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12-1998

Curriculum Unit: Developing Morals and Critical

and Creative Thinking Skills through the Novel:
Number the Stars by Lois Lowry
Tracy O'Brien
University of Massachusetts Boston

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 CURRICULUM UNIT:

DEVELOPING MORALS AND CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS THROUGH THE NOVEL:

NUMBER THE STARS BY LOIS LOWRY

A Synthesis Project Presented

by

TRACY O'BRIEN

Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies , University of Massachusetts

Boston , in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

December 1998

Critical and Creative Thinking Program

c 1998 by Tracy O'Brien
All rights reserved
 CURRICULUM UNIT:

DEVELOPING MORALS AND CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS THROUGH THE NOVEL:

· NUMBER THE STARS BY LOIS LOWRY

A Synthesis Project Presented

by

TRACY O'BRIEN

Approved as to style and content by:

chairperson of Committee
-----
-----------
Nina Greenwald, Adjunct Professor
Member

Delores Gallo, Progr Director

Critical and Creative Thinking Program
 ABSTRACT

CURRICULUM UNIT:

DEVELOPING MORALS AND CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS THROUGH THE NOVEL:

NUMBER THE STARS by Lois Lowry

December 1998

Tracy O'Brien, B.S., University of Massachusetts Boston

M.A., University of Massachusetts Boston

Directed by Associate Professor Delores Gallo

Moral education is needed in the public schools for many reasons . Violent crimes and

dishonesty are rampant throughout the younger generation. David Purpel (1989), a major

educator in the field of moral education, believes that we are in a cultural, political , and moral

crisis and hence an educational crisis. He states that it is imperative that we confront the

nature of this crisis. Purpel's major assertion is the critical importance of educators' broad

responsibility for the state of the culture as it relates to their specific responsibility for the

quality of the "educational program" (1989, 2).

Teaching moral education, using critical and creative thinking through literature , is a

very interesting and efficient teaching practice. Many highly respected educators have written

that critical and creative thinking should be taught in schools and they also recommend teaching

moral reasoning through literature . This paper reviews the work of David Purpel, Ronald

Galbraith and Thomas Jones, Thomas Lickona, Raymond Nickerson , Linda Lamme , Robert Ennis ,

Delores Gallo, Richard Paul, Shari Tishman, T. Tardiff and Theresa Amabile. Using these

authors for my rat ionale , I have created an interdisciplinary curriculum unit that teaches

moral education and critical and creative skills using the novel, Number The Stars by Lois

Lowry (1989) . In this paper , I will review literature about teaching moral education. I will
 >

offer a unit on th~ book , Number The Stars by Lois Lowry , in which I use the practices

recommended by authors reviewed. will also discuss the use of open-ended questions to

practice and assess the concepts taught.

This paper concludes with a unit of several lessons designed to be taught in a fourth

grade classroom, but it can be altered to meet the needs of any particular group of students . It is

my hope that an educator can follow the format that the six lessons are developed in and continue

this format to create the rest of the lessons for the novel. This unit will provide an example as

teachers try to integrate these techniques and ideas into other novels and curriculum.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................. iv

CHAPTER

1. THE NEED FOR MORAL EDUCATION ......................................... ................ 1

The Moral Crisis In Education ..................................................... 1

Why Children Need Moral Education ... ........................................ 6
Teaching Critical and Creative Thinking Strategies .................... 8
Overview of Project. ........................................ ............................ 9

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Literature-Based Moral Education .............................................. 1o

Rationale For Teaching Literature-Based Moral Education ...... .. 10
Ways to Use Literature-Based Moral Education ......................... 12
What Is Critical Thinking .. ......................................................... 14
Types of Critical Thinking ............................................ .. ............ 14
Types of Creative Thinking ......................................................... 17
Teaching Critical Thinking .. .... ................................................... 19
Factors Needed To Teach Critical Thinking ..................................21
Teaching Creative Thinking ...... .... ... ........ ....................... ......... ... ..23
Creative Problem Solving .................... ........................................25
Open-ended Assessment. ..... ........................................... ...... ... ...... 27

3. . THE UNIT

lntroduction ....... ..... .. ........................... ................................ ........ 31

Lesson One: Cultural Differences .. ....... ............. .......................... 33
Lesson Two: Freedom .......................... ......................................... 36
Lesson Three: The Term Morals ......................................... ......... 39
Lesson Four: Characteristics ........................... ....... ................... .41
Lesson Five: Personalities .................. ... ................... ......... ........ .43
Lesson Six: Moral Judgment... .................................................... 45
Lesson Overviews: Chapters 7-18 ...................................... ...... .47

FINAL REFLECTION ............................................................................................... 51

APPENDIX A: Pre-Reading Information Sheets ......................... ......................... 52
APPENDIX B: Graphic Organizers ....................................................................... 53
APPENDIX C: Multiple Intelligence Test.. ................................. .................. ........ 54
APPENDIX D: Dispositions/Abilities .. ................................................................ 55
APPENDIX E: ComprehensionNocabulary Sheets .............................................. 56

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..... ............................................................................................... .57

 CHAPTER 1

THE NEED FOR MORAL EDUCATION

Moral education coupled with critical and creative thinking can be taught through

literature. As an elementary school teacher for eight years , I have realized that children are

entering a society filled with sex, violence, and drugs and are in need of moral guidance so they

can gain the ability to develop skills for 'right' thinking and decision making. I am interested in

moral education because of the effects of society on our youth and their perceptions. Children

can be taught how to behave through positive modeling from a teacher and from their own

experiences, because morality is a learned behavior. School systems cannot watch children slip

through the cracks; schools should make a substantial effort in providing moral education.

While teaching moral education, there is a great opportunity to develop critical and creative

thinking dispositions and strategies which will provide children with better decision making and

problem solving skills . One efficient solution for implementing moral education and critical and

creative thinking strategies is to incorporate both within a piece of literature that is already a

part of the required curriculum . I hope that by using these ideas children will have the

opportunity to develop skills which will help them become better citizens and better thinkers in

a world filled with difficult problems.

The Moral Crisis In Education

In today's society , I believe that there is a moral crisis in education. There is a

breakdown of traditional form of authority and moral regulation. There is a need of a moral

culture from which to reconstruct and reconnect the spheres of politics, ethics , and

education .(Purpel 1989) There should be new possibilities for the direction of public

schooling and for the examination of political and moral responsibilities that both shape and

result from our various interventions as administrators, teachers, students , and parents .

1
 David Purpel, a professor of education at the University of North Carolina and author of

the book, The Moral and Spiritual Crisis In Education, has many insightful arguments for

making changes in our educational system . Purpel states:

Given the elements of our political, economic, and cultural cri~is, educational discourse
must focus on the urgent task of transforming many of our basic cultural institutions
and beliefs systems ...

If we accept the basic proposition that we must make some drastic changes in our culture
to forestall disaster and facilitate growth, then clearly educational institutions must be a
part of that process. (Purpel 1989, 3)

David Purpel relates the moral and spiritual crisis in the larger society to all levels of

the current crisis in education. He believes:

... that there is an interrelationship between culture and education; the view that
education should serve primarily to facilitate the struggle for meaning; that the key
educational strategy is to nourish the critical and creative consciousness that will
contribute to the creation and vitalization of a vision of meaning; and, finally, that the
failure of the educational system is both cause and effect of a crisis in the culture's
capacity to synthesize a coherent moral and spiritual order. (Purpel 1989, 28)

David Purpel's purpose is to suggest the broad boundaries of the culture's moral stance. He

examines many problems that permeate American culture and that manifest themselves in

educational settings, in addition to other sites. (Purpel 1989) The following conflicts in

American culture will be discussed so that I can prove that there is a serious need for moral

education: individuality/community, humility/arrogance, caring: compassion and

sentimentality, and self-deception/responsibility.

Individuality/Community

The first of these value conflicts is perhaps the most serious issue facing America,

namely the matter of individuality/community. The following is a definition of individuality I

have adopted from David Purpel. He states, "By individuality we mean here not so much the

development of autonomy and independence as much as a egocentricity, a belief that the

individual is the basic and most important unit of decision making." (Purpel 1989, 31) Purpel

2
believes that people form a perspective of self-gratification, self-fulfillment, self-help, and

self-advancement. Groups of people such as family and/or culture may be seen as a setting for

individual competition in which the group provides hierarchical norms. (Purpel 1989) Our

culture encourages individuals to compete and strive for winning. Dayid Purpel states, "This

emphasis strains our commitment to the development of traditional community and shared

values." (Purpel 1989, 32) The schools, however, play a more powerful role in stressing an

individual rather than a common vision. Educators see this everyday in the classroom. In

school, we are taught mostly to learn to be alone, to compete, to achieve, to succeed. We are

obsessed with grades, individual success and achievement, reading levels, and gifted and talented

programs. We need to teach children how to work more collaboratively and less individually.

This leads us to the next value conflict of humility/arrogance.

Humility/ Arrogance

Sometimes arrogance can be a kind of smugness; sometimes it is blindness; and

sometimes it is rigidity. (Purpel 1989) David Purpel believes that the educational system

should address this topic. He states:

Nowhere is intellectual arrogance more inappropriate than in an educational setting,

since the basic canons of educational inquiry include an awareness of the complex and
elusive nature of truth and the vital importance of openness to and awareness of
emerging consciousness. Education involves inquiry, and inquiry requires care, caution,
and humility in the face of the enormity of the task. And yet, schools teach us to get the
"right" answers, to take true-or-false examinations, and to rely on
encyclopedias.(Purpel 1989, 52)

We need not only to teach what we claim to know but to speak to what we know we don't know.

There needs to be more emphasis on admitting that we don't know all of the answers to prove

that it is alright to listen and learn from others. (Purpel 1989)

3
Caring: Compassion and Sentimentality

As a society, we are a caring people to the point of helping others and nourishing them.

We can see this in the intense concern parents have for their children. Purpel states , "Our

culture , in fact, accepts a sense of deep caring as a natural and desirable aspect of family life;

deep caring is not seen as an exotic and unrealizable ideal within the family structure but as an

inevitable dimension and a key defining aspect of the family ." (Purpel 1989, 40) Schools also

have shown the concept of caring in a variety of ways: organizing food drives for the needy,

arranging ways to comfort classmates who are ill or have suffered family loss; encouraging

concern for others when the safety and well-being of others is involved, and in the emphasis on

caring as a positive value in the context of academic classes. However, the stress on competition

and individuality narrows and undermines this impulse to care and nourish. David Purpel

states :

Indeed, the culture and the schools have had to deflect us from competition and the
pursuit of individual success and achievement. We have come to find ways in which
indifference is valued-it's good to be "cool," to be stoic, to avoid feeling guilt. We have
bought into a psychology that urges us to consider that we are responsible only to
ourselves and cannot be held responsible for others . While this may at one level enhance
(properly) our own responsibility , this attitude can, at another level , serve to reduce
the sense of our interdependence and our opportunities to help and support others.
(Purpel 1989, 40)

Students are neither asked to take very much responsibility in helping other students to learn ,

nor are they encouraged to note how their gains are often at the expense of their classmates. I

find this so evident in my own school. We have to make sure these children do not help one

another in state academic meets because it will hurt their chances for winning . Purpe l

continues, "The stress for individual achievement in school is the same for individual failure

and pain: it's your problem and you 're going to have to deal with it."(Purpel 1989, 43) People

respond to those who extend their concern for us. This should be a priority in schools .

4
Self-Deception/Responsibility

There are significant risks when taking responsibility for your own actions. People do

not want to acknowledge their responsibility when it is not carried out because it will lead some

to self-deception , according to David Purpel. He suggests:

Self-deception not only involves denial, fear, avoidance, and fragmentation, but it is also
ultimately self-defeating. When we deceive ourselves and our community, we
undermine our efforts to act upon our deepest beliefs. We can • of course, be cynical and
consider our self-deception to be part of the sublimation process-we need to cover our
self-serving needs for control, domination, greed, and lust.(Purpel 1989, 62)

As educators we must have the courage to confront this human impulse and necessity for

self-deception and have the wisdom to discern its destructiveness. We have special

responsibilities to be sensitive to the psychological and moral pressures to deny or discount the

harsh realities of our professional lives.(Purpel 1989)

As an educator of eight years experience , I believe that we must have the courage not

only to examine the nature and impact of the culture but also to consider how we as individuals

reflect the values and norms of the culture. Purpel states:

As educators we often are the system , even as we are both its cause and effect.. ..

This is by no means to say that education can "solve" these problems . nor that educators
are the only or even the most important people in the process of dealing with the
cultural crisis . I am saying that there is very definitely an educational aspect to the
crisis and I am reiterating my faith that serious educational inquiry can in fact provide
the necessary, if not sufficient, resources to recreate our world. (Purpel 1989, 64)

David Purpel believes that we must, therefore, begin with the fundamental issues of spiritual

and moral values and necessarily confront this extremely sensitive. crucial, and volatile areas.

It is certainly a risky and dangerous zone filled with land mines, but since it is also populated

by time bombs, avoiding the area is at least as dangerous. (Purpel 1989)

The following section of this paper represents my thoughts , as well as others, about the

reasons for implementing moral education in general within the school system. I have found it

necessary to offer my ideas and rationale for incorporating moral education within any

curriculum.
5
 Why Children Need Moral Education In The Classroom

I believe that moral education must be taught in school systems. One reason is because

children need to be taught how to behave properly in society . Morals.are learned behaviors and

not natural instincts. One of the most important ways children learn to behave is through

modeling. Another reason for moral education is to protect children from society's deep moral

trouble. These two reasons support moral education within school systems . I would like to

discuss both of these reasons in this section.

Children should be taught moral education in school systems because morals are a

learned behavior. One of the ways individuals may develop their moral reasoning is by engaging

in discussions of moral problems. Ronald E. Galbraith and Thomas M. Jones, authors of the

book, Moral Reasoning, support this statement. They claim :

The teaching process provides a systematic method derived from the assumption that:
students need the opportunity to confront difficult decision-making situations; they
need to endorse a position and to think about their reasons for selecting their positions ;
and they need to hear the reasoning used by others on the same problem.(Galbraith and
Jones 1976 , 8)

Galbraith and Jones also believe that the objective of the school is not to accelerate development,

but to make sure that every person will eventually reach a mature level of moral reasoning .

Having discussions in the classroom can allow new ideas to be shared among classmates .

Children can learn from their peers and teacher ways to act and react when confronted with a

moral problem if issues are brought up and discussed in the classroom. These moral issues need

to be thought through and analyzed by students in schools. Because morals do not come

naturally, they must be taught.

One way children learn how to behave is through modeling . R.M. Hare , in his article ,

"Language and Moral Education", shares his knowledge about moral education. His ideas support

my beliefs . He claims that children place a lot of value on the examples adults set.(Hare 1973)

If children are not shown how to act properly at home or in society , educators must model

moral behavior. The moral educator must show sincerity in trying to live up to the principles

6
he/she is advocating. The more children trust the moral educator and believe that morals are

important because they see them modeled by the educator, the more likely they are to accept

what they are told about morality. (Hare 1973) This supports that moral education should be

modeled. In many ways, "more is caught than taught" in every da.y decision making. Moral

education in school systems offer the opportunity to prepare children to deal with society's

moral issues.

