OF GC
DISTANCE from datum meridian
Graticule Datum meridian, equator and
meridians 90°to datum meridian are
staright lines.
Other meridians are complex curve
lines
Parallel of latitudes are ellipse except
the equator. Close to pole they are
nearly circular
Chart convergence Correct at equator and poles
Rhumb Line Complex curve except Datum
meridian, equator and meridians
90°to datum meridian are straight
lines
Great Circle Complex curve except Datum
meridian, equator and meridians
90°to datum meridian are straight
lines

89
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Convergency on transverse Mercator chart is correct at:

a. Equator and poles
b. Datum meridians and equator
c. Datum meridian only

2. On a transverse Mercator chart, a straight line is drawn representing

200 nm, which is perpendicular to, and which originates from the
central meridian, it is
a. Small circle
b. Rhumb line
c. Great circle

3. On a transverse Mercator chart, scale is assumed to be constant:

a. 300 nm at the poles
b. 300 nm at the central meridian
c. 300 nm of parallel of tangency

4. On a transverse Mercator chart, scale is exactly correct along:

a. Meridian of tangency
b. Datum meridian and meridian 90° to it
c. Prime meridian and equator

5. On a transverde Mercator chart, with the exception of the equator,

parallels of latitudes appear as
a. Straight lines
b. Ellipses
c. Parabola

6. The main use of transverse Mercator chart is:

a. Great circle route strip maps
b. Topographical maps of countries lying North/South
c. Topographical maps of courtiers lying East West

90
ANSWERS

1. A
2. C
3. B
4. A
5. B
6. B

91
OBLIQUE MERCATOR CHART

It is a skew projection that uses a great circle of tangency that is not a

meridian.
It is used for plotting GC tracks between two selected points.

Type of projection Cylindrical

Orthomorphic Yes but non perspective
Scale Correct at the great circle of
tangency and expands as SECANT OF
GC DISTANCE from GC of tangency
Within 500 nm either side of GC of
tangency, scale is assumed to be
constant
Graticule Meridians are concave to Datum GC
Meridians passing through the pole
of Dtum GC is a straight line
Parallels are complex curve line
cutting the meridians at 90°
Chart convergence Correct along GC of tangency, poles
and equator
Rhumb Line Complex curve
Great Circle Complex curve but close to GC of
tangency may be interpret as straight
line

92
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. An oblique Mercator projection is used specifically to produce:

a. Radio navigation charts in equatorial region
b. Charts of great circle route between two points
c. Topographical maps of large east west extent

2. The main use of an oblique Mercator would be:

a. Better topographical coverage of polar region
b. Route charts for selected GC routes
c. For countries with large change in latitude and small change in
longitude

3. On which of the following chart projections it is not possible to

represent north or south poles
a. Transverse Mercator
b. Oblique Mercator
c. Direct Mercator

ANSWERS

1. B
2. B
3. C

93
CHAPTER 10 – PILOT NAVIGATION TECHNIQUE

Chart analysis and chart reading

Pilots must be familiar with the properties of chart and be able to depict the
ground features from the chart symbols used to identify such features.

CHART SCALE
Chart scale is the ratio of chart distance to Earth distance. The amount of detail
which appears on a topographical chart depends upon the scale; the larger the
scale , the more detail, and vice versa.

RELIEF
Elevation of the ground over which the aircraft flies is of vital importance. It
can be a valuable feature in chart reading and a dangerous barrier to flight.
Ground elevation is indicated on charts in one or more of the following ways:
Contours
Contours are lines joining points of equal elevation. The intervals at which
contours are drawn depends on the scale of the chart. This interval is known as
the vertical interval and is noted on the chart. The horizontal distance between
successive contours is known as the horizontal equivalent. The vertical interval
on ICAO charts is normally in feet, but on some charts may be in metres. It is
therefore imperative that the units are checked.
Spot Heights
The highest point in a locality is marked by a dot with the elevation marked
alongside. The highest spot height on some charts is given in a box. Spot
heights are also given for the elevations of all airfields marked on the chart.
Layer Tinting
Contours are usually emphasised by colouring the area between adjacent
contours. The shades of colour chosen normally become deeper with increase
of height: on ICAO charts, the colours range from white through darker shades
of yellow to brown.
Hachuring
Hachures are short tapered lines drawn on the chart radiating from peaks and
high ground. A spot height usually appears. Hachures are used on
topographical charts for incompletely surveyed areas, and also on some

