An Early Arabic Mirror for Princes: Ṭāhir Dhū l-Yamīnain's Epistle to His Son ʿAbdallāh

(206/821)
Author(s): C. E. Bosworth
Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1 (Jan., 1970), pp. 25-41
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
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AN EARLY ARABIC MIRROR FOR PRINCES: TAHIR
DH-t L-YAMINAIN'S EPISTLE TO HIS SON
CABDALLAH (206/821)

C. E. BOSWORTH, Department of Near Eastern Studies,

University of Manchester, England

THE Mirrorsfor Princes or Fiirstenspiegel genre in Islamic literature illuminates

several aspects of Islamic civilization. First and foremost, the works of this genre are a
guide to the ethical and moral considerations which were supposed to inspire a ruler in
his policies. That they often reflect a theoretical rather than a practical state of affairs
does not make their information necessarily less valuable to us. In a culture where other
worlds-whether of an elemental creation, that of demons and jinn, or of a heavenly
one, the Garden of Paradise whose delights awaited the pious Muslim-impinged closely
on ordinary earthly life, the distinction between the ideal and the actual was likewise
often blurred. It is in any case important for us to uncover the moral and intellectual
mainsprings of human action, even if the execution of these actions is not always in
conformity with ideals or intentions. Secondly, the Mirrors for Princes' information
about the working of governmental institutions is by no means always on a theoretical
level. Such a work as Nizim al-Mulk'sSiydsat-nrma offers extremely valuable material
on the organization and working of the court and the administrative institutions under
the Great Seljuqs and, to a lesser extent, under earlier eastern Islamic dynasties. Thirdly,
the Mirrorsfor Princes provide information, sometimes petty and inconsequential but
nevertheless revealing, about the business of daily life below the level of kings and
magnates; this is seen in the Qdbis-nama where Kai Ki"fis gives his son Gildn-Shdhsage
advice on such topics as the buying of slaves or horses, and delineates for him the pro-
fessions and skills (including medicine, astrology, music-making, the secretary's art,
farming, manual craftsmanship, etc.) which the young prince might find useful in the
future. Finally, the Mirrorsfor Princes offer many lines worthy of investigation by the
student of intercultural influences. That Persian traditions of kingship and government
gave an important stimulus to the growth of this literature, as they did to the whole Is-
lamic concept of adab, has long been recognized. The Persian cAbdalldhb. al-Muqaffac
(d. 140/757) may be regarded as the precursor of the Fiirstenspiegel genre in Islamic
literature, with his two principal adab works, the Adab al-kabirand the Adab as-saghir,
and several lesser ones; moreover, his r6le as a translator links his literary activity not
only with the Pahlavi and SgsAnidpast, but through Kalila wa-Dimna, with the Indian
one also. On the other side of the Islamic world, the Greco-Hellenistic contribution to
the adab and Mirrorsfor Princes literature was also significant, although the mingling
of ideas and the cultural cross-currents in the pre-Islamic Near East make the task of
assigning influences to their ultimate origins more difficult here; Ndldeke's classic re-
searches on the Alexander romance indicated that the proximate origins of the Syriac
and Arabic tales actually lay in a Pahlavi version.
25

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26 JOURNALOF NEAR EASTERNSTUDIES

It is only in what may be called the "Middle Ages" of classical Islamic civilization
that a full-blown, independent Mirrorfor Princes genre emerges: such outstanding works
as Kai Kd2is's Qdbis-nama, Niz.m al-Mulk's Siydsat-ndma, and al-Ghazili's Nasihat
al-mulflk belong to the eleventh and early twelfth centuries. It seems that at this time,
when the unity of the Caliphate had been shattered, and non-Arabic, barbariandynasties
had taken over much of the Islamic world, a need was felt for restating the old ideals of
government, the Persian concept of a benevolent autocrat ruling over a passive population
of subjects, and the purely Islamic one of political power held in trust from God and
exercised in conformity with the Qur'dnand Sunna. Hence we cannot speak of a separate
genre in the first centuries of Islam, but we can discern tendencies towards its crystalliza-
tion: in the works of Ibn al-Muqaffacmentioned above, and in the appearance of typical
Filrstenspiegel material in such authors as Ibn Qutaiba and Ibn CAbdRabbihi, even
though their primary concern was with recording the rich heritage of classical Arabic
culture. It was information from all these writers which was gathered together and
skilfully analyzed by Gustav Richter in his monograph Studien zur Geschichteder
dlterenarabischenFilrstenspiegel("Leipzigersemitische Studien," N.F., Bd. III [Leipzig,
1932]).
On pp. 80-85 of the above work, Richter briefly examined a short work which un-
doubtedly qualifies as a pioneer Mirrorfor Princes. This is the epistle which the founder
of the line of governors in Khurdsdn and Baghdad, b. al-Husain, called
Dhii 1-Yaminain
T.hirid "the Ambidexter" (d. 207/822), wrote forT.hir his son cAbdallah. Born
into an eastern Persian family with a long tradition of service to the cAbbdsids,
himself had risen in the service of the Caliph al-Ma'mflnand had taken a leadingT.hir part
in the warfare between al-Ma'miin and his brother al-Amin. Finally, he had been ap-
pointed governor of Khurdsdn, in effect, of all the Caliphal lands east of Iraq (Dhfi
1-Qacda205/April-May 821). cAbdalldh b. distinguished himself equally in the
early years of al-Ma'mfln's reign, especiallyT.hir
in the operations conducted in Syria and
al-Jazira, where the legacy of bitterness from the civil wars, and Arab resentment at
the fresh wave of Persian personnel and influences coming from Khurdsanin al-Mamiin's
wake, had led to various rebellions by pro-Aminid elements. When was appointed
to the governorshipof the east, CAbdalldhsucceeded him in the west and became governor
T.hir
of Diydr Rabica and the lands extending through Syria to the borders of Egypt, with his
center at ar-Raqqa on the Euphrates. It was this appointment which occasioned Tahir's
epistle, and since it was written six months after own nomination to Khurdsan,
the epistle must accordingly date from the autumn of 206/821.
T.hir's
The text of the epistle is preserved for us in the Kitab Baghdad of the historian and
litterateur Abi 1-Fadl Ahmad b. Abi Taiffir (204-80/819-93). Only the sixth
section of this, that dealing with the Caliphate
T.hir of al-Ma'mfln,has come down to us; the
rest of the Kitab Baghd&dand, indeed, all of Ibn Taiffir's numerous works with just one
exception, have been lost.' The text of the Kitdb Baghdadwas published from the unique
British Museum manuscript Add. 18,532, together with a German translation, by H.
Keller, SechsterBand des Kitdb Baddid von Ahmad ibn abifTdhir Taifiir, 2 vols. (Leipzig,
1908). Since then there has appeared a further edition of the Arabic text by Muhammad
Zahid b. al-IjHusainal-Kauthari (Cairo, 1368/1949), made from a photographic copy of
1 Cf.
Encycl. of Islam2 art. 8.v. (F. Rosenthal).