Thomas Lickona, author of the book, Educating For Character, is a developmental

psychologist and educator. He is an internationally respected authority on moral development

and values education. He states:

Should the schools teach values? Just a few years ago, if you put that question to a group
of people, it was sure to start an argument. If anyone said yes, schools should teach
children values, somebody else would immediately retort, '"Whose values?"' In a
society where people held different values, it seemed impossible to get agreement on
which ones should be taught in our public schools. Pluralism produced paralysis;
schools for the most part ended up trying to stay officially neutral on the subject of
values. With remarkable swiftness , that has changed.(Lickona 1991, 3)

The moral problems in society are escalating more and more each day. There is daily reporting

of greed, dishonesty, violent crime , and self-destruction. All of this is making people aware

that something needs to be done.

Thomas Lickona still sees a controversy surrounding the proposition that schools should

teach morality. He states:

Values education is the hottest topic in education today. Some groups, on both the
political right and left, are deeply suspicious about any kind of values teaching in the
schools. But beneath the battles is a steadily growing conviction: Schools cannot be
ethical bystanders at a time when our society is in deep moral trouble. Rather, schools
must do what they can to contribute to the character of the young and the moral health of
the nation.(Lickona 1991, 5)

People are looking toward school systems to help address these problems. The public schools

are becoming the guardians of tomorrow's leaders. One parent families, the disintegration of

the neighborhood and the needs of working parents often leave these children bereft of the

understanding of what society sees as 'morality' .I n conclusion , moral education needs to be

addressed in school systems .

7
 Teaching Critical and Creative Thinking Strategies

In addition to teaching moral education in school systems , critical and creative thinking

strategies must also be taught. Raymond Nickerson , author of. the article , "Why Teach

Thinking", supports this statement. He claims that critical and creative thinking is a process

that will take a long time to accomplish so it should be taught in the classroom when children

are young.(Nickerson 1987) He also thinks that good thinkers will be able to compete

effectively in future careers. Preparing students to analyze and interpret written materials

are important concepts to learn and one that critical and creative thinking strategies

successfully provide. Educators need to use critical and creative thinking strategies to teach

children how to observe, compare and contrast, evaluate , show fluency and flexibility , think

original ideas, hypothesize, synthesize, elaborate, assess data, and solve problems . In

summary, teaching critical and creative thinking strategies in the classroom will ensure

children become better thinkers and learners .

I have developed a unit to teach moral education and critical and creative thinking skills

using the novel, Number The Stars, by Lois Lowry. I have used this unit in my fourth grade

classroom and have found it to be very successful. There were two reasons I created this unit.

First, I saw that there were a lot of interruptions throughout the day due to poor moral

judgment. My curriculum was always being pushed aside to settle arguments, stop a physical

fight, or review how to respect each other. Finally , one day when I had a crying student in the

hall, I decided that there had to be a better alternative to teaching right from wrong than on a

case by case basis. When I used Number The Stars, it offered the opportunity to discuss issues

in a non-threatening environment. For example, when I taught a lesson on friendship , many

questions arose about personal conflicts among peers in the classroom. I was able to address

problems of peer behavior using the novel as an example when discussing the characters '

relationships with one another.

Secondly, for practical curriculum and time management reasons, it made sense for me

8
to take a novel that was part of my required curriculum and use it to teach moral education along

with critical and creative thinking strategies . The structure of this unit can be used as a model

with other novels as well.

Overview of Project

In this paper I have attempted to address questions pertaining to why moral education

should be taught within the classroom , and why critical and creative thinking skills should be

the chosen vehicle for lessons. In chapter 2, I will offer a rationale for using literature in

moral education. I will talk about the theoretical framework for teaching critical and creative

thinking in the classroom and the types of critical and creative th inking that may be used in

employing certain techniques. Then, I will discuss how literature-based moral education will

be beneficial in school systems. In conclusion , I will share my reasons for choosing open-ended

assessments strategies for my unit. In chapter 3, I will introduce my unit and include selected

lessons dealing with morals and critical and creative thinking skills using the novel, Number

The Stars, by Lois Lowry . This novel is about two young girls growing up in Copenhagen ,

Denmark during World War Two. Anne Marie is a ten year old German girl and Lise is a ten

year old Jewish girl. Anne Marie's family temporarily takes Lise in secretly while Lise's

parents look for a way to escape to Switzerland so that they wouldn't be captured by the

Germans. There are many adventures the two girls experience together that ties in very well

with moral reasoning. In the end, Lise is reunited with her parents and they escaped by boat to

Switzerland.

I would like to share my knowledge of the success of this unit. I believe that educators

must teach critical and creative thinking strategies while modeling moral education. This

should be a simple task for an educator. The subject of moral education lends a perfect

opportunity to work out moral dilemmas using critical and creative thinking strategies. I have

found this to be true when teaching both of these concepts through a piece of literature that is

currently used in the curriculum.

9
 CHAPTER2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

What Is Literature-Based Moral Education?

Using existing literature from my required curriculum to teach moral education has

been the most successful technique I have found in my eight years as an elementary school

teacher. This technique did not add an additional time pressure because I chose a book or novel

that is already used in the classroom and found appropriate moral problems/dilemmas within

that book. It is best to find a book with characters that children will relate to so that their

experience feels real. Through literature, educators may give their students the chance to role

play particular character's behavior. This is a technique that allows children to experience

different people's views on issues. Reflection and journal writing about the moral behaviors of

characters are other great techniques that the use of literature provides for students. In

summary, teaching moral education through literature allows children various opportunities to

learn about and synthesize good moral behavior.

Rationale For Teaching Literature-Based Moral Education

There are many rationales for teaching moral education through literature. I am going to

discuss the goals of building, responsibility , solving conflicts peacefully , and respecting and

appreciating others.

Responsibility is a part of being moral, ethical , and thinking rationally about the

consequences of our behavior. Children need training and practice in thinking rationally

because it requires a mature level of thought, and it doesn't come naturally. Children often

blame others for their bad decisions to avoid punishment. (Lamme 1992) They need to learn

how to develop logical thought in their elementary school years.

Linda Lamme , author of the book, "Literature-Based Moral Education, shares the same

10
views . She states, "In literature , children can talk about fi nding solutions to problems rather

than attaching blame for them ."( Lamme 1992,50) Literature provides students with models of

appropriate and inappropriate behavior to analyze . Examples exist in literature of story

characters acting responsibly and receiving the natural and logicp.l consequences of their

actions .(Lamme 1992)

Solving conflicts peacefully is another part of being morally ethical. When children

interact with each other , they must learn how to solve their differences in nonviolent ways .

Many times , children resort to hitting or name-calling as solutions . They need to stop and th ink

first. They need to know that there are alternatives and how to exert self-control. Knowing

how to select other alternatives will help make them peacemakers. (Lamme 1992,)

Children need strategies to cope with conflict. There are many books available that

suggest useful activities to help children see alternatives . Children can predict what wi ll

happen in the story and how the problem will or should be solved . They may want to compare

their ideas with those of the author. One example to help children with conflict is to have them

role-play situations which focus on the moral of the story. Class discussions can also enhance a

child 's learning.

Finally, respecting and appreciating others can allow children to value themselves

when they learn to value others . There are many books that can help children to accept and

appreciate those who are different. These books provide examples of respect for others and

acceptable behavior in various situations. Many show positive , caring behaviors toward those

who are different.(Lamme 1992) The more multicultural children's literature we read to our

children, the more the experience becomes common and accepted. Teachers should discuss the

humane elements of the stories and use them as models of caring behavior. This helps acquire

moral development. Teaching respect for others will also enhance empathy within our students .

Linda Lamme suggests, "It's imperative that we try to end prejudice against those that are

different and to raise a generation of children who see other people's differences as an asset, not

a handicap." (Lamme 1992, 91) These ideas support my rationale for teaching literature -

11
based moral education.

Ways to Use Literature-Based Moral Education

There are a variety of ways to teach moral education through literature. Educators may

use books which show models of appropriate behavior. Good literature allows opportunities tor

children to consider the moral dimension of stories, as they are given the chance to explore

other peoples' views on behavior. Literature may also be used as a tool to teach different

strategies for dealing with moral behavior. Teaching children to respond to situations in

literature , generates higher levels of thinking. Following are some suggestions for different

ways to teach moral education through literature.

Educators, or models, may choose to use selected books as models of appropriate social

and moral behavior. This will allow children the opportunity to view how people behave in

society. In doing so, the literature will provide a natural resource tor parents , teachers, and

librarians to share with children some ways that can enhance their moral development.

Selected literature also provides opportunities for children to consider the moral

dimension of stories. Linda Lamme, author of the book, Literature-Based Moral Education,

agrees. She states:

Some children are entranced by the illustrations; others may be reminded by the setting
of experiences in their lives; and others are deeply involved in the plot. By building on
childrens' natural inclinations to identity with different aspects of stories, a moral
education curriculum can provide opportunities tor considering the moral dimension of
stories . Thoughtful discussion, writing, reflecting, and sharing of books can help
children acquire more sophisticated aspects of moral behavior.(Lamme 1992, 12)

Using literature can also influence moral development and help develop or provide strategies for

reflection about the moral issues in books.

Literature allows children to explore multiple perspectives on other peoples views on

behavior. At young ages, children have a high interest in themselves . "Literature helps them to

explore the outside world."(Lamme 1992, 13) It allows them to link their own experiences

12
with others. Good literature offers a great opportunity for a child to analyze how and why a

character behaves in certain situations. This then allows the child to compare the character's

views to their own . When students role-play, by putting themselves in the character's shoes ,

this can lead to empathy because children can see and understand a cl'laracter's feeling. The child

can see things from other perspectives. (Lamme 1992) Children can become more tolerant

individuals and better able to interact socially if they are able to value differences among people

when they encounter thinking divergent from their own.(Lamme 1992)

When children read about the behaviors of others, they have the opportunity to relate

those behaviors to their own lives and reflect upon their own behavior. Linda Lamme claims,

"Understanding the characters' motives for behaving that way helps children attribute meaning

to the story."(Lamme 1992, 17) Children need to understand how other people feel and how one

person's actions influence another's feelings. To be effective, a story must impact a child's

feeling, otherwise the moral lesson is lost. It is important to ask a question such as, "How does

it make you feel?" . This will link the literature to life experiences and help to internalize the

ethical theme. (Lamme 1992)

Teaching moral education through literature can also help children develop strategies

for dealing with moral dilemmas prior to and during their encounters with these issues . It can

help· children solve personal problems and become aware of societal concerns . It can also give

children a referent to turn to when making moral decisions in their lives. (Lamme 1992)

When discussing literature, educators can have students respond using higher order

thinking skills. Linda Lamme states:

Instead of teaching children reading skills or asking questions about reading

comprehension, teachers encourage children to share the literature they read through
oral and written responses. If a child can respond to literature, that child has certainly
comprehended it.This generates high levels of response .(Lamme 1992, 17)

Education is turning to this concept.

13
 What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is a set of dispositions and skills to have when making decisions in life .

Robert Ennis, author of the article, "A Taxonomy of Critical Thinking Dispositions and

Abilities", offers a very good definition for critical thinking. He claims that "Critical thinking

is reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do."(Ennis

1985) Ennis claims that there are two key components that make up critical thinking:

Attitude Dispositions and Specific Skills (abilities). I will explain both of these components in

the following paragraphs.

Dispositions are personal attitudes that people possess. They value truth seeking, are

open-minded, look for alternatives and use credible sources when using information. Of course

these are only a few of the dispositions that Ennis lists. (For a full list of the dispositions , see

the appendix at the end of this paper) I selected these because I focus on them in my unit.

Abilities are the more cognitive skills people have. A few examples of such abilities are:

analyzing arguments, decision making, observing and judging observation reports, and using

inference. (These abilities can also be found in full in the appendix) (Ennis 1985)

Learning how to observe people and written material can help children make sounder

decisions. There are many observations to be aware of when reading or listening to someones

account on an event. The observation reports must attend to:

1) the period of time elapsed from the event

2) motivation of repeating the story(of the account)(rewards)
3) someone who wants to advance the cause
4) reliability-did you actually see the event happen?
5) collaboration-can someone else back them up?
6) point of view (preconceived notion)
7) concrete evidence
(Ennis)

These observation reports can help a good critical thinker decide to believe written or oral

information or to reject this information .

Thinking critically also relies on the person's ability to judge the credibility or wisdom

of others. Ennis claims that being able to distinguish between what is true and not true in
14
conversation, the media, and/or in everyday life is vital to critical thinking. Ennis believes

that people need to be open-minded when considering and searching for truth. He also thinks

that judging the credibility of a source is important. He states , "Since a large share of what we

come to believe has other people as its source, the ability to judge th.e credibility of a source is

crucial."(Ennis 1985, 3) It is very important that children learn these skills to think

critically.

Types of Critical Thinking

There are many types of critical thinking. In this paper, I will be focusing on Delores

Gallo's thoughts on open-mindedness, and the values of truth and empathy; Arthur L. Costa's

thoughts on metacognition ; and Richard W. Paul's thoughts on dialectical thinking. Many of

their ideas and suggested strategies are incorporated within my unit.

A co-founder of the Critical and Creative Thinking Graduate Program at the University

of Massachusetts at Boston, Delores Gallo feels that open mindedness is important in critical

thinking. In her article, "Educating for Empathy, Reason and Imagination" she states:

Open-mindedness is a capacity to gather information disinterestedly, sensitive to its

limits and missing elements, a capacity to revise one's position to accommodate
compelling new evidence and questions or new perspectives on extant knowledge .
(Gallo 1994,43)

These behaviors require people to use a high degree of awareness. Open-mindedness also allows

tolerance for ambiguity, complexity, and deferred judgment, and a drive for prob lem

resolution. (Gallo 1994)

In addition to valuing open mindedness, Gallo believes that education needs to foster self-

esteem, a valuing of truth , and problem solving. Gallo states, 'Therefore, education bears a

responsibility for the development of the whole individual-values and voice, disposition and

capacity-to imagine and to reason well."(Gallo 1994, 44) She goes on to say that empathy as

well as reason and imagination fosters critical and creative thinking.

For this paper, I have adopted Delores Gallo's definition of empathy. She states :

Empathy can be used in at least two ways: to mean a predominantly cognitive response,
understanding how another feels, or to mean an affective communion with the other. In
15
 the latter instance, it may refer to putting oneself in the place of another and
anticipating his or her behavior. Or it might suggest a still more dramatic
transformation , the imaginative transposing of oneself into the thinking, feeling, and
actions of another.(Gallo 1994, 45)

Gallo recommends the strategy of ro le playing to enhance the feeling of empathy . Role-playing

allows students to take the role and perspective of others. It makes children really listen to

others' points of view, either positive and negative. Children usually are willing to understand

different views when given the opportunity, and they become more open-minded to people who

think differently. When people must feel and express positions and reasons different from their

own, they take the ideas more seriously than they do when they hear them from others . These

are some of the reasons I used the critical thinking skill of empathy in my unit.