94
plotting charts on which physical detail is not provided.
Hill Shading
Hill shading is produced by assuming that a bright light is shining across the
chart sheet so that shadows are cast by the high ground. Difficulty is caused
when the shadow obliterates other detail. This method is not extensively used.
RELATIVE VALUES OF FEATURES
By knowing the amount of detail to be expected on charts of different scales
and by knowing the conventional signs by which the detail is indicated, the
chart reader is in a position to appreciate
the relative values of the features seen on the ground. The beginner is
sometimes confused by the amount of detail confronting the untrained eye.
Pilots must learn to distinguish the more significant features and to remain
undistracted by the irrelevant background. The following may
help to indicate the type of features which are of value to the chart reader.
Coastlines
Coastlines are the most valuable, day or night. While it may be difficult to
recognise a particular stretch of coast in an area merely by its appearance, a
satisfactory degree of certainty can often be obtained by taking a bearing of its
general direction. Study of any chart shows how difficult it is to find half a
dozen two - mile stretches of coast similar in shape and bearing on the whole
sheet

Water Features rivers,

As with coastlines, water features show up well by day and by night. Large
estuaries, canals, lakes, and reservoirs are the main water features, listed in
order of importance. When using them, take into account the season of the
year. Winter floods may cause considerable alteration in their shape, whilst in
some parts of the world, rivers dry up altogether during the dry season.
Mountain and Hills
As an aircraft ' s height above the ground increases, the countryside below
appears flatten out. Nevertheless, the contours of prominent mountains
frequently protrude above low - lying cloud and mist, and provide landmarks
when all other features are obscured. In the case of low - level chart reading,
contours assume great importance and even small hills are very helpful in
fixing position.
Towns and Villages
Populated areas are not usually of a distinctive enough shape to be valuable by
themselves, but when used in conjunction with other features, such as rivers,
railways and coastlines that lie through or adjacent to them, they are usually
95
easily identified. Large cities are useful in determining the general area of the
aircraft ' s position, but accurate pinpointing must be done on other associated
features.
Railways
The identification of a particular stretch of railway is often difficult in well –
developed countries with many railways, particularly when the area of
uncertainty is large. In the case of contact navigation, where the progress of
the aircraft is continually followed on the chart, railways are very useful for
position information. In countries with few railways,a railway line is a feature
of high value. Traffic along railways, by day or night, assists considerably by
making them more conspicuous.
Roads
As with railways, the value of roads depends on the extent to which the area
has been developed. The modern arterial road generally stands out well.
Woods
Woods make good landmarks, being clearly marked on charts, usually by green
areas representing their shape and size. In heavily wooded or forested country,
the shape of clearings becomes the most valuable feature. Exercise care when
using woods to fix position since tree felling may have changed their shape
since the area was surveyed.

PRINCIPLES OF CHART READING

Successful chart reading depends on four basic features:
Knowledge of direction
Knowledge of distance or time flown
Identification of features
Selection of landmarks

96
POSITION OF AIRCRAFT

It is of paramount importance that pilot is aware of the position of the aircraft

all the time.

Aircraft position can be determined by the following means:

1. Terrestrial: By use of ground features as discussed earlier
By ground based radio aids eg NDB, VOR, DME

2. Celestial: by GPS signal

3. On-board navigation systems: Inertial reference system(IRS) or Inertial

navigation system (INS)

Regardless of the method used, to obtain a position on surface of earth, we

need line of position (LOP) or Position Line (PL) or Position circle.

FIX: it is obtained by intersection of minimum two PL. A fix is a pinpoint

position of aircraft on earth’s surface.

DEAD REACKONING (DR) POSITION: a position which is obtained by allowing

for course and speed for a given interval of time. This is not a fix and its an
estimate of aircraft position.

ESTIMATED POSITION (EP): When DR position is allowed for wind direction

and velocity, position obtained is called as EP.

97
LINE OF POSITION/POSITION CIRCLE
A VOR or NDB BRG is a LOP, intersection of two such LOP can gives us a FIX
Similarly a range line from DME can give us a position circle and intersection of
two position circle can give us a FIX.

There are four ways we can obtain a fix.

1. Latitude and Longitude
2. Bearing X Range
3. Bearing X Bearing
4. Range X Range

1:60 RULE

“It states that at range of 60 units, an angle of 1° subtends an arc of 1 unit.”