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 AN EARLY ARABIC MIRROR FOR PRINCES 27
the British Museum manuscript. Material from Ibn Taiffir was widely used by at-Tabari
for his history, and also by such writers as al-Mascfidi,Abfi 1-Faraj al-Isfahani, and
Ydqfit; hence the text of the epistle can also be read in at-Tabari, Annales, ed. de Goeje
et alii, III, 1046-61, and in Ibn al-Athir, Chronicon,ed. Tornberg, VI, 258-67.
As Richter points out (op. cit., p. 80), there is no reason for doubting the authenticity
of the epistle. Although Persian was first language, he was, like so many of his
fellow-countrymen, dhfi T.hir'sin
1-lisanain, eloquent the Arabic language and fully conversant
with its nuances and technicalities, as certain anecdotes in the literary sources for the
period show. Ibn Taiffir himself devotes a section to the sayings and official writings
(kaldm wa-tauqidct) of and Ibn CAbdRabbihi quotes extracts from his khutab
or orations.2 That should have been capable of composing such an epistle, whose
T.hir,
eloquence and incisiveness
T.hir made such an impression on contemporaries,from the Caliph
downwards (see below, p. 29), need therefore occasion no surprise. The epistle itself
contains no reference to historical events but is rather a theoretical exposition of the
ethics of rulership and the qualities of a perfect ruler. Given the abstract nature of the
material and its resultant terminology, the style is comparatively straightforward.
Unlike most writers of adab works, who favored a loose and often prolix style and who
loved to season their subject-matter with a peppering of anecdotes, bons mots, and
apothegms, T&hir'sepistle is concise and tightly-constructed and totally unadorned by
any anecdotes or historical examples.
The most striking feature of the epistle's contents is the dominating position accorded
to the Islamic religion, as an influence which should wholly pervade the ruler's ways of
thought, governmental policies, and attitude towards his subjects. His responsibilities,
as detailed in tract, are largely coterminous with those which later writers on
constitutional T.hir's
theory, like al-Mdwardi,Abil Yacld and Ibn Khaldfin regard as necessary
attributes (farad'id) of the Caliphal office. The ruler is, of course, responsible in the first
place to God for the legitimate exercise of his power. But he is in turn the shepherd
(raci) of his people (raciyya, literally "flock"), with the traditional duty of al-amr bi-l-
macr~if wa-n-nahy can al-munkar, "urging what is reputable and restraining from what
is disreputable."He must accordinglyprovide the conditions in which Muslimscan pursue
their normal avocations and live the good life: he must defend them against external
aggressors, protect their property and families, keep the roads free from brigands, etc.
The ideal ruler is also, like the Caliph, the Imam of his people; he must lead them in the
daily salats, ensuring that these are performed regularly and in canonical fashion. His
guide in all this must be the Qur"dn,the Sunna of the Prophet and the early Muslims,
and the Sharica.Later in the epistle comes a general exhortation to follow the examples
of past generations or rulers and of former peoples. Richter, op. cit., p. 83, saw in this a
clear Iranian influence, but the precept is surely as rooted in the Arabic past as in the
Persian one. It was a dominant theme of Muhammad'searly preaching at Meccato warn
against a self-satisfied concern with the present life and its material attractions, and
Muiihammadfrequently cited the examples of previous prophets who had been sent to
warn, and of the refractory peoples of past ages who had been punished for rejecting
prophetic messages.

2 The position of
TAhir in the Arabic learning of TAhirids and Arabic Culture," Journal of Semitic
his time is discussed at length in my article, "The
Studies, XIV/1 (1969), 45-79.

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28 JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES

The personal character and the outlook on life of the ruler is important, according
to These should be molded in harmony with the old Arab virtues of hilm and
muruwwa, both of which terms are actually used by
T.hir. In the pursuit of hilm, which
the ancient Arabs had regarded as the highest attribute T.hir.of the sayyid or tribal leader,3
the ruler must avoid the dangers arising from an arbitrary and arrogant exercise of his
power: "Take care that you do not say to yourself, 'I have been set in authority, I shall
do what I like,' because that will speedily destroy your judgment" (below, p. 34).
Equally to be shunned are a violent temper and frivolous, unbalanced outlook (safah,
linked by Goldziher in a famous chapter of his Muhammedanische Studien with jahl, as
the antitheses of hilm). One gets the best out of people by expecting well of them rather
than by adopting an attitude of suspiciousness and perpetual fault-finding; the spreading
of an atmosphere of mistrust in the state is a common method by which Satan causes
trouble.
The virtue of or in the conduct of affairs is also emphasized. Its meaning
iqtis.id qa.d
here is clearly that of "moderation, prudence, circumspection," and conveys none of
that sense of disapproval shown by a generation later when he adverts to the
euphemistic usage of the word by the bourgeoisie of his native Basra.4
al-J.hiz moderation
is rather the golden mean of the Greeks, and he follows Aristotle in T.hir's
urging it as the
foundation of all right conduct. Far from implying closeness in money matters, it should
go with the traditional Arab quality of liberality (jiid), which is the necessary concomitant
of hilm.5 Wealth should not be left to pile up in the ruler's treasury, where it remains
sterile; instead, the ruler should lay up for himself an incorruptible heavenly treasure
of such things as piety, fear of God, and just behavior. The wealth derived from taxation
should be made to fructify by being expended on measures for the welfare of the subjects
and the general benefit of Islam-if only, adds, for the selfish reason that the
people will be better-disposed towards the ruler if
T.hir they see the money from their taxes
returned for the good of the community as a whole. The ruler's employees, including his
officials and his soldiers, should likewise be paid adequate salaries, again for the practical
reason that their allegiance and obedience will be thereby facilitated.
Almost all the Islamic Mirrors for Princes devote much space to the ruler's relations
with his officials and tax-collectors. Since the 'cmil was, for the majority of the popula-
tion in their small towns and villages, the embodiment of the ruler's authority, strict
control of these officials from the center was ideally sought, if more difficult to achieve
in practice; it is usually pointed out that, since such officials are the ruler's appointees,
it is he who will be responsible before God for their tyrannical behavior or financial
exactions. The ruler should start, Tdhir says, by paying his officials good salaries, thus
lessening the temptation for them to recoup from the luckless taxpayers. But we also
find mention of an institution typical of cAbbdsid administration in its heyday, and one
regarded by Nilzm al-Mulk as the mainstay of the state's security, i.e. the al-barid
or Sahib al-khabar. When distances within states were so great, and the central S.hib govern-