Metacognition is yet another strategy used in critical and creative thinking . According

to Arthur L. Costa, author of "Mediating The Meta-Cognitive":

Metacognition is our ability to know what we know and what we don't know . It is our
ability to plan a strategy for producing what information is needed, to be conscious of
our own steps and strategies during the act of problem solving, and to reflect on and
evaluate the productiveness of our own thinking.(Costa 1985,8)

Following Costa's belief , I included indirectly the metacognition strategy in some of my

lessons . Costa states, "Direct instruction in metacognition may not be beneficial. When

strategies of problem solving are imposed by the teacher rather than generated by the students

themselves, their performance may become impaired."(Costa 1985,9)

For most of the evaluations in my unit, I chose to have journal writing for reflecting on

the novel. I did this because I agreed with Costa when he states:

Writing and illustrating a personal log or a diary throughout an experience over a period
of time causes the student to synthesize thoughts and actions and to translate them into
symbolic form. The record also provides an opportunity to revisit initial perceptions,
to compare the changes in those perceptions with the addition of more data, to chart the
processes of strategic thinking and decision making, to identify the blind alleys and
pathways taken, and to recall the successes and the "tragedies" of experimentation .. ..

This allows students to take credit for their responses and teachers can provide good
feedback for their answers. Costa states, "These students will become more conscious of
their own behavior and apply a set of internal criteria tor that behavior which they
consider "good." (Costa 1985, 12)

16
 The third type of critical thinking I would like to discuss in this paper is dialogical

thinking. Dialogical thinking is having an inner dialogue with oneself. It helps people be able to

look at different perspectives tor any given subject. Richard Paul , a philosopher and well know

expert in the field, believes that dialogical th inking is very imp?rtant to critical thinking .

Richard Paul gives a very interesting example in his article , "Teaching Critical Teaching in the

Strong Sense: A Focus on Seit-Deception , World Views, and a Dialecti cal Mode of Analysis". He

states :

In every case, education should be problem-and issue-based, and students should reason
their way to knowledge in every domain, having continual opportunities to voice and
pursue their own points of view within divergent frames of reference. Their personal
world-views should continually be expanded and enriched as a result. They should learn
in time to think within many points of view , many frames of reference , and many world
views. Only to the extent that they do, do they become liberally educated persons, for
only to the extent tat we can use our thinking to transcend our thinking are we free.
(Paul 1992, 194)

agree with Richard Paul because dialogical thinking allows people to think of different points

of views. This an important issue in critical thinking.

Types of Creative Thinking

Creative thinking is the process of generating ideas that is marked by sensitivity to

problems and gaps , fluency , flexibility, originality and elaboration . Role playing, having in

depth discussions on open-ended questions within the classroom , and brainstorming are all

great strategies to generate ideas. These strategies will certainly help children become better

creative thinkers.

Role-playing is a very powerful tool for generating ideas. Role-playing allows children

to observe and synthesize information both orally and in writing. After reading a piece of

literature , chi ldren can take what they know about the plot and orally summarize it from their

own point of view. It is an excellent way to get children to communicate ideas, especially for

those who have difficulties with written work. Role-playing allows children to express their

17
ideas in a creative manner. Gallo notes that the creative person is imaginative, spontaneous, and

one who perceives rather than judges; this person is open to new and different ideas. She claims

that role playing facilitates one's ability to develop reason and imagination. It allows people to

work through problems and issues . (Gallo 1994) Role-playing al[ows people to take risks

within a safe environment. Gallo also says , "Lastly , it nurtures intrinsic motivation for tasks

requiring imagination, a tolerance for complexity and ambiguity , as well as self-esteem and

courage."(Gallo 1994, 59) Role-playing encompasses these skills in helping a child become a

creative thinker.

Class discussions are extremely helpful when trying to generate ideas. Peter Elbow, a

teacher of thinking and author of the article , "Teaching Two Kinds of Thinking by Teaching

Writing" , states that speaking is a good way to enhance creative thinking . Agreeing with Elbow,

I included group and whole class discussions in my unit. Elbow believes that creative

brainstorming, discussion or debate will help creativity. He also believes that the goal in

creative thinking is to harness intuition .(Elbow 1994) This allows the imagination to grow.

Brainstorming is one of the most useful and successful techniques to generate ideas

among children . Brainstorming is an excellent tool for revealing many creative skills. It uses

deferred judgment, a seeking of quantity and the piggy-backing of ideas . It allows students to

show fluency, flexibility with ideas, originality and elaborate about ideas and feelings. This is a

strategy that really gets the children thinking in many creative ways, and provides the

opportunity to build on their thoughts and ideas.

In conclusion, the relationship of critical and creative thinking are partners in the

process of decision-making. For this paper, I adopted Delores Gallo's definition of the

difference between critical and creative thinking . She states:

The common polarizing differentiation made between critical thinking and creative
thinking is deceptive , since it often leads one to see creative thinking as the discrete
opposite of rational thought. It minimizes the contribution of necessary evaluative ,
convergent , critical processes to effective creative production and similarly obscures
the import of the speculative , divergent, imaginative processes to effective critical
thought.(Gallo 1994,47)

18
Gallo continues to say:

One of the most salient features of critical thinking is the convergent process. It focuses on
factors that have been determined relevant to the given situation. It moves toward a single,
uniquely determined response, highly dependent upon the reproduction of the previously learned
and the categorization of new experiences. (Gallo 1994,46)

Creative thinking's most salient feature is the divergent process. It emphasizes highly flexible

intellectual functioning. It focuses on the generation of ideas. (Gallo 1994)

Teaching Critical Thinking

Thinking is something we do naturally. So, why should we have the need to teach

thinking in the classroom? R. Nickerson, author of the book, Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory

and Practice, says educators need to teach people how to think more effectively, critically ,

coherently and more creatively and deeply than we do.(Nickerson 1987) To acquire good

thinking skills, teachers need to focus on teaching it. It's not likely to happen on its own so

teachers need to add critical thinking in their curriculum. Good thinkers will be able to

compete effectively for educational opportunities, jobs, recognition , and rewards. I believe that

an educators job is to prepare their students for this very reason. This could allow a person to

find life more interesting and rewarding.(Nickerson 1987) Nickerson gives another reason for

teaching critical and creative thinking in the classroom. He states:

It is a prerequisite for good citizenship. Glaser (1985) suggests that critical thinking
ability 'helps the citizen to form intelligent judgments on public issues and thus
contribute democratically to the solution of social problems.' (Nickerson 1987, 27)

Preparing students to look at material critically and developing skills to make decisions about

the value of the content of books and other written materials is extremely important.

Teaching critical thinking in the classroom will not be a quick and painless task. It will

take some time and practice to develop good thinking. Shari Tishman , David Perkins, and Eileen

Pay, authors of the book, The Thinking Classroom: Learning and Teaching in a Culture of

Thinking, claim that teachers should consider the following ways for teaching students to think

19
effectively:

1) It is important that teachers model good thinking . Children need a guide to follow to assure

their capabilities;

2) Teachers need to explain the key concepts so that students unde.rstand what is expected of

them. They will rise to the occasion if they understand their responsibilities;

3) It is the teacher's role to organize opportunities for the students to experience critical

thinking. They must make sure that the students interact with one another to express their

thinking as well as meeting with the teacher; and

4) Teachers should always give feedback to the students after engaging in any type of critical

thinking. It could be after problem solving, evaluating, analyzing or a metacognition exercise .

This allows the students to feel good about themselves and to learn how to think more effectively.

(Tishman 1995, 70)

Critical thinking in the classroom prepares students for future careers. There is a lot of

competition in the job market today. Many students graduate from high profile colleges with big

dreams of becoming successful. Students need to know that it's not only the college that they go

to that will make them succeed. It is what they put into their education that will matter. If they

can learn to think critically and solve problems using many different strategies, this will

contribute to having successful careers . It will help them to become recognized within their

jobs and hopefully advance to higher positions. This is certainly an incentive to think

critically.

Thinking critically helps people make judgments on many different issues they are

confronted with on a daily basis. People should become active and involved with their

community and their own lives. Critical thinking will contribute to a much more confident and

engaging life. It is a citizen 's obligation to think deeply about significant issues and act upon

them. The ability to think well contributes to one's psychological well-being and fosters well-

adjusted individuals . (Nickerson 1987)

Students should be taught higher order knowledge strategies to help or assist in

20
conquering problems. Tishman states:

Good thinkers are disposed to explore , to question , to probe new areas, to seek clarity, to
think critically and carefully, to consider different perspectives , to organize their
thinking , and so on. (Tishman 1995, 40)

Children are curious creatures and enjoy wondering about how and why things work. It seems

only logical that engaging children in higher order thinking would enhance their curiosity and

love for knowledge and learning . Allowing children to think broadly, adventurously and become

more aware of their own thinking patterns is our goal as educators.(Tishman 1995)

We want our children to be able to decide for themselves the worth and value of what

they are taught and what they read. Students should be given the opportunity in school to

analyze and reflect on situations so that they can experience and practice critical thinking

skills. It takes time to become a good thinker, so what better time to teach our children how to

analyze, evaluate, solve problems, and synthesize than in elementary school? Nickerson states,

"We want them to think critically and reflectively in the most general sense, to look for

evidence of the truth or falsity of assertions, to judge arguments on their merits and not on the

basis of who has made them ." (Nickerson 1987, 34)

It is very important for educators to teach children how to think and solve problems

independently. Possible strategies such as rereading and asking questions of clarification can be

taught when a problem is identified. When students are taught different thinking strategies ,

they attempt solving problems using different ideas . This can broaden the child's ability to

solve problems in real life situations.

Factors Needed To Teach Critical Thinking

Unfortunately, many teachers went through their early schooling without learning how

to think effectively, critically, coherently, and creatively . Critical thinking was taught to

educators at a later time in their lives . Therefore, critical thinking did not come as naturally

or easily as if they had been taught when they were children.

21
 There are many factors teachers need to be aware of when teaching critical thinking .

Teachers should model critical thinking in the classroom at all times and become aware of the

language of thinking when teaching critical thinking skills. Metacognition is another strategy

that educators may use to enhance critical thinking. These are a fe~ important factors that will

be addressed.

First, Nickerson discusses the importance of modeling critical thinking in the

classroom . He states :

Teachers must display the traits as examples to students. One must use evidence
skillfully and impartially, be willing to suspend judgment in the absence of sufficient
evidence to support a decision, understand the difference between reasoning and
rationalizing, recognize the fallibility of one's own opinions .. ..

We are capable of these things, but these capabilities need to be cultivated because we
are also capable of blindly following authority, acting without thought for the
consequences of our actions, having our opinions molded and our behavior shaped by
illogical arguments and alogical persuaders of an astonishing variety of types , believing
the future will be what it will be and taking no steps to make it what it could be , and
failing to make any effort to see things from other people's points of view. (Nickerson
1987, 35+ 36)

I find that my own students succeed at a higher rate when I model certain skills in the

classroom. Many times visualization is the key to achieving.

Another factor teachers need to be aware of is the importance of language. When teaching

critical thinking, educators must always remember that there are two important ways the

language of thinking helps students to think better. Shari Tishman stated these two ways in her

book, The Thinking Classroom. 1) "The language of thinking helps students organize and

communicate their own thinking more precisely and intelligently. The language of thinking

communicates and reinforces standards for thinking . 2) Words tell you what kinds of thinking

are appropriate when. This allows the students to raise the level of their thinking when asked

to analyze and and consider alternative interpretations." (Tishman, 1995 , 12-13) When

students are not taught the appropriate definitions of words, it becomes more difficult to receive

the responses that are sought. The words: analyze , evaluate, and synthesize must be used

regularly within the classroom so that students understand the expectations of their work .

22
 In addition, it is also necessary to include metacognition exercises in the classroom.

Metacognition is monitoring or evaluating what you're thinking. It's reflecting on your

experiences and decisions. Tishman agrees with teaching metacognition. She states that the

ability to watch and critique one's own thinking is a key aspect of hur:ian intelligence. (Tishman,

1995, 65) Mental management and reflection lead to good thinking. When considering the

many decisions we have to contemplate in life, metacognition helps people to become more

careful and thoughtful. It allows us to focus our thoughts on the area about which we are

thinking. It helps to clear our minds when pressure overcomes us. Taking time to reflect on

our thoughts can help us identify personal goals and standards for our future. It permits us to

look for new directions to guide our thoughts. We teach this in the classroom to improve

students' thinking in the future. They would become more aware and seek solutions to problems

within the classroom as well as outside the classroom . Students would tackle thinking

challenges independently and creatively rather than passively waiting to be told what to do .

(Tishman 1995)

Teaching Creative Thinking

We must ask ourselves the question, "What do we ultimately want our children to learn

and do now and in the future?" Gruber and Wallace, authors of , "The Evolving Systems

Approach to Creative Work" from Creative People at Work, states, "Creative people commit

themselves to creative tasks. They hope to make some change in the sum of human knowledge and

experience." (Gruber and Wallace 1989, 8) If we teach our children how to think, they will

have a better chance attaining this goal. Woodman , author of "Creativity as a Construct in

Personality Theory" , is also in agreement that creativity is essentially creating new and

original ideas. He states the following:

According to Rogers the creative personality will be characterized by three conditions.

Firstly, the creative personality is open to experiences. This is a lack of rigidity and a
tolerance for ambiguity- in essence the opposite of psychological defensiveness.
Secondly, the source of focus of evaluative judgment is internal. For the creative person

23
 the value of the product of his or her efforts is established by the individual and not by
others. And lastly, associated with the openness and lack of rigidity is the ability to play
spontaneously with ideas, colors, shapes.and relationships. The creative seeing of life in
new and significant ways arises from examination of countless possibilities. (Woodman
vol. 15, #1)

There are many different reasons for teaching creative thinki ng strateg ies in the

classroom. Creative children are known for having a love for learning . Creative thinking gives

children the chance to broaden their interests, and they become more motivated in school , about

learning. Students show that they are more disciplined when taught creative strategies . I will

elaborate about these findings .

Students seem to be much happier and more eager to learn more when they are taught

creative strategies. Tardiff, author of the book , The Nature of Creativity, states:

Creative adults , while children , have also been cited as being happier with books than
with people, liking school and doing well, developing and maintaining excellent work
habits, learning outside of class for a large part of their "education" , having many
hobbies and forming distinct and closely knit peer groups. (Tardiff 19__ , 437)

I think that we are all in agreement that we want our children to love school and learn as much

as possible in a positive way.

Teaching creativity in the classroom appears to have children develop a broader range of

interests. When students are taught to be creative in school, they have a tendency to play with

ideas, and value originality and creativity. We want our children to be able to experience deep

emotions , intuitiveness, and seek interesting situations. This allows them to have a broad range

of interest and a tolerance for ambiguity. (Tardiff 19__ )

When students begin to feel confident and start taking risks with their ideas, they won 't

be so rigid in their work. Students will become more open to new experiences and growth. This

should make it easy for the students to become more disciplined and committed to their work .

