ANGULAR SURVEYING

What is Surveying?
Surveying is the science of determining the relative positions of features on the earth surface
and subsequent representation of these features either graphically as a map or numerically in
a spatial database. It involves the practice of measuring angles and distances on the ground so
that they can be accurately plotted on a map. Surveying starts with the establishment of
controls and continues with the collection of ground details (man-made and natural features)
to their relative representation either graphically as a map or numerically in topographical
database. It is concerned with the determination of the relative spatial location of points on or
near the surface of the earth. It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances
between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines,
and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements. Land
surveying encompass all activities connected with the preparation of maps, plans or charts
showing topographical details of the earth surface. Distances, angles, directions, locations,
elevations, areas, and volumes are thus determined from the survey data.

What is an angle?
Angle is the space (measured in degrees) between two intersecting lines or surfaces at or
close to the point where they meet or join. It is the space created by two lines or planes at
their point of intersection. It can also be defined as the inclination of one line to another.

Angular Surveying
From the above definitions of surveying and angle, angular surveying is therefore the branch
of surveying concerned with the measurement of angles.
Common tools for measuring angles include:
 Compass (Magnetic compass)
 Levelling instruments e.g. hand level, Abney level, Dumpy level, Automatic level
 Transit
 Theodolite

Compass (Magnetic Compass)

A compass is an instrument for finding direction with a magnetic needle that always points to
the north. It can be used to determine the cardinal direction of a line or angle. The magnetic
needle of a compass always orients itself towards the magnetic north and by turning the
compass in the direction of the line being surveyed, the position can be observed. Although a
standard compass can give you a rough estimate of angles, the earth’s magnetic field is not
constant and the magnetic poles which slowly move over time do not perfectly align with the
planet’s axis of rotation; as a result of the latter, true (geographic) north and magnetic north
are different. Moreover, some rocks can become magnetized and introduce subtle local
anomalies when using compass.
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Levelling Instruments
Levelling is the determination of the relative height of different points in an area under
survey. Levelling instruments are employed for measuring elevations or determining the
relative heights of different points on the earth’s surface. A level essentially consists of a
telescope to which a bubble tube is attached such that the axis of the bubble tube and the line
of collimation of the telescope are parallel to each other and is mounted upon a tripod so that
it can rotate horizontally through 360°. Below is a diagram of a level and its components.

Figure 1: Level Figure 2: Tripod

A level has an indicator (circular or spirit level) that establishes the horizontal when a bubble
is centred in a tube of liquid. The level is provided with levelling screws by which the bubble
tube is centered, and the line of collimation is brought into a horizontal plane. The tripod
consists of three legs and a head where the level instrument is mounted. The tripod could be
of aluminum or wooden material. When levelling the level instrument, the tripod head must
be set approximately level beforehand by adjusting the tripod legs.

Levelling instruments irrespective of its type essentially consists of:

1. Level head with foot screws
2. Telescope
3. Bubble tube

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The level head usually consists of two parallel plates. The upper plate is supported over the
lower plate by three or four-foot screws or levelling screws by which the instrument may be
levelled. Most of the modern levelling instruments are designed to have three-foot screws
because they are easily levelled.

The telescope used in levelling instruments consists of metal tubes, one moving axially
within the other. There are two main types of telescope: (i) the external focusing telescope
and (ii) the internal focusing telescope. Most modern levelling instruments are designed with
internal focusing telescope.

The bubble tube is used for the temporary adjustment of the instrument. Without the correct
adjustment, the whole survey will be affected.

Types of levelling instruments include: hand level, abney level, dumpy level, and automatic
level.
Hand levels are useful for elevation checks during grading operations and for quick location
of turns and instrument points.
Abney levels are used to measure the angle of inclination of a line from the observer to the
target.
Dumpy level has a short telescope fixed to a horizontally rotating table and a spirit level. The
cross hairs are permanently mounted in a pair of arms.
Automatic level is basically a dumpy level with a built in compensator that automatically
adjusts for minor errors in the setup of the instrument.

In conjunction with a level, surveyors use a ‘level rod’ to read an elevation up or down from
the level of the telescope. From these observations, a surveyor can determine differences in
elevation of different points or transfer an elevation from one location to a distant location.

Transit
Transits are used to measure angles. A transit consists of a telescope for sighting distant
objects, two measurement wheels that work like protractors for reading horizontal and
vertical angles, and bubble levels to ensure that the angles are true. Transit and theodolite are
similar in that they are used to measure both horizontal and vertical angles, however,
theodolite is more accurate.

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 Figure 3: Transit

Theodolite
Theodolite is a surveying instrument used for precise angular measurement in both horizontal
and vertical planes. Some very precise theodolites can measure angles to an accuracy of one-
tenth of a second. It consists of an alidade with a telescope and an accurately graduated
circle; and equipped with the necessary levels and optical-reading circles. The glass
horizontal and vertical circles, optical-reading system, and all mechanical parts are enclosed
in an alidade section along with 3 levelling screws contained in a detachable base or tribrach.
Theodolite provides the most accurate measurement of horizontal and vertical angles. In
modern theodolites, some mechanical parts are replaced with electronics. The two main types
of theodolite is the optical and electronic theodolite.

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 Figure 4: Optical Theodolite

How to Measure Angles

There are 360 degrees (360 ) in a full circle. One degree contains 60 minutes (60 ) and each
minute contains 60 seconds (60”). So there are 3,600 seconds in a degree and 1,296,000
seconds in a full circle. These seconds or minutes are often referred to as ‘seconds of arc’ or
‘minutes of arc’ to distinguish them from seconds and minutes of time.

The above calculation can be represented mathematically as follows:

360 = 1 full circle

1 = 60
1 = 60”

Therefore, 1 = 60 60”
= 3600”

360 = 3600” 360

= 1,296,000”

Note: means degrees

means minutes
” means seconds
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When surveyors measure angles, the resultant calculations are typically reported as either
azimuths or bearings.

A bearing is an angle less than or equal to 90° within a quadrant defined by the cardinal
directions.
An azimuth is an angle between 0° and 360° measured clockwise from North.

For example, South 45° East and 135° are the same direction expressed as a bearing and as
an azimuth respectively.

Note: an azimuth of 360° is the same as 0°

Triangulation
Triangulation is a surveying method that measures the angles in a triangle formed by survey
control points. It can be used to measure an area by dividing it into triangles and the length of
one side and its angles with the other two are measured, then the lengths of the other sides
can be calculated. Using trigonometry and the measured length of just one side, the other
distances in the triangle are calculated. Each of the calculated distances is then used as one
side in another triangle to calculate the distances to another point, which in turn starts another
triangle forming a chain of triangles connecting the original point to the survey control
points. By calculating the angles from two fixed points a known distance apart, the position
can be determined. The angles and distances are then used with the initial known position,
and complex formulae to calculate the position (longitude and latitude) of all other points in
the triangulation network. The measured distance in the first triangle is known as the
‘baseline’ and is the only distance measured on the ground; the rest are calculated from it and
the measured angles.
In triangulation, the area to be surveyed is first covered with series of triangles up to the
perimeter of the plot. Triangle is preferred as it is the only shape that can completely cover an
irregularly shaped area with minimum space left. The angles in the triangles can be measured
using theodolite and distance measured with electronic distance measurement (EDM) device.

Triangulation network
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