3-Cf. H. Lammens, l9tudes 8ur le rkgne du Calife bukhald,,ed. TAhh al-H.jiri (Cairo, 1958), 1: "[I have
Omaiyade Mocdwia ler (Paris, 1908), pp. 79 ff., and explained to you] why the misers call avarice 'care-
idem, Le berceau de 1'Islam, I'Arabie occidentale a la fulness' and stinginess 'circumspection'
veille de l'higire. I. Le climat-les bgdouin8 (Rome, (iqtiad )." (i.ldh)
1914), pp. 216-21, citing such sayings as uhlum 6 It was very rare to find a
sayyid who was also a
ta8ud, "show hilm, and you will become a chief." miser, as is pointed out by Lammens, Le berceau de
4 Cf. opening words in his Kitdb al- l'Islam, p. 241.
al-J.hiz's

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 AN EARLYARABICMIRRORFOR PRINCES 29

ment's influence so weak at the peripheries, an intelligence officer such as this was virtually
the sole check on oppressive local officials or potentially rebellious provincial governors.
Hence the institution of the postmaster or internal espionage agent had grown up in
the great empires of the pre-Islamic Near East, such as the Byzantine and SYsdnid ones.
does not mention the barid system under that very name, simply referring to the
T.hir duty to appoint a trustworthy official (amin) who will observe and report on the
ruler's
activities of local officials, but he is obviously referring to this institution, and here
certainly we can discern an influence from the non-Arabic side of the Caliphate.
In the works on constitutional theory, the administration of justice and care for the
weaker members of society are listed amongst the duties of the Caliph or ruler. Hence,
emphasizes, the duty of applying the penalties for offenses, hudjid,
without
T.hir fear or favor, and without recourse to legalQur',nic
innovations and doubtful precedents
(bidac wa-shubuhdt). The office is necessarily of prime importance for the mainten-
ance of peace and order within
q.di's the lands of Islam; indeed, it is God's balance (mizdn),
by means of which the affairs of the whole world are controlled. As for the duty of charity,
such classes as distressed gentlefolk, the destitute, the blind, and the sick, are commended
to the ruler's attention, while his obligation to seek out those who are the victims of
oppression and to redress their grievances is a reference to the investigation of com-
plaints, an-nazar fi 1-maxzalim,which is regarded by the theorists as a duty of the Caliph
or ruler, although usually delegated to a special ib al-ma~zlim. Finally, the exhorta-
tion to the ruler that he should maintain free access S. to his person and not let his guards
harass and discourage petitioners, goes back to the old Arabic tradition of the tribal
sayyid as primus inter pares rather than autocrat and as being immediately accessible
to all his fellow-tribesmen; in practice, this ideal had become increasingly obscured since
the later Umayyad period by Persian monarchical traditions which favored the rise to
prominence of the 4djib or court chamberlain and the increased withdrawal of the Caliph
from public view. In this regard, Tdhir's instruction registers a protest against the new,
Persian, hierarchic practices and advocates a return to the simplicities of the Arab past.
On balance, the concepts and expressions of epistle are cast in the old Arabic
and early Islamic mold rather than in an explicitly T.hir'sIranian one: the paramount impor-
tance attached to the Qur'dn and Sunna as the referents for all actions assures this. Yet
in the early cAbbdsid period during which lived, these purely Arabic themes were
being synthesized with material and ideas from
T.hirthe Persian andarz-ndma and pand-ndma
literature, and its general picture of the monarch's conduct guided by ethical and moral
values, the epistle may be said to reflect in part the gradual pervasion of cAbbdsid society
by these influences.
That the epistle and its contents were undeniably attuned to the tastes of the times is
shown by Ibn Taiffir's words on the work's contemporary fame:
"When b. al-Husain gave this charge to his son cAbdallah, people struggled to get
a copy of T.hir
the text, wrote it out and taught it to each other. Its fame spread until it
reached the ears of al-Ma'mfin. He ordered a copy to be brought, and had it read out
to him. Afterwards, he exclaimed, 'Abfi t-Tayyib has spoken decisively, has conveyed
wise counsel and has .given good advice by expressing everything which can possibly
be said about the affairs of religion, and the present world, good planning and judgment,
statesmanship and measures for the improvement of the state and people, the mainten-
ance of allegiance, fidelity to the Caliphs, and the furtherance of the interests of the

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30 JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES

Caliphate.' He thereupon ordered that copies of the epistle should be sent to all his
officials in the various districts of the provinces."6
The translation of the epistle given here below is based on the texts of Keller and al-
Kauthari. Both stem from the same manuscript (see above, pp. 26-27), but the Cairo
text offers a few fresh interpretations of the manuscript. Occasionally,words are inserted
in one edition which do not appear in the other, but on the whole the differences are
minimal and arise mainly from varying interpretations of the placing of dots on words,
omission of particles, ambiguity of the letters ghain and fF', differing interpretation of
words through the absence of hamzain the orthography of the manuscript (e.g. Keller's
wild'a [sic] versus Cairo's wuldt), etc. Most frequently the differences of meaning occa-
sioned thereby are too slight to require notice, but where these differencesdo seem signi-
ficant I have noted them. In the marginal page numbering, K stands for Keller's text
and C for the Cairo one.
As well as the serviceable German translation of the epistle contained in Keller's
translation of the whole extant part of Ibn Taiffir's history, a Russian translation of the
epistle was made by A. E. Schmidt, "The ideal of a Muhammadangovernor in the 9th
century: Tahir ibn al-Husain's letter to his son," Bulletin of the State University of
Central Asia, VIII (1925), 127-38. According to Brockelmann, GAL Suppl. I, 210, an
English translation of the Kitib Baghdad was made (from Keller's Arabic text or from
his German translation?) by K. C. Seelye, "ColumbiaUniversity Oriental Series," XVI
(New York, 1920). This book is however, strangely hard to find. It exists neither in the
British Museum nor the library of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London,
but, even more surprisingly, no copy is to be found in Columbia University Library.7
One wonders whether this alleged translation was ever in fact published for general
circulation, especially as Seelye's English translation of Goldziher's Vorlesungenilber
den Islam had to be withdrawn by the publisher because of the many mistakes of
translation. The above considerations, together with the fact that the subsequent Cairo
edition has given a few improved readings, have seemed adequate justification for the
English translation offered here.