(Tardiff , 19 __ )

In the end , motivation becomes more and more evident after children have been working

with creative strategies over a period of time. Motivation is an important factor to keep

24
children interested in school and work. Theresa Amabile, author of , The Social Psychology of

Creativity, states, "Over time, a high level of intrinsic motivation could also increase the

probability that the creativity heuristics of risk-taking and playful exploration will be

applied ." (Amabile 1983, 190) I agree with her findings.

Creative Problem Solving

A creative child needs to be exposed to more creative strategies and techniques to

produce more and better ideas. One way to generate creative ideas is to expose children to

Creative Problem Solving. Creative Problem Solving offers children the opportunity to solve

and think about problems in multiple ways . Creative Problem Solving places an emphasis on

strategies for generating ideas, such as brainstorming, synactics activities , and forming

analogies to solve problems .

Creative Problem Solving is a process that takes a lot of time which stimulates

creativity in the classroom. Students are taught five stages of problem-solving:

1. fact finding
2. problem solving
3. idea finding (possible solutions)
4. solution finding (evaluation of generated solutions)
5. acceptance finding (selling of the final solution to others)

Students are asked to research and find out as much as possible about any subject. This is

usually done in groups. Then, each group has to think of a problem within that subject matter.

To do this, students need to discuss and find problems within that subject and decide on the best

one to work with . Next, students are asked to discuss and brainstorm as many solutions as they

can come up with to solve the problem . During this brainstorming session, all ideas are

accepted, no matter how off the wall . Many of the ideas can be built on and combined into new

ideas. Students will have to decide which solutions are feasible and throw the rest of the ideas

out. Once the group has chosen their best solution, they will have to write up a brief paragraph

(depending on the grade level) of how they will implement their idea.

25
 One of the most common techniques to enhance creativity in Creative Problem Solving is

brainstorming . The purpose of brainstorming is to generate a long list of ideas. The list will

continue to grow if students build on and combine these ideas. A high quantity of ideas is an

important principle because there is a higher probability that some will be original and useful.

Brainstorming is an important principle because it uses deferred judgment, which means that

no one can criticize any of the ideas given. There are four rules to brainstorming:

1 . Criticism is ruled out

2 . Free-wheeling is welcomed

3 . Quantity is wanted

4 . Combination and improvement are sought

Amabile states that one activity a teacher can use when teaching creativity through

brainstorming is called synectics. This is a stimulation program.or, joining together different

and apparently irrelevant elements. (Gordon 1961) This technique is guided by two principles.

One is to make the strange familiar (take a new problem and transform it into something

familiar by the use of metaphor and analogy). The second is to make the familiar strange (take

something commonplace and find new ways of viewing it through analogy)(Amabile 1983) The

reason for using synetics is so that it will generate ideas through the use of emotion. There is

also ·a greater external direction of ideas being used.

When teaching synectics, it is beneficial to introduce students to analogies. There are

four types of analogies when teaching synectics:

1 . personal analogy- the individual imagines himself to be the object with which he is
working
2. direct analogy- facts, knowledge, or techniques from one domain are used in another
3. symbolic analogy- images are used to describe the problems
4. fantasy analogy- the individual expresses his wishes for ideal, though fantastic ,
solutions to the problem
(Amabile 1983, 191)

These analogies will help students use their creativity when problem solving. It makes students

think of ideas in ways that they would never have imagined before. These analogies also enable

students to thinking of ideas in new and different perspectives.

26
 Amabile's ideas support my be liefs about Creative Problem Solving . She claims,

"Evaluation studies of Creative Problem Solving are limited to informal demonstrations that

trained individuals do indeed use deferred judgment and do, at times, produce more and better

ideas than untrained individuals."(Amabile 1983, 192) Creativity f?Xercises give practice in

increasing fluency , flexibility, and originality in writing and drawing. By us ing all of these

techniques, a child will be exposed to more creative strategies .

Open-ended Assessment

It is important to know and understand the kind of assessment being used in the classroom.

For this paper, I will use Diane Hart's definition on open-ended questioning. She is the author

of the book, Authentic Assessment: A Handbook for Educators, and defines open-ended

questioning as the process of gathering information about students-what they know and can do.

Some examples are: observing students as they learn, examining what they produce, testing

their knowledge and skills.(Hart 1994) She goes on to say that open-ended questioning is

worthwhile, significant, and meaningful. It also allows students to engage in the higher-order

thinking skills and the coordination of a broad range of knowledge .(Hart 1994) Open-ended

questioning reflects real-life and interdisciplinary challenges which integrate knowledge and

skills without isolating them.

In this paper I have chosen to assess each lesson with an open-ended question. These open-

ended questions will include moral decisions and require using critical and creative thinking

skills when answering or solving these types of questions. One example is: How would you react

towards the Jewish people of Copenhagen, Denmark if you lived there during the Holocaust?

There are many reasons tor choosing to use open-ended responses tor an assessment tool.

First , open-ended responses show the students' literacy development over a period of time .

Secondly , they reveal the students' strengths rather than weaknesses in any subject. This is

evident when I compare a student's work in June to their work in September . It shows an

27
understanding and/or perspective of a concept.

Doti Ryan, author of the book, Language Arts Assessment: Grades 3-4. claims that she is

able to witness the development of students when she uses open-ended questions as opposed to

standardized testing . She states:

As our focus changes from isolated skills to an integrated whole language

approach, it becomes necessary to reevaluate our tools of assessment. Do
standardized tests, basal tests, and multiple choice writing tests really measure
what the teachers, parents, and students need to know? Essentially what these
tests really measure is the student's response to isolated, disconnected questions.
In order to get a more complete picture of our student's progress, a more
authentic form of assessment is needed, one that is in line with the whole
language philosophy and integrated teaching methods.(Ryan 1994,3)

Doti Ryan also finds that open-ended assessment is very valuable in the classroom . She believes

that open-ended questioning observes students ' literacy development over time . It watches

their development to track and encourage progress and growth. (Ryan 1994)

These types of questions change the role of the students. They become active participants

in both their learning and assessment activities . It decreases test anxiety and increases self-

esteem. It also encourages the habit of self-assessment. How does it do all of this? It reveals

the students' strengths rather than highlight their weaknesses. (Hart 1994) This allows

child ren to have a more positive attitude toward school , learning and themselves. It challenges

them to pose questions, make judgments , reconsider problems, and investigate possibilities .

(Hart 1994)

Robin Lee Harris Freedman is a science teacher at Fort Bragg Middle School who has written

a book entitled, Open-ended Questioning: A Handbook for Educators . She claims that in order to

assess students abilities to use higher-order thinking skills to express content knowledge , the

open-ended question must contain two things: 1) a prompt and 2) directions for writing. A

prompt sets up the writing situation/pre-writing activity (cartoon, map, graph , quote , or

diagram) . When giving the directions for writing , keep the writer focused on the topic and

writing style . (Freedman 1994) She also talks about how open-ended questions allow students

to express their own ideas and synthesize information. This practice assesses writing,

28
conceptual understanding, and thinking skills: especially students's abilities to analyze , to

evaluate, and to solve problems.(Freedman 1994)

In conclusion, Robin Lee Freedman describes how open-ended questions can lead students to

writing and communicating effectively. She states:

When answering open-ended questions, students write as a means to an end. They

express their thoughts through at least four different writing styles: These
styles-mechanical, transactional , expressive, and creative-engage students in
different thinking processes so that they are challenged to think diversely.
(Freedman 1994, 3)

The chart below gives examples of the writing styles students use when answering open-

ended questions and, according to Bloom's Taxonomy, the level of understanding needed to write

in that style.

WRITING STYLES AND UNDERSTANDING

WRITING STYLE EXAMPLES TAXONOMYOF

UNDERSTANDING

-mechanical -dictation ,copying -knowledge

journals

-transactional -note-taking.summaries -comprehension

comparisons, journals

-expressive -journals, I etters, -application

narratives

-creative -stories.plays -analysis

fiction

(Freedman 1994,3)

Freedman has a few final words that I believe are very helpful tor educators to know about when

implementing open-ended questioning in their classrooms. He states:

Open-ended questions often reveal more information about student

understanding than "traditional" testing methods. You can use open-
29
 ended questions to check for conceptual understanding before , during , and
after instruction . They are a tool for pretests, homework, quick checks
for understanding, examine reviews , end-of-unit exams, and even long-
term research. "(Freedman 1994, 3)

It has been my experience that assigning different writing genres can enhance 'good' thinking .

It has helped students become better at answering open-ended questions. The school system that

I work for has invested in the Writing Across the Curriculum Program by John Collins . Most

schools in Boston use this program as well. This program emphasizes the same writing styles

as I have listed in the above chart. It focuses on allowing students to express their content

knowledge in writing rather than answering true/false or multiple choice answers . Educators

need to assess students using many different writing styles to successfully assess students'

content knowledge. I have my students work with every type of writing and I have seen that

using open-ended questions does improve students' thinking abilities.

30
 CHAPTER3
UNIT INTRODUCTION

My unit is a small example of how educators should teach critical and creative thinking

accompanied by a theme; in this case moral education. This unit is designed to be used in a

fourth grade classroom. It is my intention to model how a unit can be designed by giving 6

lessons as examples which cover a variety of topics and skills. The educator that reads this

paper should be able to apply the format to design the rest of the lessons. The main theme

includes teaching about moral education and developing critical and creative skills using the

novel, Number The Stars, by Lois Lowry . Every lesson has a variety of thinking skills and

strategies from which the teacher may choose .

The educator that will be using this unit should keep in mind the qualities of a "good" citizen

that were mentioned earlier in this paper. The teacher should model appropriate behavior when

in front of the children.

This unit gives the teacher suggested time lines for each lesson and includes a learning

objective as well as a critical and/or creative thinking skill objective. It contains a list of all

necessary materials needed to accomplish each lesson. Procedures for each lesson are written

clearly so any teacher could pick up and easily use. This guide contains open-ended questions

for an evaluation . Students will need a journal in which to write their responses to these open-

ended questions. Assessment is an integral part of any educational process. Using open-ended

questions allows children to verbalize their thoughts an/or express them in writing.

Although each lesson has its own objectives, the main areas of focus in this unit includes the

following critical and creative thinking skills:

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS

observation observation
compare/contrast sensory awareness
categorize problem finding
analyze f I ue ncy /f I ex i bi I ity
evaluate synthesize
assess data originality
judgment of situation elaboration

31
 predicting/hypothesize

These thinking skills are used in this unit to reinforce different moral behaviors. For example,

children will be asked to show decision make, solve problems.be responsible, respect others and

accept those that are different. The above skills will help the students .accomplish these goals.

32
Lesson 1: "Now and Then" (prereading activity)
Grade level: 4
Timeframe: 3 days

I. Lesson Overview:

What do people living in today's world think about compared with those who lived during World
War II? Based on the results of a Multiple Intelligence (Ml) self-inventory results, students
will be grouped according to their preferred ways of thinking, then do an activity in which they
use this kind of thinking to make comparisons.

II. Critical Thinking Objective:

To compare and contrast information using a Venn diagram (analysis)

Ill. Creative Thinking Objective:

To generate many ideas through brainstorming (fluency)

IV. Materials:

student journals (notebooks)

prereading information sheets for students (see appendix)
reference books (to be arranged with school librarian)
chart paper
marking pens
map of Europe (see appendix)
Ml Self-lnventory(see appendix)
Brainstorming template(see appendix)

V. Procedure:

Part I:

1. Divide students into small groups. Give students a three-column chart entitled, The
Holocaust and Jewish Culture, with the columns labeled "What I know", "What I Think I
Know", "What I Want to Know".

2. Ask students to record any information they have about the Holocaust and Jewish culture.
Following this , students will record their ideas on the chart.

3. Next, ask students to do fact-finding about the Holocaust, Jewish culture and Denmark,
which is where the story takes place. They can use their pre-reading information sheets and
the reference books as aids for this.

4. List the facts students have gathered on the board or chart paper.

5. Have students take the Ml self-inventory. Then group them according to their Ml strengths .

33
Part II:

1. Ask students to choose one activity from the following:

for visual-spatial learners:

a. Read the Denmark information.

b. Draw a large map of Europe using the map that is provided as a guide.
c. In creative ways, put information about Denmark on the map. Use your reference
books and information sheets. (e.g., land forms, resources , food, population, climate)
d. Next, look up the same information for Massachusetts.
e. Using a Venn diagram, compare and contrast Denmark and Massachusetts.

for verbal learners.

a. Create a radio talk show program .

b. Using a Venn diagram, compare and /or contrast reasons .in your opinion, for those
that believe in war and for those that are against war.
c. Write a dialogue that you will use "on the air" . It should be about 10-15 sentences
and .describe what is happening in Denmark on April 9, 1940. Use the Venn diagram
as a guide.
d. Someone can be the host of the radio show. Other people can be the "callers" who , by
telephone , give their opinions for and against war.

for body/kinesthetic learners.

a. Role-play the information given on the Holocaust information sheet.

b. Choose different characters and brainstorm what each character will say and write a
script. Be sure to include a beginning , middle, and end for each script and how a
situation gets resolved .

for musical/rhythmic learners.

a. Read the short biography of Hans Christian Andersen and other references about him .
b. Brainstorm ideas/information from the biography using the brainstorming
template.
b. Make up a song about his life. Be sure to write out the words!

for intrapersonal learners.

a. Read the sheet about Lois Lowry.

b. Think about the quote, "When I write, I draw a great deal from my own past." Lois
Lowry feel that as an author, she often writes about her own personal experiences .
c. Pretend you are an author. Think about how you live, what your friends and family
are like, and what things you have done in the past (e.g ., vacations , school activities,
holidays) Brainstorm these ideas on the brainstorming template.
d. Using a Venn diagram, compare and/or contrast your own life with Lois Lawry's life .

34
 e. In your journals, write a brief paragraph comparing and contrasting Lois Lowry and
yourself.
for logical/mathematical learners.

a. Using your reference books , find information about WWII.

b. List about 5-8 different events and their dates that took place during WWII.
c. Place these events in chronological order(in the order that fhey happened).
d. Create a time line with these events. Make it neat, colorful and easy to read . Be sure
to include a title.

2 . After each group presents their project, display the projects all around the room . Ask each
group to share and discuss their work.

VI. Evaluation:

Write the following open-ended question on the board. Ask students to respond to it in their
journals:

Q: How would you react towards the Jewish people of Copenhagen , Denmark if you lived there
during the Holocaust? Mention five reactions you would have and reasons for them. Remember
to include information you have learned this week.

To get students to think about the thinking they did in their activities , ask them to respond to
these questions in their journals:

Q: To be able to compare and contrast information, what kinds of thinking did you do? (e.g. ,
look for differences and similarities among pieces of information ; categorize information
according to differences and similarities)

Q: When you were asked to list information you had about the Holocaust, what kinds of thinking
helped you to come up with many ideas? (e .g., recalling experiences I had; listening to what
others said then adding to it)

35
Lesson 2: "What Does Freedom Mean?" (pre-reading activity)
Timeframe: 2 Days
Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
In the 1940's , Germany occupied Denmark. The story shows how this affected the lifestyle of
people who lived in Denmark and how they coped with this. In small groups, then as a whole
class, students will discuss the meaning of freedom and what it means to be without it. Then ,
based on their Ml self inventory results, students will explore the issue further through their
preferred ways of thinking. Students will also organize their ideas into groups/categories.