98
It can be used in many applications in solving navigational calculations but
broadly it can be divided into two categories

1. Lateral Navigation
To find distance off track
To find track angle error
To find heading correction required to reach to station

2. Vertical Navigation
Calculation of height on ILS
Calculation of distance from touchdown
Calculate ROD on a glide slope

𝑑 𝑋 60
𝑋=
𝐷

Where
X = track angle error
Angle on a glide path
d = cross track distance
height on a glide path
D= Route distance/distance flown/distance to go
Distance from touch down

99
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The distance between A and B is 180 nm. An aircraft departs position
A and after having travelled 60 nm, its position is pinpointed to 4 nm
left of the intended track. Assuming no change in wind velocity, what
alteration of heading must be made in order to arrive at position B
a. 6°R
b. 8°R
c. 2°L

2. Distance A to B is 120 nm, after 30 nm aircraft is 3 nm to the left of

course. What alteration should be made in order to arrive at point B.
a. 6°R
b. 8°R
c. 4°L

3. True track from A to B is 167° and the distance is 140 nm. Variation is
12 W at A and 14W at B. when the 0 remaining distance to B is 35
nm, you find that your n position is 5 nm to the right of track, what
change of heading is required at this time to bring directly over B
a. 3 left
b. 6 left
c. 11 left

4. You are flying an instrument approach to an airfield and the required

glide slope angle is 3. 00°. What height should you be passing when
you are exactly 2 nautical miles from the touchdown point? (NOTE:
For this question, assume 1 NM = 6000 feet).
Ans. 600 feet

5. You are flying an instrument approach to an airfield and the required

glide slope angle is 2. 5º. You are correctly on the glide slope and you
are passing a height of 1000 feet QFE. What is your range from the
touchdown point? (Assume 1 NM =6000 feet).

Ans 4 nm

100
6. You are flying from 0 to R, which is a required track of 125° (T). You
find that your position is 40 NM from Rand 2 NM left of the required
track. What track must you fly to arrive overhead R?

Ans. 128

7. You are flying from 5 to T, which is a required track of 272° (T). You
find that your position is 50 NM from T and 5 NM right of the
required track. What track must you fly to arrive overhead T?
Ans 266

101
WIND COMPONENT

Wind has great impact on aircraft operations in all phases of flight.

Depending on the direction it is blowing from, it may lead to advantage
or disadvantage.

Wind direction and speed during take-off and landing can impose certain
limitations as well as handling difficulties.

We prefer to take-off and land in head wind conditions and if wind

direction is not directly opposite to take-off runway heading, we may
need to calculate the component for the headwind which will be
experienced during the take-off, same is the case with crosswind.

Aircrafts have limitations on crosswind during take-off and landing and

we as pilot need to know the amount of crosswind component
experienced.

Wind direction if always given “FROM”

Runway directions are always given in “MAGNETIC”

102
Headwind/tailwind component = W X COS∅

Crosswind component = W X SIN∅

Where:
W= wind speed
∅ = angle between the wind direction and the runway heading

Wind direction- TRUE or MAGNETIC ?

If by METAR, TAF or VOLMET = TRUE

If by ATC or ATIS = MAGNETIC

Always convert true wind to magnetic wind direction by the application

of variation before inserting the values into formula

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

103
1. For landing on runway 23(227°magnetic) surface W/V reported by
ATIS is 180/30 kt, VAR is 13°E. calculate the crosswind component
a. 15 kt
b. 22 kt
c. 26 kt

2. Runway direction is 083°M, surface W/V is 035/35 kt. What is the

effective headwind component?
a. 24 kt
b. 34 kt
c. 27 kt

3. Runway direction 210°M, W/V 230°M/30kt. What is the crosswind

component?
a. 13 kt
b. 10 kt
c. 16 kt

4. For take-off an aircraft requires a HWC of at least 10kts and has a CW

limitation of 35 kt. The angle between the wind direction and the
runway is 60°, calculate the minimum and maximum allowable wind
speeds
a. 20kt and 40kt
b. 15kt and 43kt
c. 18kt and 50kt

5. An airfield has two runways, 05/23 and 30/12. The surface wind is
given as 250°/30. The HWC on 23 and CWC on 30 will be:
a. 10kts HWC and 23kts CWC
b. 28kts HWC and 23kts CWC
c. 10kts HWC and 19kts CWC