II TRANSLATION
OF THE EPISTLE

The Ruler's Responsibility to God for His Rule8

[C 26, K 36] Let there be in you the fear of God, He who is one and without associate.
Hold Him in awe and reverence and avert His wrath. Look after the interests of your
subjects. Hold fast to all the good fortune which God has bestowed on you, at the same
time rememberingthe ultimate destination towards which you are inevitably traveling,
the duties to which you are obligated, and the responsibilities which you now have.
Take care to labor at everything by means of which God will ensure your preservation
and will keep you safe from His punishment and painful retribution on the day when
you will meet Him face to face.
6
Kitdb Baghddd, ed. Keller, I, 53-54, tr. II, 25, B The section headings have been supplied by
ed. al-Kauthari, p. 34. myself.
7 Communication of 15.10.68 from Professor J.
Schacht.

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 AN EARLY ARABIC MIRROR FOR PRINCES 31

God has been gracious to you and has accordingly made it incumbent upon you to
show tenderness towards those of His creatures over whom He has appointed you
shepherd. He has enjoined you to behave justly with them, to maintain His divine truth
and His legal prescriptionsamongst them, to protect them, to defend their private posses-
sions and womenfolk, to preserve them from bloodshed, to keep the roads safe for them,
and to create the peaceful conditions in which they can go about their daily work. He
holds you fully responsiblefor all the things enumerated above whose observance has been
laid upon you; He will require from you a reckoning concerning them, will question you
about them and will recompense you for your good acts of commission and your sins of
omission. So let your thoughts, your mind, your visual sense, and your judgment
be entirely concentrated on these things, and let no one distract or divert you from them;
for all this is the basic foundation of your authority and the fundamental support of
your ruling position, and is the first thing which God bestows on you [K 37] for guiding
you along the right path.
The Ruler Must ObserveFaithfully the Daily Worship
Now the first thing which you must impose on yourself, and the goal towards which
your actions should dispose you, is assiduous observance of the ritual prescriptions
laid down by God as mandatory-the five daily acts of worship (saldts), and the assem-
bling before you of the congregation of the people, at the appointed times and after due
performance of the ritual ablutions required by the religious law. You must begin the
ceremony with the mention of God's name; you must enunciate correctly as you recite
the words of the saElt; you must perform the bowings and prostrations involved firmly
and decisively, and pronounce the profession of faith clearly. In this way you will
convince God of the sincerity of your intentions. Furthermore,urge those in your retinue
and under your command to be assiduous in attendance and always show keenness
yourself, for, as God says, the saElturges people to what is reputable and restrains from
what is disreputable.9

The Ruler Must ObserveFaithfully the Sunna

You must then follow this up by firm adherence to the practices laid down by the
Messenger of God, prayers and peace be upon him, and by perseverance in the legal
provisions stipulated by him, and you must imitate the examples left by the Prophet's
successors, the virtuous early generation of Muslims. Whenever you are faced with some
problem, seek help by consulting God's will in prayer, by showing piety to Him, by
adhering to what He has ordained or prohibited, made lawful or forbidden, as revealed
in His book, and by following the trail indicated by the traditions from the Prophet,
prayers and peace be upon him; then observe in this matter all the duties which you owe
to God.
The Ruler Must ObserveFaithfully the Religious Law
Do not incline away from justice, willingly or unwillingly, [C 27] in favor of someone
near to you or someone far away. But choose to be guided by the religious law (fiqh)
and its practitioners, by religion and its exponents, and by the Book of God and those
who are concerned with it; for the greatest adornments which a man can have are a
9 Cf. Qur'3n, xxix. 44/45, and xxxi. 16/17.

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32 JOURNALOF NEAR EASTERNSTUDIES

thorough knowledge of the religion of God, a searching desire for it, a zeal for its acquisi-
tion, and a knowledge of that part of it which will bring a man closer to his God. Indeed,
this thorough knowledge guides the way towards all that is good and is the leader
thither; it predisposes man towards the good [K 38] and restrains people from acts of
rebellion against God and from sins entailing perdition. By means of this, and with
the help of God's favor, His servants increase in knowledge of Him, His mention is
exalted, in glorifying Him, and in following the right path towards the highest stages
in man's journey back to God. All this is in addition to what becomes apparent of the
people's regard for your rule, their respect for your authority, their close bond with you,
and their trust in your justice.

The Virtuesof Moderationin Personal Conductand Public Policy

Be careful to observe moderation qatd) in all things, for there is nothing of
more obvious value, nothing more conducive
(iqtis.d,to personal security, and nothing containing
within itself so many merits, as moderation. Moderationis one of the forces predisposing
towards right guidance and is one of the guides towards divine favor and success;
and this last, in turn, leads the way to happiness. Moreover,moderation is a supporting
prop for religion and for those legal usages by which men are guided. So choose modera-
tion as your watchword in all affairs of your present life, without, however, falling short
in your pursuit of the next world, in seeking a heavenly reward,in performingmeritorious
works, in following the accepted ways of virtuous behavior, and in seeking out the sign-
posts towards righteousness. For the endeavor to increase in piety and the pursuit of
good works can have no bounds when God's grace and approval, and the companionship
of His saints in the abode of divine felicity, are being sought through them.
Know that moderation in the things of this world brings one increased power and
preserves one from sinfulness. There is nothing more excellent than moderation as a
protection for yourself and your intimates or as a force to improve and put right your
affairs. So adopt it as a rule of life, and let yourself be guided by it; if you do, your affairs
will all reach satisfactory completion, your power will increase, and both your personal
circle of friends and the people in general will benefit from it.

Expect the Best ratherthan the Worstfrom People, but NeverthelessKeep an Eye on the
SubordinatesConductingYour Affairs
[K 39] Keep your mind fixed on God's favor, His mention is exalted; if you do,
your subjects will behave towards you in an honest and upright fashion. In all your
affairs, seek to bring yourself closer to God; through this policy, His grace will be vouch-
safed to you perpetually. Do not take action against anyone for some offense committed
in the official position to which you have appointed him, before you have investigated
the matter under suspicion, since it is a crime to let suspicions and evil thoughts come
down upon innocent people. Adopt as a conscious policy a favorable attitude towards
your associates, and set aside and repudiate malevolent thoughts about them. This
will assist you in attaching them firmly to your own interest and in managing them.
Take care lest Satan, the enemy of God, be able to ferret out some defect in your conduct.
He only needs to uncover a minor weakness, and he will be able to mingle an element of