II. Creative Thinking Objective:

To produce many ideas through brainstorming (fluency)

To produce varied ideas (flexibility)
To expand on ideas (elaboration)

Ill. Critical Thinking Objective:

To analyze information for key themes (classify/categorize)

IV. Materials:

"Life in Occupation" sheet(see appendix)

Venn diagram sheet(see appendix)
student journals

V. Procedure:

Part I:

1 . Write the word "freedom" on the board. In small groups, ask students to talk about the
meaning of this word and list their ideas.

2. Next, ask each group to share their ideas with the class. Afterwards , invite the whole
class to do more brainstorming and add to everyone's ideas.

3. In small groups once again, ask students to organize the ideas about freedom into
different categories. They need to decide which ideas are about similar things, put them
in groups, then give each group a label or title. The categories students create can be
displayed around the room .

4 . While they are in small groups, give students the sheet entitled, "Life in Occupation".
Ask them to write about their own thoughts and feelings as though they were really
living under such circumstances .

5 . Conduct a whole class discussion about what it means for a country to be occupied by

36
 another country.
Part II:

Create centers for each activity so that students can work independently with guidance from the
teacher. Invite students to choose the activity that suits their Ml strength.

for visual/spatial learners:

Fill out a Venn diagram. Have fun creating some icons or symbols for a few of the items in each
section of the diagram. Be able to explain similarities and differences between "occupation" and
"freedom".

for verbal learners:

Pretend you are the teacher. Make a presentation to the class in which you explain the meanings
of "occupation" and "freedom". Feel free to put lots of imagination into your role-play!

for logical learners:

Create your own fiction or non-fiction stories using the topics of "occupation" and "freedom".
Present them to the class in interesting , imaginative ways . Be sure to include the following in
your stories:

1. main characters
2. setting
3. plot (it needs to involve a situation in which someone's freedom is taken away by
another person or country)
4. conflict (a special problem within the plot)
5. outcome (a way in which a problem is resolved)

for musical learners.:

Create a musical game in which you include words , synonyms, antonyms , definitions,
explanations for the game. Be sure to include information about freedom and occupation.

for bodily-kinesthetic learners:

In what ways can you demonstrate the differences between "occupation" and "freedom"? For
example, you might want to use your body, or different objects , or even create objects to show
these differences.

VI. Evaluation:

Based on your own experience, explain the difference between "occupation" and "freedom".
Write about this in your journals. For example :

occupation: My mother punished me one weekend and kept me in the house doing chores and
homework instead of being able to play with my friends.

37
freedom: At summer camp, I was able to choose 5 activities to do on my own through out the
week.

To get students to think about the thinking they did in their activities , ask them to respond to
these questions in their journals:

Q: When you brainstorm for ideas, what strategies help you to think of varied or different
ideas? (e.g., pretend to be someone or somewhere else so you can see things from a different
viewpoint or perspective)

Q: What ways of thinking help you identify which information belongs in a certain category?
(e.g ., thinking of different meanings for words or ideas; finding words or ideas that are like
synonyms for each other, then grouping these together)

38
Lesson 3: "The Term: Morals "

Timeframe: One Week

Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
For the first part of the lesson , teachers are given the option of testing their students for
specific vocabulary and comprehension questions related to the story . Next, in small groups ,
then as a whole class , students will discuss the meaning of morals and how to make moral
judgments.

II. Creative Thinking Objective:

to explore the meaning of the term "morals" through brainstorming (fluency;flexibility)

Ill. Critical Thinking Objective:

to make judgments about the morals of the main characters (evaluation)

IV. Materials:
Vocabulary Sheets chapters 1-4(see appendix)
Comprehension Sheets chapters 1-4(see appendix)
Student journals
paper
something to bind a book together(binder, stapler, clip, etc)
Decision Making template(see appendix)

V. Procedure:

Part I: Note: Teachers have the option of testing students on vocabulary and
comprehension.

Part II:

1 . Write the word "morals" on the board . In small groups, ask students to talk about the
meaning of this word and list their ideas.

2. Next, ask each group to share their ideas with the class.

3. Conduct a whole class discussion about the different characters in the book and the
decisions they have had to make in their lives.

4. Make a chart with the main title of "Making Moral Judgments" . Include 2 subtitles ,
"Characters" and "Decisions". List the students' ideas on the chart based on the oral
discussion above.

5. Give out the decision making template to each group . Ask students to choose one
character from the book and describe that character by explaining the character's

39
 actions. (e.g., The German soldiers were mean because they stopped people on the streets
and bullied them if they were Jewish)

6. Next, ask each group to decide if their statement/character shows good moral behavior
or bad moral behavior and to list their reasoning.

7. Then, ask students to explain their thinking in 3-5 sentences or a brief paragraph.

8. Ask students to illustrate their paragraph which will be bound in a class book entitled
"Making Moral Judgments".

VI. Evaluation:

In your journals, write about a time in your life when you were faced with making an important
moral decision. Be sure to include your reasons for choosing what you thought was right from
wrong. For example:

Last year my mother asked me to babysit my little sister for 30 minutes while she went
to the store. I told her I would not do it because I made plans to play with my friends. I know
that this was the wrong judgment that I made because I should always make sure family comes
first.

To get students to think about their thinking they did in their activities, ask them to respond to
these questions in their journals.

Q: When you brainstorm for ideas, what strategies help you to think of many ideas? (e.g.,
listening to other people's ideas and piggybacking on peoples' ideas)

Q: What kinds of thinking helped you to make judgments about characters moral behaviors?
(e.g .., putting yourself in the character's shoes and deciding whether or not you would make the
same decision)

40
Lesson 4: "Identifying Moral Characteristics "
Timeframe: 2 days
Grade level : 4

I. Lesson Overview:
Each of the main characters in the book have certain moral characteristics . These
characteristics suggest to help the reader understand identify the kind· of person he/her is in the
story. In small groups, students will find a moral dilemma, as pertains to characters in the
story, in the first section (chapters 1-4) of the book and brainstorm several solutions to solve
it. Next, students will write up a plan explaining how they will solve the moral issue.

II. Critical Thinking Objective:

to prioritize a problem to solve (analysis;evaluation)

to generate solutions (fluency , flexibility)

Ill. Creative Thinking Objective:

to produce many ideas (fluency)

IV. Materials:
pencil
paper

V. Procedure:

1 . Ask students to solve a problem from the book.

2. In small groups , ask students to write down each character's name and discuss each
character's problem in the plot and list their ideas .

3. Next, ask each group to share their ideas with the class . Afterwards, invite the whole
class to do more brainstorming and add to everyone's ideas.

4. Tell students that they need to choose the best idea to solve . In small groups once again ,
ask students to prioritize their ideas by using the system: 1= the best idea, 2= the next
best, and so on.

5 . Tell students the idea they labeled #1 will be the problem they will try to solve .

6 . Next, ask students , in their groups, to think about what might have caused this problem
and list their ideas.

7 . Ask students in their groups to write a sentence identifying the problem exactly .

8. Then ask students to brainstorm many possible solutions for the problem and list their
ideas.

41
 9. Next, ask students to prioritize the best solutions using the system they already learned .

1 O. The solution they labeled #1 will be their solution to the problem .

11 . The last step is to try to implement the solution . Ask students to write a short paragraph
(plan) 5-6 sentences. Have each group use the following outline as a guide for their
plan. ·

sentence one: Discuss WHAT problem you intend to solve

sentence two: Discuss WHO will work on the plan
sentence three: Discuss WHERE the plan will take place
sentence four: Discuss WHEN the plan will begin and how long it will take to be
completed
sentence five and six: Discuss HOW the plan will be solved

VI. Evaluation:

Pretend you are one of the characters in the story and write a letter to the author about how you
feel about your moral problem in the story. Write about this in your journals.

To get students to think about the thinking they did in their activities , ask them to respond to
these questions in their journals:

Q: When you brainstorm for ideas, what strategies help you to think of different issues in the
story? (e .g., remembering what happened in a whole chapter, then narrowing it down to one
scene)

Q: When you were asked to prioritize a list of ideas to generate the best solution for the
problem , what kinds of thinking helped you to choose the best idea? (finding the ideas that you
felt were not important until you decided that one stood out as being the most important)

42
Lesson 5: "Character Behaviors"
Timeframe: 60 minutes
Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
The main characters in this story have different personalities . In small groups, then as a whole
class, students will discuss whether or not each character in the story showed good behavior or
poor behavior. Then, in small groups once again, students will share their personal views of
their own strengths and/or weaknesses that they should work on. Based on this self analysis,
students will be asked how they would change the behavior of one character in the book.

II. Critical Thinking Objective:

to assess a person's moral behavior (evaluation)

to propose changes in that person's behavior based on these assessments (synthesis)

Ill. Creative Thinking Objective:

to generate many qualities that might comprise to someone's personality

(f I u ency ;f I exi bi I ity)

IV. Materials:
student journals

V. Procedure:

1 . As a whole class, brainstorm criteria for determining good behavior and list ideas on the
board.

2. In small groups, ask students to brainstorm the characters behaviors in the story from
chapters 1-4 (Ellen , Annemarie, Kirsti, Mrs. Rosen, German soldiers, Lise, Mr. Jo
Hansen, Peter) and list their ideas following the criteria on the board .

3. Next, ask each group to share their ideas with the class. Afterwards, invite the whole
class to do more brainstorming and add to everyone's ideas.

4. In small groups once again, ask students to talk about their own qualities, both positive
and negative.

5. Next, ask each group to share their personal views of themselves with the class by
giving examples of both good and poor behavior.

VI. Evaluation:

Write the following open-ended question on the board . Ask students to respond to it in their
journals.

Q: If you could change the behavior of any character, which one would you change? Why and

43
How?
To get students to think about the thinking they did in their activities, ask them to respond to
these questions in their journals:

Q: When you reflected on the moral judgments of the characters in the story , what strategies
helped you to think? (e.g., pretend to be the characters in the story and judge whether or not
their actions were moral) ·

Q: When you were asked to change the behavior of a character, what kinds of thinking helped
you to come up with the idea? (e.g., thinking how you would behave if you were one of the
characters)

Q: When you were asked to list behaviors of a character, what kinds of thinking helped you to
come up with many ideas? (e.g., listening to what others said then adding to it)

44
Lesson 6: "Moral Judgment"
Timeframe: 90 minutes
Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
Students will consider the moral differences between characters in the story based on what
these characters say. Students will use exact quotes from the story to" illustrate these
differences. They will discuss the outcomes of their thinking in small groups and then with the
whole class.

II. Critical Thinking Objective:

to consider aspects of a person's morality based on what they say (evaluation)

Ill. Creative Thinking Objective:

to produce many ideas through brainstorming (fluency ; flexibility)

IV. Materials:

Who Said That" sheet(see appendix)

student journals

V. Procedure:

1. Write the following sentence on the board:

Joe said, "I'm going to steal my mother's purse so I can buy some candy. "

2. In small groups, ask students to talk about the quote and assess the morality of Joe by
what he says and list their ideas.

3. Next, ask each group to share their ideas with the class.

4. Conduct a whole class discussion on how what people say can make others judge their
morality.

5. In small groups once again, ask students to find one quote from a character and list
ideas how people may perceive that character.

6. Next, ask students to share their ideas with the class. Afterwards , invite the whole
class to do more brainstorming and add to everyone's ideas.

7. In small groups, give the students the sheet entitled , "Who Said That?" Ask them to
find 4 different quotes from the book that shows moral judgment, write down who

45
 said each quote, and write down whether or not they think the quote was a moral thing
to say.

8. Next, ask students to share their ideas with the class .

VI. Evaluation:

Write the following open-ended question on the board. Ask students to respond to it in their
journals:

0: Choose one of the quotes that we discussed from the book that you feel shows the most morals
and why.

To get students to think about the thinking they did in their activities, ask them to respond to
these questions in their journals:

Q: What ways of thinking help you to determine the morality of a person by what they say?
(e.g., Do you decide if you would say such things and determine whether it is moral or not?)

Q: When you were asked to choose the most moral quote discussed today, what strategies helped
you to think of an answer? (e.g., Deciding which quote was the least negative or a quote that you
felt good about)

46
 LESSON OVERVIEWS
(CHAPTERS 7-18)

Lesson 7: "Peace and War I "

Timeframe: one week

Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
This lesson deals with teaching students the difference between the terms "peace" and "war".
The lesson allows students to work cooperatively with the (KTW) Chart (What I Know, What I
Ihink I Know, What I Want To Know). This should generate many discussions through out this
section . After completing the chart, a Venn diagram may be used to compare/contrast the terms
war and peace. (Note: For the first part of the lesson teachers have the option of testing students
on specific vocabulary and comprehension questions related to the story; see appendix)

Lesson 8: "Peace II"

Timeframe : 2 days
Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
In this lesson students think about ways to resolve peace, in general, through small group
discussions. Discuss how peace can be accomplished in the story. Students will brainstorm
different ideas for resolving peace. As an ending activity , students can make "recipe" books
where they combine different ideas for resolving peace. They can use the previous discussion to
generate ideas. Then, students should write up the directions for resolving peace on
index/recipe cards . Students can exchange recipes with one another and discus their solutions.

Lesson 9: "Peace Ill"

Timeframe: 60 minutes
Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
It's important that students understand that there must be peace within our own community and
homes. In this lesson, students may brainstorm ideas cooperatively to maintain peace among
family members, school companions , and /or people in the community. Chart paper is
recommended to write responses.

47
Lesson 10: "Lying"

Timeframe: 60 minutes
Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
In this lesson students will discuss the term "lying". Students will have small group
discussions about whether or not it is ever necessary to lie and list their responses by writing
down examples. Next, have a whole group discussion. (Note: For the first part of the lesson
teachers have the option of testing students on specific vocabulary and comprehension questions
related to the story ; see appendix)

Lesson 11: "Priorities"

Timeframe: 60 minutes
Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
Discuss how the characters had to prioritize their belongings when they were fleeing the
country. Explain to the students that people need to make priorities in order to make the right
decisions in life. In this lesson, give students a list of items they would need in order to survive
a long trip. Next, in small groups, ask students to prioritize the items from most important to
least important. Have a whole group discussion so students can explain their responses. Have
students relate this decision making process to the story.