104
 6. On a particular take off you can accept up to 10 knots of tailwind. The
runway QDM is 047, variation is 17E and ATIS gives you wind
direction as 210. What is the maximum wind strength you can
accept?
a. 18kts
b. 8 kts
c. 11 kts

7. An airfield has runways 18/36 and 07/25, all of equal length. The TAF
W/V is 310/25. Variation is 20°E. Which will be the best R/W for take-
off and landing?
a. 18
b. 36
c. 25

8. In the Question 1 situation, what will be the head and crosswind

components on this runway?
Head Cross
a. 24 17
b. 13 19
c. 19 16

9. An aircraft requires 10 knots headwind component for take-off. The

crosswind limit for the aircraft is 20 knots. The only runway available
is 25. The ATIS W/V is 290/10G40. What are the minimum and
maximum wind speeds for take-off?
Min Max
a. 17 31
b. 13 17
c. 13 31

Answers:
1. B
2. A
3. B
4. A
5. B
6. C
7. C
8. C
9. C

105
 CHAPTER 11 – TIME

Basis of time measurement is earth’s rotation about its own axis .

 One complete rotation defines a day
 Motion of earth in its own orbit around sun and time taken to complete
one orbit form a year

Keplers’s law of planetary motion

First law – orbit of each planet is an ellipse with sun at one of the Foci
Second law – radius vector sweeps out equal area in equal time
Third law- square of sidereal period of a planet is proportional to cube of its
mean distance from sun

Perihilion (perigee)- it is when sun is closest to the earth (91.4 million miles)
 Occurs on 4th jan
 Orbital speed is greatest

Aphelion (Apogee)- it is when earth is farthest from sun (94.6 million miles)
 Occurs on 4th july (approx)
 Orbital speed is slowest

106
 The seasons
The main cause of seasons is the inclination or tilt of the earth
It is inclined at an angle of 66.5 to orbital plane or 23.5 to normal to orbital plane

Introduction to nautical astronomy

1. Celestial sphere : a sphere of infinite radius encompassing the earth

2. Equinoctial : it is the projection of equator on to the celestial sphere
3. Declination: it is the projection of parallels of latitudes on to the celestial
sphere (declination circles are measured 0-90 degree n/s of equinoctial)
4. Hour angle : it is the celestial longitude as we know earth rotates 360
Degree in 24 hours ,in easterly direction (hour angle is measured
westwards ).

It is defined as arc of equinoctial intercepted between meridian of datum &

meridian of celestial body

GHA : Greenwich hour angle when the datum meridian is meridian

passing through greenwich measured angle is called as GHA

107
For example: GHA 050
LONG 50 W
GHA 320 degree LONG 040 E

If we know declination and GHA of a celestial body, we can determine its

position on the celestial sphere

ECLIPTIC: it is the path of the Earth around the Sun, for practical purpose, we
assume that earth is stationary and sun is moving around the earth on ecliptic

OBLIQUITY OF ECLIPTIC
Plane of ecliptic and equinoctial are inclined to each other at an angle of 23.5

108
1. Sun over 23.5 south: 21st Dec
NH – winter solstice SH –summer solstice

2. Sun over 23.5 north: 21 June

NH- summer solstice SH –winter solstice

3. Sun crosses equator from south to north - 21st March

NH – Spring Equinox SH – autmn equinox

4. Sun crosses equator from north to south 21st Sep

NH- Autumn equinox SH – spring equinox

At a given time of year, angle of sun above or below equator defines the seasons,
Sun declination changes annually between 23.5 North to 23.5 south

109
NOTE-sun will never be vertically overhead any latitude more than 23.5
n/s

Length of daylight / night at a given latitude varies with declination of sun

Rate of change of daylight is greatest when rate of change of declination

is greatest

This occurs at the at equinoxes mar (21/sep21)

110
MESUREMENT OF DAYS
We use sun for measurement of day
DAY- interval that elapses between two successive transits of SUN across
the same meridian

APPARANT SOLAR DAY (ASD):- it is the interval that elapses between two
successful transit of actual sun across same meridian is known as ASD
Since earth motion in its orbit is not constant, it varies throughout the
year hence we cannot have a day of constant duration. ASD is not a
practical day f or civil users

Length varies from 23 hrs 44 min to 24 hrs 14 min (30mins)

MEAN SUN :
IN ORDER TO AVOID THE problem aforementioned, by the real or
apparent sun, an imaginary sun called as MEAN SUN is introduced
Mean sun moves along a uniform speed

MEAN SOLAR DAY

Time interval between two successful transit of the mean sun across the
same meridian is called MSD . it is of constant duration of 24 hrs

SIDERAL DAY

It is measured against a distant star and is of nearly constant length.