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 AN EARLYARABICMIRROR FOR PRINCES 33

depression10 with a gloomy outlook on life which will make the sweetness of life bitter
for you.
Know that, in holding a favorable attitude towards people, you will find a source of
strength and contentment of mind, and through it you will be able to bring to a satis-
factory conclusion any of your affairs you wish; you may also use it to make people love
you and behave honestly in all their dealings with you. However, this benevolent
attitude towards your associates and this tenderness towards your subjects should not
prevent you from setting on foot inquiries and investigations into the way your affairs
are being conducted, from supervising the actions of your agents, from protecting the
interests of your subjects, and from looking into whatever may be conducive to their
welfare and happiness. Indeed, [C 28] supervision of your agents' activities, protection
of your subjects' interests, [K 40] investigation into their needs, and lightening their
burdens, should be the most important and pressing influences on your policy, more so
than any others; for they will have more effect in strengthening religion and in breathing
life into the religious law. Let your intentions in all this be pure; concentrate your efforts
on self-reformation, in the same way as does a person who realizes that he will be held
responsible for everything which he does, will be recompensed for his good deeds, and
will be punished for his bad ones. God has made His faith a sure refuge and a source of
strength; He exalts those who follow Him and raises them in dignity. Hence, in regard
to those over whom you rule and act as shepherd, follow the path of true religion and
the way of divine guidance!

Punish Crime
Be swift to apply the prescribed penalties to criminals, according to their
positions in society, and according to their deserts.
(.udiid)Do not neglect this duty, treat it
lightly, or be laggardly in punishing those deserving punishment, because if you fall
short in this duty, you will damage your good reputation. In this matter, always stick
determinedly to the well-established legal precedents. If you avoid all innovations and
dubious courses, your faith will be preserved unsullied, and your nobility of character
(muruwwa)will be kept intact.

Keep Promises, and Avoid Slanderersand Liars

When you make an agreement with someone, keep to it; and when you promise to
perform some good deed, make sure that you fulfil it. Be zealous in good works and be
joyful in them. Close your eyes to the minor shortcomings of petty offenders amongst
your subjects; guard your tongue against uttering falsehood and calumny, [K 41] and
show your detestation of those who practice this vice. Banish from your presence all
slanderers, because the prime factor which will vitiate your present life and your future
one is the cultivation of falsehood and a shameless disposition towards lying. Mendacity,
indeed, is the beginning of all sins, and calumny and slander set the seal on them;
consequently, let no one be put into the power of a slanderer, and let no affair be entrusted
to anyone obeying him!

10 Following the al-ghamm of C; K has al-cafr and

translates "unpleasantness, hatefulness."

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34 JOURNALOF NEAR EASTERNSTUDIES

Avoid the Arroganceof Power

Make friends of the people of righteousness and sincerity. Give succor to the descen-
dants of the Prophet (ashrdf) by allotting them their just due; bring consolation to the
weak; strengthen the bonds of kinship. In all these things desire the face of God and
the glory of His power; through them seek from Him a heavenly reward and the abode
of eternal life. Shun evil thoughts and oppressive behavior, deflecting your mind com-
pletely from them, and demonstrate openly to your subjects your freedom from these
defects. Let your rule over them be graced with the exercise of justice; govern them with
due equity and with the knowledge which will lead you on the way of divine guidance.
Keep a grip on your temper when you are angry, and adopt rather the attitudes of
forbearance and magnanimity. Take care not to succumb to hasty temper, frivolous
behavior and deception, in anything you undertake. Also, take care that you do not say
to yourself, "I have been set in authority, I shall do what I like," because that will
speedily destroy your judgment, and it further shows lack of firm belief in God, He
who is one and without associate. May God make pure my intentions and my faith in
Him, and yours likewise!
Know that power belongs to God alone; He bestows it upon whom He wills, and takes
it away from whom He wills. You will not find His favors towards anyone change more
completely, nor His vengeance descend more swiftly, than [K 42] in regard to those
holders of power and those set in authority who have been the recipients of His favor,
[C 29] but have shown ingratitude towards God's bounty and benevolence, and who have
used oppressively that which He of His goodness has bestowed on them.11

Do not Let WealthAccumulatein Your Treasury, but Expend it on the People's Welfare
Lay aside any avariciousness which may be in your heart. Let the treasuries and
storehouses which you pile up and accumulate be composed of piety, fear of God,
justice, measures for your subjects' welfare and the prosperity of their land, continual
oversight of their affairs, protection for those burdened by misfortune, and assistance
for those who sorrow. Know that wealth which is accumulated and then stored away in
treasuries bears no fruit; but when it is expended on the welfare of subjects, on the pro-
vision of their just dues, and on removing burdens from them, it thrives and multiplies.
As a result, the whole population derives benefit from it, the governors12bask in reflected
glory from it, the whole age is made bright by it, and increased strength and defensive
power follow from it. Consequently, let the greater part of the wealth which you treasure
up be expended on making the world of Islam and its populace more prosperous. Further,
allot part of it for what is due to those of the Commander of the Faithful's entourage
who are in your sphere of authority; and utilize another part of it to fulfil the just claims
of your subjects, paying close heed to what will improve their general state and conditions
of life. If you do all this, God'sfavor will be vouchsafed to you 13and you will have merited
an increased reward from Him. Moreover,you will find that all these things will facilitate
11 Wa-statdla bi-m ditdhumAUdh
minfadlihi. Keller has bestowed on them." See Lisdn al-carabl, XIII,
translates "... and who consider that which He of 438, and Tdj al-car?is, VII, 422-23.
His goodness has bestowed on them as their perpetual 12 Following the al-wuldt of C; K has al-wildta,
right." The lexica support both of these meanings for "the government."
istatala, and also a further one, "act proudly, haught- 13 Following C's qarrat an-nicma calaika; K has
ily," which would yield the meaning ". . . and those tharat an-nicma calaika.
who act haughtily with that which He of His goodness

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 AN EARLYARABICMIRRORFOR PRINCES 35

your levying the land tax and your collecting [K 43] the taxes in kind from your
(k•haraj)
subjects 14 and from the regions under your control. Because of your all-encompassing
justice and benevolent rule, the whole of these will be more obedient to your authority,
and will be more complaisant towards whatever your desire of them. So strive to the
best of your ability to achieve what I have delineated for you in this section, and let
your respect for it be great; for the only wealth which endures for ever is that which is
expended in the way of God.
The Virtuesof Gratitude,aboveAll, GratitudetowardsGod
Acknowledge the gratitude of those who show thanks and recompense them appropri-
ately for it. Beware lest this present world and its deceptions make you forget due
fear for the next world, so that you treat lightly your obligations in this connection;
because this insouciance will breed neglectfulness, and neglectfulness will lead to ruin.
Let all your work be undertaken for God and have its being in Him, His sovereign
power is exalted, and hope only for reward. Indeed, it is He who has lavished
on you His beneficence and shown His grace to you. Accordingly, make yourself
secure by showing proper gratitude; trust in Him, and He will increase your share of
His goodness and benevolence. God rewards people according to the measure of their
gratitude [to Him] and according to the conduct of those who act righteously; so fulfil 14a
your obligations to Him in return for the good things which He has brought and the
good fortune and exalted status which He has conferred.