Lesson 12: "Dilemmas "

Timeframe : One Week

Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
In this lesson, students will use several kinds of critical and creative thinking strategies to
develop solutions to a dilemma they identify in the story. Have students find a dilemma in the
story and brainstorm ideas how they would solve the problem . In small groups, have students
work with a dilemma in the story. They should brainstorm many solutions for this dilemma,
and then as a group choose the best solution. Students may write up a brief paragraph
explaining how this was the best solution. (Note: For the first part of the lesson teachers have
the option of testing students on specific vocabulary and comprehension questions related to the
story; see appendix)

48
Lesson 13: "Moods"

Timeframe: 60 minutes
Grade level : 4

I. Lesson Overview:
In this lesson, students will learn that different moods can change and/or alter feelings and
emotions within a person. They may accomplish this by playing charades. As a whole group,
ask students to brainstorm as many moods as they can think of and list their responses.
Discuss the feelings and emotions people have with these moods. Next, play charades to have
students act out different moods using facial expressions .

Lesson 14: "Moods"

Timeframe: 2 Days
Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
Students will continue with the theme from the previous lesson. Explain to the students that
certain colors represents different moods. ( For example: black and grey niay represents
depression.) They will choose a mood within section four of the book and draw a mural of that
scene. When students are making their murals, have them select the appropriate colors for
the mood of the mural.

Lesson 15: "Character Qualities "

Timeframe : 2 days
Grade level: 4

/. Lesson Overview:
In this lesson, explain to the class that people have different qualities that make up their
character. Students will discuss different qualities that people have with those from the novel.
In small groups, brainstorm different qualities that people can have and also the qualities of the
characters in the book. Students may then use a Venn diagram to compare and/or contrast
themselves with one of the characters in the book.

49
Lesson 16: "Friendships"

Timeframe: One week

Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
Being a friend to someone entails a lot of moral judgment. In this lesson, students will be given
the opportunity to make new friends within the classroom and realize how it feels to make new
friends. This lesson should help those realize how a new student or an isolated student feels
when nobody takes the time to become friends with them. They will do this by doing a week long
activity entitled , "Make New Friends". (see the appendix). They will choose someone that they
would like to get to know, or the teacher may assign partners. For the next week, the two will
work together as partners on any class projects . They will complete a chart and use it as a guide
to help them become better acquainted.

Lesson 17: "Emotions"

Timeframe: 60 minutes
Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
Emotions tell a lot about a person's moral judgment. In this lesson, students will discuss, in
small groups then as a whole class, how emotions can shape a person's moral judgment and
personality. They will then reflect back upon the story and decide which parts of the story were
sad, happy, angry , etc. Have students brainstorm details from the story with each emotion

Lesson 18: "Self Evaluation "

Timeframe: 2 days
Grade level: 4

I. Lesson Overview:
After students have experienced most or all of the lessons in this unit, it is extremely beneficial
to have a culminating activity. This lesson allows students to express all that they have learned
about morality by writing a letter to a younger sibling explaining what they have learned from
this unit, how to act towards others, and how to treat people that are different.

50
 FINAL REFLECTION

As an educator of eight years experience , I have seen the decline of values evidenced in

children 's behavior. No longer do we have church groups, girl scouts , boy scouts , and library

programs for children . These programs used to instill our values. Other things have replaced

them but do not focus on developing values . For example, many children are involved in sports ,

after school programs , day care and music lessons. These programs do not emphasize the

conscious development of values as much as the cited programs did years ago.

I agree with Arthur L. Costa's ideas about teaching thinking . He talks a lot about why and

how we should teach thinking in our schools. I thoroughly enjoyed his article, "Teach For, Of ,

and About Thinking". Teachers and administrators need to create suitable conditions for

teaching thinking in schools and classrooms. Teachers need to pose problems, raise questions ,

and intervene with dilemmas. There needs to be structure for thinking. We need to value it ,

make time for it, secure support materials for it, and evaluate growth in it. Teachers need to

create trust, allow risk taking, promote creativity, and be positive. Educators also need to

model the behaviors of thinking that are desired in students. (Costa 1985)

Doing all of this would certainly push students to use their intelligence while they learn to

think . Costa states , "Most authors and developers of major cognitive curriculum projects

agree that direct instruction in thinking skills is imperative."(Costa 1985 , 20) Installing a

program of teaching for thinking does not happen over night. It takes time , patience, and

practice .

This unit on Number The Stars by Lois Lowry , gives teachers a structure and a

framework to discuss moral issues and decisions. It places importance on the attitudes. skills

and strategies needed to develop positive values. This structure, framework, and/or idea can be

applied to other works in literature and curriculum.

51
APPENDIX A

52
 Meet the Author
Lois Lowry

Lois Lowry is a writer who often tries to

bring realism to her readers. She hopes that
they will identify with her characters' pro-
blems and. thereby, be able to solve their own.
"I want to be able to help adolescents answer
questions about life and the human existence , ' '
she notes . Lowry also advises her young
readers and would-be writers to search their
own memories for special experiences that
could turn into stories. "When I write. I draw
a great deal from my own past.'' states the
author .

Born in Honolulu. Hawaii . .on March 20.

l 937, Lowry moved to Pennsylvania to stay
with her mother's family at the stan of World War II. Her father was a dentist who was sta-
tioned at Pearl Harbor. Lois says of her childhood. "I was a bookworm who was always
reading ... She also enjoyed writing. As a child she wrote many stories and poems. but because
of her shyness did not share them with anyone. Lois anended Brown University in 1954, but
she left to get married and raise four children. In 1972 she got her B.A. degree from the
University of Southern Maine.

A Summer to Die and Autumn Street are based on the author's real-life experiences. A Sum-
mer to Die is about a girl who dies from cancer; Lowry's own sister met the same fate. Autumn
Street is set in Pennsylvania at the stan of World War II in a grandfather's home. This was
similar to Lowry's own life. Number rhe Srars, Lawry ' s first Newbery Medal winner. tells the
story of a brave Danish family who are members of the Resistance Movement during World
War II. The idea for this book came from the childhood experiences of a good friend. Lowry
received the 1994 Newbery Medal for The Giver. a science-fiction tale about a utopian (or
dystopian!) community.

Lois Lowry now lives in Boston. She enjoys listening to classical music while she does her
writing. Lowry c:.ppreciates hearing from children. "Often kids send me ideas: however,
though I may use a general idea sent by a child, I always veer off into my imagination to
enhance the plot.''

4 Number rile Stars •. s, 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.

 Pre-Reading Information
Denmark

Denmark, land of the ancient Vikings, is a small country in northern Europe . It is located
just north of Germany. Along with Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland, Denmark is part
of the region of the world known as Scandinavia. The Kingdom of Denmark is made up of a
peninsula, called Jutland, and about 500 islands. There are about 5,000,000 Danes; about half
live on these nearby islands.

Since the days of the Vikings, Denmark has been a nation of the seas. Fishing and ship-
building are important industries; however, there are other important industries as well. The
nation exports a large amount of butter, cheese, ham, and bacon to other countries. The Danes
are also known for their fine furniture and silverware. ._

Copenhagen. which is located on the east coast of Sjaelland. an island off the east coast of
Denmark. is the capital of the kingdom . It is also the commercial and manufacturing center of
the country . One of the most famous amusement parks in the world, Tivoli Gardens. is located
there.

Denmark has a constitutional government similar ta that of England. Christian X became

king in 1912 and he ruled until his death in 194 7. He encouraged and brought about many
democratic reforms while he was king. King Christian is best known for his passive resistance
to the Nazi occupation of Denmark.

Queen Margrette II is the present ruler of Denmark. She took the throne in 1972. At that
time the Danish constitution was amended to permit accession to the throne by a woman.

Denmark and World War II

On April 9. 1940. Germany made a swift, surprise attack upon Denmark. The Danes sur-
rendered after only a few hours of fighting. As long as they met the Germans· demands. the
government was permitted to exist.

The Resistance Movement in Denmark was very strong, however. Factories, bridges, and
'
I
roads were damaged or destroyed by these resistance groups. In August 1943, therefore, the

, Germans took over the Danish government. One month later the secret Freedom Council was
organized to lead the Resistance!

The Danish Flag

. © 1996 Educational Impressions, Inc. Number the Stars 5

 Pre-Reading Information
The Holocaust

World War II began in 1939. The Nazis managed to conquer most of Europe. Hitler gave
orders to systematically round-up and exterminate Jews and others. They were sent to concen-
tration camps. Many were murdered in gas chambers. Others were shot by firing squads. The
Nazis killed about six million European Jews . Millions of others, inducting Gypsies. Catholic
priests. and artists, were also murdered. This genocide of the Jews and others is known as the
Holocaust.

Many Danes risked their own lives to save the lives of others during the Holocaust. The
Freedom Council helped about 7,000 Danish Jews to escape to Sweden!

:0 1996 Educational Impressions, Inc. Number rhe Srars 7

 Pre-Reading Activity
Hans Christian Andersen
(1805-1875)

Perhaps Denmark's best known-and best loved!-author is Hans Christian Andersen. Hans
Christian Andersen came from a very poor family. He did not go to school until he was a
young man. Hans wanted an education so badly that he entered first grade at age seventeen!
This was after he'd worked at many jobs.

Andersen wrote many stories, including The liule Match Girl. The Ugly Duckling, and The
little Mennaid. A statue representing the Little Mermaid is in the harbor of Copenhagen and is
a world-famous landmark. Andersen's fairy tales continue to be popular all over the world!

An Annotated Bibliography
Research the works of Hans Christian Andersen. Create an annotated bibliography of his
works .

•
1

8 Number the Stars SJ 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.

APPENDIX B

53
 Graphic Organize!"s
Venn Diagram A
A Venn diagram can show students' thought processes as they compare objects. demonstrating the
differences and similarities which the objects possess. Areas where the circles overiap represent simiiar
qualities between or among the objects. Areas of the circles which do not overlap should describe
dissimilar characteristics.

---------------------------------------------------
Name----------------- Date-------·-------

Subject or 1itle

#2004 .-'.cnvities for .A!ly Liuran,irr Unit-lnumuuiiale 14 C Teacnu Created Matenal.J. inc.
 ---·- - -·---

Name __________________ _

Ute In Occupation

Answer the following questions in complete sentences.

This story takes place in Denmark during World War II, when it is occupied by
Germany.

1. What do you think it would be like to live under these

circumstances? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

2. What co u Id you d O, or not

do? - - - - - - -

3. W hat things w o u Id y OU not

have? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

4. H o w W O U d y O U
feel? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
 DECISION MAKING TEMPLATE

1. Choose a character ------------------

2. Describe the character in one word ----------------

3. Explain why the character is this way (give an example from

the book)
·---------------------------------------------------

Fill in the blanks using what you wrote above.

Example: The German soldiers were mean when they stopped

people on the streets and bullied them if they were Jewish.

was/were because/when
(name of character) ( description)

---------------------------------------------------
(give several reasons)

----------------------------------------------------
 BRAINSTORMING TEMPLATE

1. LIST AS MANY DETAILS YOU CAN THINK OF THAT DESCRIBE

YOUR LIFE? (E.G., PLAYING, GAMES, STUDYING, HOMEWORK,

READING, SPORTS, ART, MUSIC)

----------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------

2. DESCRIBE YOUR FRIENDS AND FAMILY.

3. DESCRIBE DIFFERENT VACATIONS YOU HAVE BEEN ON.

4. DESCRIBE HOW YOU CELEBRATE HOLIDAYS.

----------------------------------------------- --

----------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------- --
Section 4: Chapters 13-15 Number the Stars

Make New friends

Annemarie's best friend Ellen has just left the country, and she probably won't return for a
very long time, if ever. Have you ever had a good friend move away? Of course you can still
write to your friend, but Annemarie won't be able to do that. When ~he gets back to
Copenhagen, Annemarie will need to make new friends. That's not always easy, but it's
worth the effort.
Try making a new friend this week! First, choose someone that you would like to get to know,
or have the teacher assign you a partner. For the next week, the two of you will work together
as partners on any class projects. Complete the following chart and use it as a guide to help
the two of you get better acquainted.

Monday
You can't be someone's friend without getting to know them. Interview your partner to find
out:
Name
---------------------- Age--------
Address _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Phone--------------------------------~
Familv members - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Hobbies _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Now your partner can interview you!

Tuesday
Get better acquainted by asking your partner to complete these interview statements:
One thing I like about school is ________________________

One thing I dislike about school is - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

My dream is to s o m e d a y - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
My favorite food i s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
My religion is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

In mv free time I like to - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

My favorite TV show is - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
#424 Literature Unit 30 01993 Teacher Created Materials. Inc.
Section 4: Chapters 13-15 Number the Stars

Make Ne'N Friends (cont.)

Wednesday
Work with one or two other sets of partners. Introduce your new friend to the group, and
have him or her introduce you.

Thursday
Secretly do something nice for your new friend, such as give him or her a new pencil, or draw
a picture of something he or she likes and leave it on his or her desk.

Friday
Pack a lunch for your friend! Now that you know him/her, pack a favorite sandwich and
snack in a bag with his/ her name on it. If your friend packs a lunch for you, too, you can
have a Friendship Picnic at lunchtime.
After lunch, draw a Venn diagram on a large sheet of paper. Have one circle for yourself and
one for your friend. Let the circles overlap in the middle, as shown below. Put the
characteristics that both of you share in the middle where the circles overlap. Put the ways in
which you are different in your own portion of the circle.

John Joe

Brother, Mark Soccer Sister, Ann

Loves pizza Love chocolate Loves chicken
Protestant Like band music Catholic

Wants to be Hate getting Wants to \!lay

biologist dressed up baseba I

(different) (different)

#424 Literature Unit

C1993 Ttacher Crtattd Matmals. Inc. 31
APPENDIXC

54
18

FIGURE 2 1

An Ml Inventory for Adults

Check those statements that apply 1n each intelligence category. Space has been
provided at the end of each intelligence for you to write additional information not
specifically referred to in the inve ntory items.

Linguistic Intelligence
Books are very important to me.
I can hear words in my head before I read, speak , or write them down.
I get more out of listening to the radio or a spoken-word cassette than I do from
television or films.
I enjoy word games like Scrabble. Anagrams . or Password .
I enjoy entertaining myself or others with tongue twisters, nonsense rhymes . or
puns.
Other people sometimes have to stop and ask me to explain the meaning of the
words I use in my writing and speaking.
English. social studies. and history were easier for me in school than math and
science.
When I drive down a freeway, I pay more attention to the words written on
billboards than to the scenery.
My conversation includes frequent references to th ings that I've read or heard.
I've written something recently that I was particularly proud of or that earned me
recognition from others.
Other Linguistic Strengths:

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
I can easily compute numbers in my head.
Math and/or science were among my favorite subjects in school.
I enjoy playing games or solving brainteasers that require logical thinking.
I like to set up little "what if" experiments (for example, "What if I double the
amount of water I give to my rosebush each week? ")
My mind searches for patterns, regularities . or logical sequences in things.
I'm interested in new developments in science .
I believe that almost everything has a rational explanation .
I sometimes think in clear. abstract, word less . 1mageless concepts.
I like finding logical flaws in things that people say and do at home and work.
I feel more comfortab le when something has been measured, categorized.
analyz ed . or quantified 1n som e way.
Other Log,cal-Mathemat,cal Strengths :

Spatial Intelligence
I often see clear visual images when I close my eyes.
- - - I'm sensitive to co lor.
 I LJ

I freq uently use a cam era or camco rder to record wha t I se e arouna me
I en1oy doing 11gsaw puzzl es, ma zes . and other vis ual pu zz les.
I have v1v1d dreams at nigh t.
I ca n generally fi nd my wa y around unfam iliar terri tory .
I like to draw or doodle.
Geometry was easier for me than algebra in school.
I can comfortably imagine how something might appear 1f it were looked down
upon from directly above in a bird 's-eye view . •
I prefer looking at read ing material that is heavily illustrated.
Other Spatial Strengths:

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
I engage in at least one sport or physical activity on a regular basis .
I find it difficult to sit still for long periods of time.
I like working with my hands at concrete activities such as sewing, weaving ,
carving, carpentry, or model building.
My best ideas often come to me when I'm out for a long walk or a jog , or when
I'm engaging in some other kind of physical activity.
I often like to spend my free time outdoors.
I frequentl y use hand gestures or other forms of body language when conversing
with someone.
I need to touch things in order to learn more about them.
I enjoy daredevil amusement rides or similar thrilling physical experiences.
I would describe myself as well coordinated.
I need to practice a new skill rather than simply reading about it or seeing a video
that describes it .