It is not related to period of lightness of darkness.

Duration is 23 hrs 56 min

CIVIL DAY
It relates to period of lightness and darkness .
It begins at midnight when mean sun is on the observers anti meridian.
Day commences as when the time is 0000 hrs and day completes at 2400
hrs.
MSD is adopted as civil day

111
EQUATION OF TIME
Maximum difference between mean time and apparent time is about 16
min & occurs in mid-November and 14 min in mid feb.

In between these maxima,the difference reduces

The difference is known as equation of time

NOV app sun 11 44 16 min

Mean sun 1200
FEB app sun 1214 14min
Mean sun 1200

Year

SIDEREAL YEAR
Time taken by earth to complete an orbit of the sun measured against a
distant star
Duration 365 days 6 hrs

TROPICAL YEAR

Apparent solar year duration 365 days 5 hrs 48.75 min

CALANDER YEAR
Taken as 365 days and kept in step with tropical year by adding 1 day
every 4th year (LEAP YEAR)

CONVERSION OF ARC ANGLE TO TIME

We know that sun takes 24 hours to cover 360 deg. Of longitude
360 deg – 24 hrs
15 deg – 1 hrs
1 deg – 4 min
So if we divide the longitude of a place by 15, we can find the conversion
of arc in time,

KNOWN AS LIT – longitude in time

112
LOCAL MEAN TIME

It is the time according to mean sun

 When mean sun crosses particular meridian,the LMT at all places
on that meridian is 1200 hrs (noon)
 When mean sun transits anti meridian of a point , LMT at that point
is 0000hrs

UTC-COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME

UTC is the LMT at Greenwich meridian .

It is connected to match GMT by regulating to INTERNATIONAL
ATOMIC TIME .

UTC IS A DATUM FOR WORLD TIME

113
ZONE TIME

Used by ships at sea .

World has been divided into 24 time zones

Each zone is of 15 deg width, 7.5 each side of central meridian

Eastern times are shown as (-) from Z

Western times are shown as (+) from Z
UTC = ZT + ZNo

114
STANDARD TIME:

It is chosen by the legal authority of a country.

Each country has its own standard time and it is listed in air alamanc as
correction to UTC.
This time is selected at a particular meridian which is passing through the
country.

INDIAN STANDARD TIME (IST)

It is 5 hrs 30 min ahead og UTC and chosen meridian in 084°30”E
Legal authority of India is Ministry Of Science

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INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE (IDL)

Meridian of 180° or line drawn in its vicinity is called as International date Line.
While crossing IDL
Travelling west – date increased by one day
A day is lost
LMT is less
Travelling East – date is decreased by one day
A day is gained
LMT is more

SUNRISE and SUNSET:

Sunrise and Sunset timings are listed in air almanac in LMT against a latitude and
throughout the latitude it occurs at same LMT.

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TWILIGHT
It is the period of brightness before sunrise and after sunset.

Sensible horizon:
It is the tangent drawn from the observer on the earth’s surface, ignoring the
terrain. Such horizon is sensed by instrument.

Visible horizon:
It is below sensible horizon by about 34’. This occurs due to atmospheric
refraction and which causes sunrise to occur early and sunset to occur late.

Civil Twilight
It occurs when Sun’s centre is between 0° and 6° below sensible horizon.
Day time visual approach is possible during this period.

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Nautical Twilight
It occurs when Sun’s centre is between 6° and 12° below sensible horizon.
General outlines are discernable and bright stars are visible.

Astronomical Twilight
It occurs when Sun’s centre is between 12° and 18° below sensible horizon.
It is considered to be complete darkness.

Twilight timings are mentioned in Air Almanac in LMT

Effect of Latitude on Twilight

Twilight duration increases with increase in latitude.
Minimum duration of twilight is 21 min at the equator

Effect of altitude on Twilight

Twilight duration reduces with increases in altitude due to reduce refraction. No
twilight is observed from space.
SPECIAL CASE
Phenomenon of mid night sun and perpetual night occurs at latitude 66½°N/S,
depending on the declination of sun.