Prohibitionof Various Types of UnseemlyConduct

On the other hand, do not treat any offense lightly; do not incline towards the envious
person; do not show mercy towards the malefactor; do not give presents to an ungrateful
person;15 do not seek to blandish an enemy;16 do not give credence to a slanderer; do
not trust [K 44] a treacherous person; do not make friends with an evil-liver; do not
follow after someone who will lead you into error; do not give praise to a hypocrite;
do not treat any man harshly; do not send away empty-handed a destitute beggar;
do not deign to bandy words with a foolish person; do not pay attention to a buf-
foon; do not go back on your promises; do not show respect for overweeningpride; do not
undertake anything while in a state of anger; do not [C 30] go forth exhibiting haughti-
ness; do not walk along showing an unseemly hilarity; do not ride out displaying levity;
do not fall short in your pursuit of the next life; do not repel, with a grim scowl on your
face, widows;17 do not avert your eyes from someone who is behaving tyrannically,
either from fear of him or out of partiality; and do not seek the rewards of the next
world in this present life.

The Value of Wise Counsel,and the Vice of Miserliness

Make a habit of consulting the religious scholars as much as possible, and when
exercising your will, show forbearance (hilm). Learn from people with experience of
14 Following C's wa-jamc amwdl raciyyatika; K has "1 Wa-la tuddhinanna caduwwanf;Keller translates,
wa-jamic umairraciyyatika. "do not hold culpable relations with an enemy."
14a Following C's wa-qtdi; K has wa-qahid. 17 Following C's la tadfac al-aydma cabbdsan; K
15 Wa-la kafi~ran; Keller translates, "do has la tadfac al-ayydm cabdman and translates, "do
not make a compact
ta.ilanna with an unbeliever." not pass the days in an unthankful manner."

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36 JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES

the world, and from people with intelligence, judgment, and wisdom. Do not allow into
your counsels mean and stingy people, and never pay heed to their words, for they will
do you more harm than good. There is nothing more likely to bring to disaster any course
of action regarding your subjects which you may embark upon, than avarice. For know
that if you are avaricious, you will want to grab everything and give nothing. If you
behave thus, none of your projects will go right for very long. Your subjects will only
have confidence in your benevolence in as much as you refrain from arbitrary exactions
on their wealth [K 45] and avoid tyrannizing over them, and your subordinates will only
remain sincerely devoted to your interests as long as you give them adequate allowances
and good pay. Thereforeshun avarice, and know that avariciousness was the first act of
rebellion raised by man against his Lord, and that the abode of the rebel against God is
that of abasement and disgrace, according to what God, He is exalted and magnified,
says in His book: "Those who are protected from niggardliness of soul, they are the
ones who prosper."18So make easy the path of liberality by conforming with His truth.
Ensure that all the Muslims get a share and allotment of your good intentions here,
and be sure that liberality is one of the most meritorious acts of which God's creatures
are capable. Account it as one of your own virtues, and regardit favorably in your work
and in your beliefs.

The Necessity of Seeing that the Army is Contented

Maintain close supervision of the affairs of your army, the soldier's pay registers,
and the government departments concerned with military matters. See that they have
adequate salaries and be generous in their living allowances; by this means, God will
take away their neediness, He will make their happy condition a source of strength for
you, and He will increase their hearts with sincerity and contentedness19in obedience
to you and attachment to your cause. It is sufficient felicitousness for a ruler20 that, in
regard to his army and his subjects, he should act compassionately in his equitable
conduct, his circumspectness,his exercise of justice, his concern for people, his solicitude,
his benevolent works, and his open-handedness. Avoid what is disadvantageous in one
course of action by espousing the advantageousness of another course and making it
the mainspring of your actions. If you do this, you will, God willing, achieve worldly
success, spiritual merit and personal happiness.

The SupremeImportanceof the Q&4i'sOffice

[K 46] Know that the office enjoys in God's sight an importance exceeding
all others. This is because itq.di's
is God's balance, by means of which the affairs of everything
in the whole world are regulated. When justice prevails in the office and in the
execution of his decrees,21the subjects' welfare is assured, the highways
q.di's are kept safe,
those who have been wronged are given just recompense, people receive their due
rights, life becomes pleasant, rightful obedience is freely vouchsafed, God gives provision
for happiness and preservation of life, religion is firmly maintained, the Sunna [C 31]

1S Qur &n, lix. 9, and lxiv. 16. eacdda; K has... min al-baqd2 and translates, "It is
19 Following C's ikhlipan wa-nshird2han; K has sufficient for the perpetuation of a ruler's power ..."
takhalduan wa-stirdhan, with virtually the same mean- 21
Following C's bi-iqdmat al-.adl fi wa-l-
ing. Camal; K has bi-iqdmat al-fadl wa-l-hilml-qadd.
and trans-
2o Following C's wa-hasbu dhi s8-ul.tdn min as- lates, "When benevolence and forbearance prevail."

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 AN EARLY ARABIC MIRROR FOR PRINCES 37

and the religious law are put into practice, and, on the basis of their effectiveness, truth
and justice are successfully achieved in the office.
q.di's
Various Lines of LaudableConductRecommended
Be zealous in carrying on God's work and refrain from all evil; be assiduous in applying
the requisite penalties for offences; never be over-hasty in doing things; avoid becoming
vexed and disturbed in mind; and be content with a moderate competence. In this
fashion, your successfulness will be made permanent and your good fortune firmly
established. Profit by your past experience; concentrate your thoughts while you are
silent, and then when you speak be cogent and to the point. Be fair to your enemy;
pause when you are in doubt, but bring forward trenchant arguments when you are
involved in a disputation. Do not let partiality, claims to protection, or fear of anyone's
blame, sway you in any dealings with one of your subjects. Instead, act with patience
and deliberation; keep your eyes open and watch carefully; consider, reflect, and ponder
over things; adopt an attitude of humility towards your Lord and of clemency towards
all your subjects. Make the pursuit of righteousness the dominating principle of your
conduct, and do not hasten to spill blood, for God regards bloodshed [K 47] all the more
seriously when it is spilt with violence and injustice.