Other Bodily-Kinesthetic Strengths:

Musical Intelligence
I have a pleasant singing voice.
I can tell when a musical note is ott'key.
I frequently listen to music on radio, records. cassettes . or compact discs.
I play a musical instrument.
My life would be poorer if there were no music in 1t.
I sometimes catch myself walking down the street with a television pngl e or other
tune runn ing through my mind .
I can easily keep time to a piece of music with a simple percussion inst rument.
I know the tunes to many ditterent songs or musical pieces.
If I hear a musical selection once or twice . I am usually able to sing 11 back fairly
accurately.
I often make tapping sounds or sing little melodies while working, studying, or
learning something new .
Other Musical Strengths:

continued
20

Interpersonal Intelligence
I'm the sort of person that people come to for advice and counsel at work or in
my neighborhood .
I prefer group sports like badminton , volleyball, or softball to solo sports such as
swimming and jogging.
When I have a problem , I'm more likely to seek out another person for help than
attempt to work it out on my own.
I have at least three close friends .
I favor social pastimes such as Monopoly or bridge over individual recreations
such as video games and solitaire.
I enjoy the challenge of teaching another person , or groups of people , what I
know how to do.
I consider myself a leader (or others have called me that).
I feel comfortable in the midst of a crowd .
I like to get involved in social activities connected with my work, church, or
community.
_ _ I would rather spend my evenings at a lively party than stay at home alone.
Other Interpersonal Strengths:

lntrapersonal Intelligence
I regu larly spend time alone meditating, reflecting, or thinking about important life
questions.
I have attended counseling sessions or personal growth seminars to learn more
about myself.
I am able to respond to setbacks with resilience.
I have a special hobby or interest that I keep pretty much to myself.
I have some important goals for my life that I think about on a regular basis.
I have a realistic view of my strengths and weaknesses (borne out by feeaback
from other sources).
I would prefer to spend a weekend alone in a cabin in the woods rather than at a
fancy resort with lots of people around.
I consider myself to be strong willed or independent minded.
I keep a personal diary or journal to record the events of my inner life.
I am self-employed or have at least thought seriously about starting my own
business.
Other lntrapersonal Strengths:

Source: From 7 Kinds of Smart by Thomas Armstrong. Copyright© 1993 by Thomas

Armstrong. Used by permission of Dutton Signet, a division of Penguin Books USA Inc.
APPENDIX D

55
 b. Reason from premises with which one dis-
agrees--without lening the disagreemem inter-
fere with one·s own reasoning ("suppositional
thinking")
c. Withhold judgment when the evidence and rea-
sons are insufficient
10. Take a position (and change a position ) when the
evidence and reasons are sufficient to do so
11 . Seek as much precision as the subject permits
12. Deal in an orderly manner with the parts of a com-
plex whole
13. Be sensitive to the feelings, levels of knowledge, and
~ e e of sophistication of others.2

WORKING DEFINITION: Critical thinking is reason- Elememary clarification:

able, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what 1. Focusing on a question
to believe or do.1 a. Identifying or formulating a question
Critical thinking so defined involves both dispositions b . Identifying or formulating criteria for judging
~ - possible answers
C A.....D.isR9siti~ns _,.. ) c. Keeping the situation in mind
l. Seekaclear statemem of the thesis or question 2. Analyzing argumerus
2. Seek reasons a. Identifying conclusions
3. Try to be well informed b. Identifying stated reasons
4. Use credible sources and mention them c. Identifying unstated reasons
5. Take into account the total situation d. Seeing similarities and differences
6. Try to remain relevant to the main poim e. Identifying and handling irrelevance
7. Keep in mind the original or basic concern f. Seeing the strucrure of an argument
8. Look for alternatives g. Summarizing
9. Be open-minded 3. Asking and answering questions of clarification and
a. Consider senouslv other points of view than challenge, for example:
one's own ("dialogical thinking" ) a. Why?
b. What is your main poim?
c. What do you mean by . . . ,
-,t,copynght O 1985 by Robert H. Enms. d . What would be an example?
 d. Reputation
1 FIGURE e. Use of established procedures
An Application of CriticaJ Thinking f. Known risk to reputation
in Real Life g. Ability to give reasons
h. Careful habits
The Chllrge at Murder md \loluffW'f ~ . ~ Presented 5. Observing and judging observation reporu : crnena
kl luron .1t .1 TruJ in the St.itr ot Illinois
( that are often not necessary conditions ):
The c~ at Murder a. Minimal inferring involved
To sustain the charge of Murder. the St.air must~ the following
propositions: b . Short time interval between observation and
First: That the Deiendant perio(med the acts that caused the death report
of the victim, OI' c. Report by observer, rather than someone else
Second: That when the Deiendant did so, she intended to kill QI' (that is, the report is not hearsay)
do great bodily harm to the Victim, °'she knew that her i1CtS v.o..ald
d. Records are generally desirable. If report is
cause death OI' great bodily harm to the Victim, QI' she knew that her
acts created ll strong probabi Ii ty oi duth °' greiit bodily harm to the based on a record, it is generally best that:
Victim, and (1) The record was close in time to the
Third: That the Oefendam was nee justified in using the force that
she used. observation
If you find from your considerlltion of a II the ev idfflc:e that each of (2) The record was made by the observer
these propositions has been proved beyond ll reiiSONbie doubt. then (3) The record was made by the reponer
you should find the ~ m guilty.
If. on the other hand, you find from your consideration of .ill the ( 4) The statement was believed bv the reporter.
evidence that llny of these propositions has not been~ beyond a either because of a prior belief in its correct·
reasonable doubt, then you should find the Delendllm no< guilty. ness or because of a belief that the observer
The Chllrwe o1 \loluffW'f Mllnst.iughtier was habitually correct
To sust.ain the charge of Volunt.ary Manslaughter, the St.ate must e. Corroboration
prove the following propositions: f. Possibility of corroboration
First: That the Deiendant intentionlllly QI' knowingly performed the
acts that caused the death of the Victim, and g. Conditions .of good access
Second : That when the Defendant did so. she believed that h. Competent employment of technology. if technol-
circumstanc~ existed that would have justified killing the Victim, and ogy is useful
Th,rd: That the Deiendant's belief that such rncumst.ance5 existed
was unreasonable. and i. Satisfaction by observer (and reporter. if a differ-
Fourth : That the Defendant was not justified in using the force that ent person) of credibility criteria
1he used. Inference:
If you find from your consideration of all the evidence that each of
these propos1t1ons has been proved beyond .i reasonable doubt, then 6. Deducing and judging deductions
ycu should find the Defencbnt guilty. a. Class logic-Euler circles
If. on the orher hand, you find from your consideration of all the b. Conditional logic
·evidence that any or t ~ propositions has nee been ~ beyond a
reasonable doubt then you should find the Defendant no< guilty. c. Interpretations of statements
( 1) Negation and double negation
(2) Necessary and sufficient conditions
(3) Other logical words: "only," "if and onlv if."
e. What would not be an example (though close to "or," "some," "unless," "not both," and so on
being one)? 7. Inducing and judging inductions
f. How does that apply to this case (describe case, a. Generalizing
which might well appear to be a ( 1) lypicalicy of data: limitation of coverage
counterexample )' (2) Sampling
g. What difference does it make? (3) Tables and graphs
h. What are the faru, b . Inferring explanatory conclustons and
i. Is this what vou are saying:---- hypotheses
j., 'v:'ould vou sav some more about that ) ( 1) Types of explanatacy conclusi o n s and
.-Basic support. hypocheses
"l Judging the credibilirv of a source; criteria ( chat are ( a) Causal claims
often not necessarv conditions): (b) Claims about the beliefs and attit udes of
a. Expemse people
b. Lack of conflict of interest ( c) Imerprecations of authors · imended
c. Agreement among sources meanings
APPENDIX E

56
 Vocabulary
Chapter One
Why Are You Running?

Use the words in the box to complete the sentences. You may need to use your dictionary.

anxiously edgy glaring lanky obstinate

occupation prodded residential rucksack scolded
scurried skirted stocky sulk trembled trudged

1. We _ _ _ _ _ _ awaited the news of Dad's surgery.

2. Businesses are not usually located in _______ areas .
3. The _ _ _ _ _ _ mule refused to budge.
4. We couldn't see well in the sunlight.
5. The mice across the field when they saw the cat.
6. Jack and Sam through the snow for two miles.
7. Life changed for the Danes after the Nazi _______ of Denmark.
8. Leaves and blossoms in the breeze .
9. Joe the barn on his way back to the house .
10 . When Mom Peter for his bad behavior. he began t o - - - - - - -
11. Andrcw·s build helped him excel at track and basketball .

Four of the words from the first part of this activity were not used. Write an original sentence
using each of those words.

© 1996 Educational Impressions, Inc. .Vumher che Scars 9

 Comprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapter One
Why Are You Running?

Answer the following questions in complete sentence form . Give examples from the story to
support your response.

l. Why wasn't Kirsti afraid of the soldiers?

2. Why were there German soldiers in Copenhagen?

3. Why did Mrs. Rosen insist that the girls take a different route to school?

4. Why had· it been so long since Kirsti had a cupcake'!

tl

11

Ii IO Number the Stars 'S) 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.

 Vocabularv..,
Chapter Two
Who Is the 1l1an Who Rides Past?

For each sentence circle the most appropriate definition for the word printed in bold as it is
used in the sentence. Use your dictionary to help you. An example h~s been done for you.

EXAMPLE: Papa placed the halter around the mule's neck.

chain saddle @
1. Dan· s T-shirt and jeans were not suitable for his job interview.

tailored proper impressive

2. The design on Maria's blouse was embroidered.

formed with thread sewn with patches of high quality

I 3. The graduation ceremony was very solemn.

serious long emotional

4. Because it was the first of April. we expected many pranks at school.

I problems requests tricks

5. Geraldine wove a very intricate pattern into her rug.

I complicated original plain

I 6. Grandmom was bus y crocheting the baby· ~ o utfit and blanket.

me miin~ '.'.1!h th,r.:-:1d ~· umn~ wit h sc isso rs making with a hooked needle
I
7. Andrew recited the poem perfectly.
I wrote repeated illustrated

I 8. Ann added the lace tablecloth to her trousseau.

linen closet bridal collection wooden cabinet

I
Choose four vocabularv words from the first part of this activity . Use each in an original
I sentence.

II_
J:. ·~~Jft~?1.:-------------------------------------
i
0 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc. .Yumber the Stars II
 Comprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapter Two
Who ls the iv/an Who Rides Pase?

Answer the following questions in complete sentence form. Give examples from the story to
support your response.

1. What had caused Lise to say that Annemarie would be special forever?

2. What did the boy mean when he said to the soldier. "All of Denmark is his bodyguard"'?

3. Why didn't Denmark fight against Germany?

-+ . How Jid Annemarie ·s sister Lise die?

'I
I
I
I
~;;,, ..

ID
I

12 Number the Stars s 1996 Educational Impressions, Inc.

 Vocabuiarv ~

Chapters Three and Four

Where Is 1vlrs. Hirsch? and It Will Be a Long 1Vight

Match the vocabulary words on the left to the definitions on the right. Place the correct letter
on each line.

1. awe A. wasted time

2. belligerent B. a mixed emotion of reverence and awe
3. curfew C. distributed according to plan
4. dawdled D. to stare angrily or sullenly
.-
5. designated E. done in a taunting or mocking manner
6. drawn F. to consider with thoroughness

7. exasperate G. emblem of Nazi Germany

8. glower H. regulation requiring people to be off streets

9. haughtily I. ordained leader of Jewish congregation

_ _ 10. ponder J. covered with water
__ 11 . practical K. hostile: eager to fight
__ 12. rabbi L. having acquired worldly knowledge
_ _ 13. rationed M. selected for a purpose
_ _ 14. sarcastically N. house of worship in Jewish faith
_ _ 15. scoffed 0. mocked
_ _ lb. supn1sucatcu . . ...... ...: ..... ~ - • "- #

_ _ 17. sprawled Q. to cause physical pain or mental anguish

__ 18. submerged R. to make angry or impatient
__ 19. swastika s. lying with body and limbs spread out
__ 20. synagogue T. useful
__ 21. torment u. with excessive pride

You Are There!

Pretend that you are a reporter covering the events in Copenhagen. Use five or more
vocabulary words in your article.

'II
1,
' ;J 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc. .\'umbt'r cht' Swrs 13
 :omprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapters Three and Four

swer the following questions in complete sentence form. Give examples from the story to
>port your response.
IAPTER THREE: Where Is Mrs. Hirsch?
According to Peter, why was the button shop closed?

Explain Annemarie's feelings about being a "bodyguard'' for Ellen.

:HAPTER FOUR: It Will Be a Long Night

. Why had the Danes destroyed their own ships?

2. Why did Mr. Johansen predict that 1t would be a long night'?

t-i .Vumbe r rhe Sra rs ".: 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.

 Vocabuiary
Chapters Five and Six
Who Is the Dark-Haired One?
and Is the Weather Good for Fishing?

Choose the word or phrase in each set that is most like the first word in meaning.

wise historic very old

1. ancient:
surpnse excitement contentment
2. amazement:
quiet laugh raspy laugh hearty laugh
3. chuckle:
having knowledge axiom
very weary
4. aware:
infestation decoration
irritation
5. exasperation:
testified cried out
defined
6. exclaimed:
stressed twisted
refined
7. distorted:
I attraction heat circulation
8. fascination:
contempt heat fear
9. scorn:
fix grasp cover
10. clench:
I
Choose the word or phrase in each set that is most unlike the first word in meaning.
I
studied ignored
peered: exammeJ
2 1.
celebraung crying
2. mourning: gnevmg

:I 3. reluctantly: eagerly grudgingly slowly

huge petite constant

4. massive:
I often usually hardly
5. seldom:
11 6. soared: jumped hovered sank

hesitatingly sadly confidently

7. tentatively:
spreading contained creeping
8. sprawling:
submissive Jictatorial overbearing
9. imperious:
quickly gradually softly

.Vumber the Stars l5

9 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.
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____.. _.
 Comprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapters Five and Six

Answer the following questions in complete sentence form. Gi ve examples from the story to
support your response.
CHAPTER FIVE: Who Is the Dark-Haired One?
l. Why did Annemarie break the chain and remove it from Ellen's neck?