If Sun is at 23½°N, latitude above 66½°N,will experience midnight Sun, wchich

means sun will not set and latitude 66½°S onward will experience perpetual
night, means sun will not rise.
Basically it is a relationship between Latitude and declination.
L +D = 90°

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If we are given with value of declination. We subtract it from 90 to derive the
latitude above which midnight sun or perpetual night will occur depending on
the declination of Sun.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. When does perihelion occur?

a. Early January
b. Mid march
c. Early july

2. When does aphelion occur?

a. Early January
b. Mid march
c. Early july

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3. When do equinoxes occur?
a. December and june
b. March and sep
c. Jan and july

4. When it is winter solstice in SH, the declination of Sun is:

a. 23½° N
b. 0°
c. 23½° S

5. What is the angle between the equinoctial and ecliptic

a. 66½°
b. 23½°
c. Varies between 23½°N to 23½°S

6. The length of daylight/night depends upon the declination of the sun.

when is the rate of change of length of daylight is greatest?
a. Februrary and November
b. January and july
c. At equinoxes

7. The maximum difference between mean time and apparent time occurs
a. 21 min
b. 16 min
c. 14 min

8. GHA of a celestial body is analogus/equivalent on earth to

a. Latitude
b. Longitude
c. UTC

9. GHA of star is 220°, which meridian is the star transiting

a. 040W
b. 140W
c. 140E

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10.Definition of LMT is:
a. Time based on average movement of earth around the sun
b. When mean sun cross your meridian. LMT is 1200
c. All of the above

11. On a mid summer day in SH, the sun will be overhead:

a. 66½°S
b. 23½°N
c. 23½°S

12.Civil twilight is:

a. Period between sunset and the end of evening civil twilight
b. Related to position of centre of sun 6° below sensible horizon
c. All of the above

13.Between 60N and 60S, the maximum duration of civil twilight is:
a. 21 min
b. 16 min
c. 14 min

14.A day at a place is measured in local time starts when:

a. When the mean sun transits the Greenwich meridian
b. When mean sun transits the anti meridian of place in question
c. When mean sun transits 180E/W

15. A is at longitude 01230E and B is at 04315E. LMT at B is 1749, what is

the LMT at A
a. 1546
b. 1456
c. 1706
16.Atmospheric refraction:
a. Causes sunrise and sunset to occur later
b. Causes sunrise to occur later and sunset to occur earlier
c. Causes sunrise to occur earlier and sunset to occur later

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17.Consider the following statements on Sunrise and sunset:
a. At equator sunrise and sunset occur quite regular times
throughout the year
b. In may sunrise occur later at 45°N than at 45°S
c. In July the period of sunlight is longer at 15°S than at 15°N

18.G is in position 3500N 03445W. for a particular date sunrise at 35N is

listed as 0715 in air almanac. What is the time of sunrise at G, given in
UTC
a. 0456 UTC
b. 0934 UTC
c. 0715 UTC

19.On 27th Feb, at 52°S040°E, sunrise is 0243 UTC. On the same day, at
52°S035°W, the sunrise is at:
a. 2143 UTC
b. 0243 UTC
c. 0743 UTC

20.Seasons are due to:

a. Variable distance between the earth and the sun
b. Inclination of polar axis with the ecliptic plane
c. Earth’s elliptical orbit around the Sun

21.LMT at longitude 095°20’W at 0000 UTC is

a. 062120 same day
b. 062120 previous day
c. 173840 previous day

22. Main reason that day and night, throughout the year have different
duration, is due to:
a. Gravitational effect of Sun, moon on speed of rotation of earth
b. Relative speed of sun along ecliptic
c. Inclination of the ecliptic to the equator

23.The time given for sunrise, sunset, morning and evening twilight in Air
Almanac :
a. UTC
b. LMT
c. Standard Time

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 24.What is the highest latitude listed at which Sun will reach an altitude of
90° above horizon at some point during the year
a. 23°
b. 45°
c. 66°

25.When approaching international date line from the east, you:

a. Be prepared to increase date by 1
b. Be prepared to decrease the date by 1
c. Should not change date at the first midnight you experience

26.Which is the highest latitude below which at the sun will rise above
horizon and set every day?
a. 66°
b. 62°
c. 72°

Answers
1. A
2. C
3. B
4. A
5. B
6. C
7. B
8. B
9. C
10.C
11.B
12.C
13.A
14. B
15.A
16.C
17.A

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18.B
19.C
20.B
21.C
22.C
23.B
24.A
25.B
26.A

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