The Need for Supervision of Financial Mattersand Tax Collecting

Look carefully into this matter of the land tax, which the subjects have the obligation
to pay.22 God has made this a source of strength and might for Islam, and a means of
support and protection for His people; but He has made it a source of chagrin and vexa-
tion for His enemies and the Muslims' enemies, and for the unbelievers in treaty relation-
ship with the Muslims (sc. the Dhimmis) a source of abasement and humiliation.23
Apportion it amongst the taxpayers with justice and fairness, and with equal treatment
and universal applicability for all. Do not remove any part of the obligation to pay land
tax from any noble person just because of his nobility; nor from any rich person on
account of his richness; nor from any of your secretaries or personal retainers. Do
not require from anyone more than he can bear, and do not exact an amount which is
in excess of the normal rate.24 Impose taxation on all the people in an equitable manner,
for that is more likely to attach them to your interests and more certain to make the
masses contented,

The Ruler as the GoodShepherd;the Importanceof Honest and Adequately-paidOfficials

Know that you have been placed in your governorship as a custodian of valuables, a
watchman, and a shepherd; the people in your realm are only called "your flock"
22 Or
alternatively, "by means of which the wel- collectors, but this practice was anathema to the
fare of the subjects is assured" (alladhi qad istaqdmat pious, and one would not expect it to be countenanced
calaihi ar-raciyya). Keller interprets khardj here as in a work concerned with political ethics such as the
the equivalent of jizya = the poll tax paid by the present epistle. One can only take this ambivalent
Dhimmis, and translates it as "the capitation tax on usage of khardj as one more illustration of the vague-
the free non-Muslims." While this interpretation ness of early Islamic financial terminology.
finds support in the reference just below to the tax's 23 Dhullan wa-saghdran, echoing Qurodn, ix.
29/30,
being "a source of abasement and humiliation" for on the interpretation of which see the divergent
the Dhimmis, the same term is used further on in views of Cahen, Bravmann, and Kister in Arabica,
this paragraph for the tax on such groups as the IX (1962), 76-79, X (1963), 94-95, XI (1964), 272-
ruler's own secretaries and courtiers. Islamic rulers 78.
certainly employed Dhimmi secretaries and tax- 24 Amran fihi sha.tat, echoing Qur An, lxxii. 4.

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38 JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES

(raciyyatuka) because you are their shepherd (racihim) and their overseer; you take from
them that which they hand over to you from their surplus income and subsistence
means,25 and you expend it on things which will ensure their continued material well-
being and spiritual welfare and which will alleviate their burdens. Within the provinces
under your control appoint over the people officials of clear foresight and judgment,
men who are well-tested and experienced26 in provincial government and who know
when to show severity and when to show restraint.27 Pay them [K 48] adequate salaries,
for this is one of the inescapable obligations laid upon you when you took up your gover-
norship and when it was entrusted to your charge. Let no one distract or deflect you
from this, for if you choose consciously to follow this path, and fulfil faithfully the
attendant obligations, you will gain for yourself additional grace and favor from your
Lord, and a favorable reputation within your own realm; you will preserve for yourself
the people's love and you will be helped in following a policy of amelioration. As a con-
sequence, charitable works will abound in your land and prosperity will be general in
your territories. The land under your rule will burgeon with fertility, the yield from the
land tax will increase, and your income in kind 28 will be proportionately expanded.
By this means you will be able to strengthen the bonds linking [C 32] your army to you,
and you will bring contentment to your people through the personal largesse which
you will be able to lavish upon them. In following these courses your statesmanship will
be acclaimed and your justice praised, even by your enemies. In all your affairs you
will be characterized by justice and might, and you will have the equipment and arma-
ments of war. Strive zealously in this, and let nothing come before it; if you do this,
you will find your affairs coming to a successful conclusion, if God wills.
The Necessity of Having Secret Agents in the Provinces of the Realm, and the Value of
Prudence and Foresight
In every district of your governorship, you should appoint a trusted observer (amin)
who will keep you informed of the activities of your local officials and will write to you
regularly about their policies and doings, in such a way that you will be, as it were, an
eyewitness of every official's activities within his sphere of responsibility. If you wish
to instruct an official to adopt a certain course of action, have due regard for all the
consequences you expect to follow [K 49] from that. If you consider it to be a safe and
wholesome course, and hope to find in it a useful defensive measure, wise counsel, or
favorable action, then put it into practice. But if you find the contrary, renounce it,
and refer the matter to far-sighted and prudent experts in the question; then make
proper provision for putting it into effect. For it often happens that a man examines
one aspect only of some proposed course of action and concentrates on it, because it
conforms to his personal desires, and this accordingly strengthens his resolve and gratifies
him; but, if he neglects to examine the consequences, it leads to his destruction or ruins
his whole policy.

25
Following Keller's translation; a possible alter- and translates, "and when to defend people's
native one might be "that which they hand over to al-h.iqdq
rights."
you out of their grace and position of strength." 2a Following C's amwdluka; K has ahldbuka and
26 Following C's al-khibra; K has al-khaira, translates, "taxes taken in the form of herds yielding
"benevolent conduct." milk" (for al-halab as a financial technical term of the
27 Following the al-cafdf of C, the MS, at-Tabari diwdn see Li8dn al-carab', I, 321).
and Ibn al-Athir; Keller corrects (unnecessarily?) to a.-.adaqdt,

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 AN EARLY ARABIC MIRROR FOR PRINCES 39

The Value of Resolutenessand Application to AdministrativeRoutine

Employ resolution in all that you purpose to do and, after obtaining God's help, set
about it with vigor. Seek to discover by prayer your Lord's will in everything you
undertake. See that you finish the day's stint of work and never leave it to finish the
next day. Instead, give it your undivided attention, because the morrow always has its
own problems and crises, which will divert you from the work left over from the previous
day. You must realize that once a day is over, it carries away with it everything which
was done during that day; so, when you put off the work belonging to it, you find your-
self burdened with two days' work, and this will keep you occupied29 until you are
heartily fed up with it.30 When you get through each day's work on the same day, you
keep your mind and body fresh and at the same time you strengthen the fabric of your
rule.31

The Necessity of Caringfor Those of Noble Birth

Look to those of noble lineage and gentle birth, of whom you are certain32 of the
sincerity of their intentions, of the genuineness of their love for you, of their open
manifestation of good counsel, and their warm devotion [K 50] to your rule.33 [When
you are sure of this,] seek to promote their welfare and act kindly towards them. Take
care of the interests of those members of good families (ahl al-buyiitdt)who have fallen
on hard times; shoulder their burdens and improve their condition, so that they do not
in their distressed state feel the touch of misfortune so keenly.