2. By showing the photos of the babies. what did Papa hope to prove?

CHAPTER SIX: ls the Weather Good for Fishing?

l. What code did Mr. Johansen use to tell Henrik that he was sending someone to hide?

2. Why did the soldier on the train ask if they were going to Henrik's for the New Year'?

16 Number rhe Stars 0 1996 Educational Impressions, Inc.

 Vocabularv &I

Chapters Seven and Eight

The House by the Sea and There Has Been a Death

For each sentence circle the most appropriate definition for the word printed in bold as it is
used in the sentence. Use your dictionary to help you.
1. Linda watched with dismay as the fire spread.

surpnse dread disbelief

2. Without sleep, one may become easily irritated.

annoyed prosperous proportioned
[ .
3. The shouting distracted me from my studying.

L diverted decorated subverted

4. Pat ruefully attended the ceremony.

I artfully happily regretfully

r 5. The chipmunk scampered to safety.

ran hurriedly jumped crawled

f
6. George was frightened by the specter.
f dangerous task ghostly apparition impressive event

7. Jack asked timidly for more c:ike.

I shyly
quickly boldly

I 8. It was the custom for the students to wear special shirts c:.i.ch Friday.

tradition choice law

I:
9. The tree was gnarled from the constant wind.
twisted diseased worn away

10. The white cloth was speckled with blue.

ruined dotted covered

I 11. The cat darted from place to place.

moved swiftly jumped gracefully meandered

l,
- 12~ It was too hazy to see the boats.

distant late unclear

I ~: 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc. .Vwnber rh e Stars 17

 Comprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapters Seven and Eight

CHAPTER SEVEN: The House by the Sea

I. What prompted Annemarie to pat Ellen· s hand?
n

2. How did this visit differ from others that Annemarie had made to Uncle Henrik's farm?
Ii
u.
u
CHAPTER EIGHT: There Has Been a Death
1. Explain Annemarie ·s joke about the butter.

I!
ll 2. According to Uncle Henrik. why had they moved the furniture'! Why couldn ·t Annemarie
remember Great-aunt Birtc !
fl

9 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc. Number the Stars 19

 Vocabuiarv ~

Chapter Nine
Why Are You Lying?

Match the vocabulary words on the left to the definitions on the right. Place the correct letter
on each line.

1. affectionately A. foamy
2. alen B. lovingly; fondly
3. casket C. right away
4. deftly D. easily broken .
5. determined E. held in balance
6. fragile F. done with measured regularity
7. frothy G. persuade
8. hearse H. firm: resolved
9. immediately I. a triangularly-shaped piece
_ _ 10. poised J. skillfully
_ _ 11. rhythmically K. car used to transport a dead person
_ _ 12. urge L. coffin
_ _ 13. urgency M. keen and watchful
_ _ 14 . wedge N. pressing importance

l!
LI

Choose three vocabulary words from the first part of this activity . Write an original sentence
for each.

[!

r,
r; 20 Numher the Star.I' ,, 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.
 Comprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapter Nine
Why Are You Lying?

Answer the following questions in complete sentence form . Give examples from the story to
support your response.

1. Why was Annemarie so angry at Mama and Uncle Henrik? Did she have a valid reason?
Explain.

2. Judge Uncle Henrik's statement: ··rt is much easier to be brave if you do not know
everything." Show how Annemarie followed this advice.

3. Contrast the mourning of Lise and that of Great-aunt Bi rte. What conclusion did Annemarie
reach?

4. Why did Ellen cry out at the end of this chapter'?

IJ

ll

9 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc. S wnba rhe Srars 2l

 Vocabulary
Chapter Ten
Let Us Open the Casket

Use your dictionary to define the following words as they were used in the chapter.

1. accented

2. condescending
3. extinguished
4. gasped
5. gleamed
6. mantel
~ -

-..,:..;_...... 7. ·· psalm

8. recurring

1.,:\ . ..;\. ,... .9. · spattered

10. surge

11. staccato
12. typhus

A Letter Home
Imagine that you are Annemarie. Write a letter home to Papa describing the events at Great-
aunt Birte"s '.'funeral." l rse at least four vocabulary words from the first part of this activity.

· ... .... . . ,. .. • .. .....·~~-...

, .

.... ,. · ... . ,

22 ,Vumber the Stars ;: 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.

I' Comprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapter Ten
I Let Us Open the Casket
I
Answer the following questions in complete sentence form. Give examples from the story to
support your response.

1. What caused Annemarie· s relationship with Ellen to change? Why did it make her feel sad?
I.
I
I
2. Why was the Nazi officer suspicious when Mama explained that the people had gathered
there because there had been a death?

I
, i.i~.~{~-: •.. ·_______________________________

I 3. What explanation did Mama give to satisfy the Nazi officer'? Discuss his reaction.

I
I
I 4. Describe the cliffhanger ;.it the end of Chapter Ten.

I
I
I
I

I .0 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc. .Vumber rhe Srars 23

 Comprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapter Eleven
Will We See You Again Soon, Peter?

Answer the following questions in complete sentence form. Give examples from the story to
support your response .

l. What was in the casket? Why were these things so necessary? Why were they hidden?

2. Explain the reason that the baby 's mother argued with Peter. In your opinion. who was
right? Discuss your reasoning.

3. Why didn't Mr. Rosen question Peter about the packet for Henrik?

4 . The people t1eeing from the Nazis had to leave all their worldl y possessions in Co penhagen.
Yet, they still retained something important. Explain this.
l
l

I © 1996 Educational Impressions, Inc. .Vumber che Stars 25

 Comprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapter Twelve
Where Was 1.llama?

Answer the following questions in complete sentence form . Give examples from the story to
support your response.

1. The author provides a sensory description of the night of departure. Locate some examples.

2. Do you agree or disagree with Annemarie· s thought: .. lt was harder for the ones who were
waiting"'? Explain.

3. What caused Annemarie to feel anxious when she awoke?

t
-+ . Describe the unexpected sight that Annemarie witnessed.

I'
I

r
r 26 Number rhe Srars ~ 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.
 Vocabulary
Chapter Thirteen
Run! .As Fast as You Can!

Use your dictionary to define the following words as they were used in the chapter.

1. approaching

2. clumsy
3. dashed
4. discolored
5. faltered . -
6. glanced
7. hobbled

8. invisible
9. instantly
10. kneel

11. stricken

12. wry

Create a Word Search!

Use the vocabulary words from the first part of this activity to create a word-search puzzle and
exchange puzzles with your classmates .

~ 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc. Number rhe Scars 27

 Comprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapter Thineen
Run! As Fast as You Can!

Answer the following questions in complete sentence form. Gi ve examples from the story to
support your response.

l. Explain what happened to Mama.

2. How did Annemarie aid her injured mother?

3. Describe the shocking discovery that Annemarie made . Why did Mama say, "My God. it
may all have been for nothing ··:

..i. What was Annemarie 's solution to the problem ? Why c..l idn"t Mama answer Annemarie
when she asked what was in the bottom of the basket?

28 Number rhe Scars ~; 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.

 Vocabuiarv"
Chapter Fourteen
On the Dark Path

Choose the word or phrase in each set that is most like the first word in meaning.

1. brusque: neat abrupt friendly quick

2. taut: loose heavy tight soft

3. prolong: include lengthen reject shorten

4. dread: anger hope pressure fear

5. tantalize: entice seize tarnish spread

6. vivid: alert bright serious whole

7. segment: sphere circle section whole

8. donned: took off put on set aside returned

9. glittering: sparkling glowering cheerful stark

10. battered: contained angered beaten fastened

ll. wriggle: wreck twist snap dangle

12. interrupt: question interpret hinder connect

Pietu re This
Draw a picture that illustrates an event from the story . Write a caption explaining what is hap-
pening. Use .at least three vocabulary words from the first part of this activity.

I
I
I
I .·

I
I SJ 1996 Educational lmpre~ions. Inc. Number the Stars 29
- -------- ---,- ~-

Comprehension and Discussion Questions

Chapter Fourteen
On the Dark Path

Answer the following questions in complete sentence form. Give e~amples from the story to
support your response.

1. What made Annemarie think of the story of Little Red Riding Hood?

2. Why did Annemarie take the path that led deeper into the woods?

3. At what points in her journey was Annemarie able to run quickly?

-1-. An nemar ie hc:m..l foo t'> tcp s. \\'ho c. ll l O J in t"ro nr tll hc r.1 \\'hat \1. t l UIJ y <> u i1 ;.i\c.; Lilll1 l! 1r yo u
had been Annemarie?

30 S 11mhe r rhe Sra rs = 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.

I
~
Vocabulary
Chapters Fifteen and Sixteen
My Dogs Smell Meat! and I Will Tell You Just a Little

Read each clue and find the answers in the box. Then use the letters above the numbered
l spaces to decipher the secret message. Some of the words will not be used.

caustic consumed conceal contempt enrage

exasperated hastily insolent invade quavering

strident visible wary windblown wither

1. marked by bitter wit; sarcastic _ _1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ 24_

2. used up

' 3 • . make very angry

4. irritated; angered
---
'
---
5
--
_ _3_19 _ _ _

22 4 20
5. harsh sounding; loud
I i2----Ts--
6. trembling
16 23
r 7. dry up; shrivel I 0 - - - - -7-
8. · rude: arrogant
I - x- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
9. easily s~en 21---Jif--
10. hide -----1326
11. cautious _ _6_2.5_
I
12. quickly; rapidly --1-1 ----17
I 13. to overrun ---
14
---
Y

' 2 4 5 7 8 9 10 ll 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

----·
I ·g 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc. Number 1he Stars 31
 Comprehension and Discussion Questions
Chapters Fifteen and Sixteen

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: My Dogs Smell Meat!

1. Evaluate Mama's advice: " If anyone stops you. you must pretend to be nothing more than a
silly young girl." Did this advice work? Cite examples from the story to prove your point.

.
2. How did the German soldiers react after they examined the contents or' the secret packet?

t.
,

CHAPTER SIXTEEN: / Will Tell You Just a Little

1. Why did Uncle Henrik decide to tell Annemarie some of the details of the Resistance?

2. Why was the handkerchief so important?

I.

I
I
3. Why did Peter believe the Rosens to be safe?
I
I
I
.,;
'

I
I .l2 N11111/)(•r rlw Stars _, 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc .
 Vocabularv.,
Chapters Seventeen and Afterword
All This Long Time and Afterword

Use your dictionary to define the following words as they were used in the chapter.

1. anthem

2. bleak
3. blur
4. chatterbox
5. compassion ' -
I .. 6. deprivation
I-
7. determination
8. devastating
9. execute
10. integrity

11. narrow-minded

12. occupy

13. orchestrated

'I 14. permeated

15. prejudiced
16. sabotage

I 17. sacrifice

I
Create a dialogue between two story characters. For example. what might Annemarie say
I to her friend Ellen when she sees her again? How would Ellen respond? Use at least
six vocabulary words from the first part of this activity in your dialogue.

I
I L
r
i
I J

I -~: 1996 Educational Impressions. lnc. Number the Stars 33

- -'i i / l C L - - - - - - - - ----- -

l'. Comprehension and Discussion Questions

Chapters Seventeen and Afterword
Ii
It CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: All This Long Time
1. Why were church bells ringing and flags and banners flying th_roughout Copenhagen?
..
1r·-
It
ll:.
2. What was Peter's fate?
11

Ef -~ ·.

I\.
,r
-~ ;,,. . : ~.-:. .
3. What truth did Annemarie learn about Lise·s death?

11
ll
AFTERWORD
l 1
i
1. Who inspired the author to write thi s story.>

I;

ll
I
I\
-~
I. ~ ~ :. ...-·-:: -~

I
:I 34 Number rhe Stars :· 1996 Educational Impressions. Inc.

........ . . "· .. -.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amabile, Theresa. "The Social Psychology of Creativity," Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology 45 (August 1983): 357-376 .

Armstrong, Thomas . Multiple Intelligences In The Classroom . Alexandria, Virginia :

ASCD, 1994.

Costa, Arthur L.. "Mediating The Meta-Cognitive ," Developing Minds. ASCD ,
Alexandria, Virginia, 1988.

Costa, Arthur,L.. "Teach For, Of, and About Thinking", Developing Minds. ASCD ,
Alexandria, Virginia , 1988 .

Elbow, Peter. "Teaching Two Kinds of Thinking by Teaching Writing," Re-Thinking

Reason : New York: Suny Press , 1994.

Ennis, Robert. "A Taxonomy of Critical Thinking Skills." Teaching for Thinking, eds.
Baron and Sternberg, New York: Freeman, 1987.

Freedman, Robin Lee H .. Open-ended Questioning : A Handbook for Educators.

Reading, Ma,: Addison-Wesley Pub ., 1994.

Galbraith, Ronald and Thomas M. Jones. Moral Reasoning Minnesota: Greenhaven Press
Inc ., 1976 .

Gallo, Delores. "Education for Empathy, Reason , and Imagination " Re-Thinking
Reason: New Perspectives in Critical Thinking . ed . Kerry S. Walters , 43-60. Albany: State
University of New York Press , 1994.

Gruber, H. and Wallace , D. "The Evolving Systems Approach to Creative Work ,"
Creative People at Work, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989.

Hart, Diane. Authentic Assessment: A Handbook for Educators. Reading, Ma.: Addison-
Wesley Pub., Co., 1994.

Jaffe, Charlotte, and Barbara T . Doherty. Number the Stars: L-1-T-Guide. New Jersey:
Educational Impressions, Inc. , 1996.

Lamme, Linda. Literature-Based Moral Education . Arizona: Oryx Press, 1992.

Lickona, Thomas. EDUCATING FOR CHARACTER: How Our Schools Can Teach
Respect and Responsibility. New York: Bantam Books, 1992.

Nickerson, Raymond, S. Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice. New York:
W.H . Freeman, 1987.

57
 Paul, Richard . Critical Thinking. California: The Foundation of Critical Thinking ,
1 992.

Purpel , David E. The Moral and Spiritual Crisis in Education . New York: Bergin and
Garvey, 1989.

Ryan, Concetta, D. Authentic Assessment. California: Teacher Created Materials , Inc.,

1994 .

Ryan , Concetta, D. Language Arts Assessment: Grades 3-4 . California: Teacher

Created Materials, Inc., 1994.

Tardiff, T . and R. Sternberg. "What Do We Know About Creativity? ," The Nature of
Creativity,

Tishman, Shari, David Perkins , and Eileen Jay. The Thinking Classroom: Learning and
Teaching in a Culture of Thinking. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995.

Woodman, R. "Creativity as a Construct in Personality Theory," Journal of Creative

Behavior . Volume 15, #1.

------Activities for Any Literature Unit-Intermediate. California: Teaching Created

Material , Inc., 1993

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