The Necessity of Caringfor the Poor and Disabled

Devote yourself to looking after the affairs of the poor and destitute, those who are
unable to bring their complaints of ill-treatment to you personally, and those of wretched
estate who do not know how to set about claiming their rights. Ask them about their
hidden needs; appoint as agents, in this work of seeking out the oppressed, reliable
people from amongst your subjects, and give them orders to report to you their needs
and conditions, in order that you may examine them and bring such relief as God may
provide for their predicaments. Turn your attention to war veterans and their orphans
and widows, and provide them with allowances from the state treasury, following the
example of the Commanderof the Faithful, may God exalt him, in showing compassion
for them and in giving them financial subventions, so that God may thereby bring some
alleviation into their daily lives and may by means of it bring you the spiritual food of
His blessing and an increase in His favor. [C 33] Give pensions from the state treasury
to the blind, and amongst these disabled persons give prior claim in allowances to those
who know the Qurdn text by heart or the greater part of it. Set up hospices where
sick Muslims can find shelter, and appoint custodians for these places who will treat the
patients with kindness, and doctors who will cure their illnesses. Pamper them in their
desires, provided that the state treasury is not thereby squandered.

29
Following C's fa-yashghaluka; K has fa-yuthaq- "and you perform the tasks of government well."
qiluka and translates, "this will weigh you down." 32 Following K's bi-man tastaiqinu; C has thumma
30 Following K's hattd yaghradu canhfi; C has... staiqin, "then make certain."
yucrindu..., "until you turn aside from it." 33 Following C's al-mukhdlaka; K has al-mukhdla.ta,
31 Wa-a kamta umsArsuldtnika; Keller translates, "participation."

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40 JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES

The Necessity of Keeping Attuned to the People's Needs

Know that people, even if they are given their due rights and their desires are fulfilled,
will not be satisfied with these [K 51] and their minds not at peace unless they are able
to present their needs to their rulers, in the hope of getting more attention and better
treatment from them. The man who investigates closely the people's affairs often becomes
wearied by all the things which are referred to him,34 and the trouble and hardship
which he undergoes in chasing them up often completely occupy his mind and thoughts.
The person who seeks after justice, and who recognizes his material advantages in this
present life and the superiority of the reward which he will enjoy in the next one, is
not like the person who sets his face towards that which will bring him closer to God,
He is magnified and exalted, and through it
seeks.His mercy.
The Ruler Should Maintain Easy Access to his Presence
Allow people access to your person as much as possible, and show your face to them
as often as you can. Orderyour guards to treat them peaceably; spread your protective
wing over them, and show your face of approval to them. When questioning them or
speaking with them, be gentle, and grant them a share of your goodness and beneficence.
Moreover, when you give, give in a generous and open-hearted manner, hoping for
people's favor and a future reward, and not so as to embarrass the recipient or reproach
him; for a gift bestowed according to the first fashion will be regarded as a profitable
transaction, if God wills.
The Ruler Should Note the Examples of Former Generations,and Should Learn from
Experienceand from Sincere Advisers
Take careful note of everything which you observe in this present world, and consider
the examples of your predecessors,the rulers and leaders of past centuries, and of nations
now disappeared from the earth. Then in all your affairs hold fast to God's will; keep
yourself in the orbit of His love; [K 52] let your actions be guided by His religious law
and the examples laid down by His prophet and the successors, and maintain the
supremacy of His faith and His book. Avoid anything which departs from that or which
contradicts it, or which will arouse God's ire. Be cognisant of the amount of taxation
which your officials collect, and expend a part of it; do not, on the one hand, hoard it
up to a prohibited level, but do not, on the other hand, spend it prodigally.
Spend a lot of your time with the ulema; seek their advice, and frequent their company.
The noblest person amongst all those who join your circle and act as your confidants
should be the person who, when he discerns a fault in you, is not held back by awe of
you from privately pointing out to you the defect and from telling you about its
deleterious effects. Such persons as these are the sincerest of your intimates and
supporters in giving disinterested advice.
The Need for Attention to AdministrativeDetail
Keep an eye on the officials at your court and on your secretaries. Allot to each of
them a fixed time each day when they can bring you their official correspondenceand
any documents requiring the affixing of the ruler's mark,35and can acquaint you of the
4 Vocalizing the text as md yuraddu calaihi; K has the Secretary's Art: a Contribution to the Adminis-
... yaridu ..., "which come to him." trative History of Mediaeval Islam," Journal of the
3 Kutubihi wa-mutdmaratihi; for the latter term, Economic and Social History of the Orient, XII/2
a technical one of the diwdns, see my article, "Abfi
(1969), 126.
cAbdalldh al-Khwdrazmi on the Technical Terms of

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 AN EARLYARABICMIRRORFORPRINCES 41

officials' various requirements and of all the affairs of your provinces and your subjects.
Then devote all your faculties-ears, eyes, understanding, and ratiocinative power-to
the information which they set before you; reflect and pour over it repeatedly. Finally,
put into effect those courses which seem to you to be in accordance with good judgment
and justice, and seek to know God's will [C 34] in them; but where they seem to be
opposed to these criteria, put them off for further consideration and more enquiries.
Do not bestow on your subjects, or on anyone else, any charitable act which you have
undertaken, and do not accept such an act from any one of them, unless [K 53] it involves
fulfilment of a duty, or honest dealing, or assistance to the Commander of the Faithful's
interests; do not put into effect any charitable act except on this basis.

ConcludingExhortations
Strive to understand this epistle of mine to you; study it at length, and always use
it as a guide for your actions. In all your undertakings, ask God for help and seek to
know His will, for God, He is magnified and exalted, loves righteousness and those who
follow after it. Let as much as possible of your conduct and intentions be pleasing in the
sight of God, He is magnifiedand exalted; likewise, let their tendency be to bring support
for God's religion, to be a source of strength and power for the Muslims, and to be a
fountainhead of justice and righteousness both for the Islamic community and the
protected peoples (al-milla wa dh-dhimma).
I myself will ask God to bestow on you His aid, His help towards success, His right
guidance, and His safe keeping. Also, I will ask Him to grant you His favor and mercy,
through a bestowal of all His grace and generosity, so that He will make you the most
fortunate of all your peers and contemporaries,the richest in possessions, and the most
elevated in reputation and power. Finally, I will ask Him to destroy your enemies, those
who rise up against you and those who act wrongfullyagainst you; to bring you prosperity
in your dealings with your subjects; and to keep Satan and his evil promptings away
from you. As a result of this, your position will be exalted in power and might and
successfulness; indeed, He is always near, always ready to answer.36

36 QurD~n, xi. 64/61.

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