Chapter 5

Cellulose Based Nanomaterials for Food

Packaging: Opportunities and Challenges

Sonal Prasad, Anand Dave, and Sankalp Misra

Introduction

The packing materials are significantly concerned with quality, safety, and shelf life
of food materials (Manzoor et al., 2023). They have been classified under primary,
secondary, and tertiary levels based on their interaction with the products (Kawecka
& Cholewa-Wójcik, 2023). Packaging films are made of a polymer matrix to create
cohesive structure providing strength, often with a plasticizer to reduce stiffness and
fragility (Song et al., 2022; Majeedet al., 2023). They protect food from biological
and physical harm and lengthen shelf life by preventing the flow of gases, moisture,
and volatile substances (Al-Tayyar et al., 2020; Li et al., 2023). Conventional pack-
ing materials are manufactured using polymers derived from petroleum that have
adjustable qualities but are known to have negative environmental effects (Nogueiraet
al., 2020; Atta et al., 2022; Swain et al., 2023). Microplastic pollution in soils and
aquatic environments originating from the usage of synthetic films is regarded as
the main environmental plastic contaminant that poses a major threat to both human
and animal health (Wang et al., 2019; Dissanayake et al., 2022; Ma et al., 2023).
Adopting biodegradable films—materials that naturally break down into carbon
dioxide, water, and methane, or biomass in 3–6 months—can be a pragmatic solu-
tion to this issue. These substances can be created using microbes, bio-derived
monomers, or biomass as a raw source. Furthermore, the production of these mate-
rials from renewable resources, such as cellulosic materials and fibers recovered

S. Prasad · S. Misra (*)

Faculty of Biosciences, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial
University, Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Dave
Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology Centre, The Maharaja Sayajirao University
of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 91

K. Younis et al. (eds.), Organic-Based Nanomaterials in Food Packaging,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63829-9_5
92 S. Prasad et al.

from processing waste streams, supports sustainable agricultural practices (Harrison

et al., 2023). Therefore, producing biodegradable, secure, and high-performance
packaging materials with biopolymer sources like cellulose is extremely important.
In the cell walls of all plants, as well as algae and fungus, cellulose is the most
prevalent natural biopolymer. Due to its adaptability, chemical stability, lack of tox-
icity, and cost, it can be an excellent material for the production of films (Ghassemiet
al., 2021; Kassab et al., 2023). The diversity of cellulose’s derivatives, each with a
unique chemical structure and set of physicochemical characteristics and used in a
variety of industrial fields, is also a factor in the material’s adaptability (Seddiqi
et al., 2021). Food packaging has traditionally used cellulose and its derivatives, and
recent years have seen a rise in study on the use of Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC)
(Wu et al., 2023). Agro-waste from the sugar and pulp industries, for example, can
be used to create CNC (Meral et al., 2022). The mechanical integrity and strength
of the final composite can be greatly improved when CNC is employed in a compos-
ite material together with other polymers (Low et al., 2021; Campbell et al., 2023).

Nanocellulose: A Green Approach

Packaging materials like biopolymers are now being researched in the food packag-
ing industry due to their little environmental impact. “Bio-nanocomposites” are
materials that have at least one dimension in the 1–100 nm range and contain
component(s) of biological origin (Trivedi & Gupta, 2023). At the moment, these
packaging materials are in the spotlight. These materials are another emerging trend
since they are eco-friendly replacements for plastic that are lightweight and exhibit
high-performance activity (Shah et al., 2021; Anwer et al., 2023). Because they
have a greater potential to improve the mechanical, thermal, and gas barrier capa-
bilities of biopolymer packaging while maintaining their biodegradable properties,
nanomaterials are an excellent choice when constructing an alternative to plastic
packaging (Table 5.1). In addition, nanoscale dispersion is a property of nanocom-
posites that significantly enhances the mechanical and physical characteristics of
food packaging (Paidari et al., 2023). Currently, nanoparticles can be added to pack-
aging films made from native cellulose or derivatives like cellulose nanocrystals or
CMC to provide them additional properties including strength, stability, ultraviolet
barrier, optical properties, or antibacterial properties (Fernández-Santos et al.,
2022).For instance, it has been demonstrated that covering cellulose nanocrystals
with paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles increases the thermostabilityof films
(Mohammadi et al., 2020). In a different work, silver (Ag) incorporated cellulose
nanocrystal films were prepared (Yadav et al., 2020).
5 Cellulose Based Nanomaterials for Food Packaging: Opportunities and Challenges 93

Table 5.1 List of sources and applications of nanocellulose

Sources Application References
Agricultural derived The majority of adhesives used in wood adhesive Vineeth
cellulose technology are synthetic formaldehyde-based materials et al. (2019)
including melamine-formaldehyde, phenol-formaldehyde
resin, and urea-formaldehyde resin.
Forestry derived Adding CNF to melamine-urea-formaldehyde and Lengowski
cellulose (Timber urea-formaldehyde adhesives has been found to et al. (2019)
woods) strengthen the cellulose nanofiber’s structure, increase
energy and toughness fracture, and improve the
mechanical properties of the board.
Bacteria derived It has potential uses in traditional desserts, low-­ Shi et al.
cellulose cholesteroldiets, vegetarian meat, food/beverage (2014)
additives, and food packaging.
Carboxymethyl CMC has a wide range of applications because to its Yadollahi
cellulose outstanding qualities, which include exceptional et al. (2015)
biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, and low
cost. CMC gels have been used in bacteriostatic fields in
addition to the early detection and treatment of tumors
Sisal fibers Translucent CNF film Trifol et al.
(2017)
Amorphafruticosa Transparent nanopaper Zhuo et al.
Linn. (2017)
Maize straw Nanofillers in polymer matrixes Rehman
et al. (2014)
Eucalyptus kraft pulp Polymer composite applications Tonoli et al.
(2012)
Sawdust wastes Biomedical applications Kalita et al.
(2015)
Coir fiber Industrial and Biomedical applications Abraham
et al. (2013)
Dry softwood pulp Optical applications Zhao et al.
(2013)
Cotton stalks Industrial applications Soni et al.
(2015)

Types of Nanocellulose

Since so many different criteria have been taken into account, it can be difficult to
classify nanocellulose. However, nanocellulosecan be broadly divided into four
groups: cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), bacterial cellulose (BC), and cellulose
nanofibrils (CNFs) (Kargarzadehet al., 2018; Qi et al., 2023). Notably, the quality of
finished products may vary depending on the resources used; for instance, some
types of nanocellulose made from lignocellulose may contain significant levels of
lignin or hemicellulose. By keeping lignin during the nanorization process when
using lignin-containing biomass as a raw material, such as groundwood pulp and
sawdust, lignin-containing nanocellulose can be created, and the finished product
94 S. Prasad et al.

can achieve the same UV-absorption effect as other UV-absorbing additives

described in the literature (Sirviö & Visanko, 2019).

Cellulose Nanocrystal (CNC): A Crystalline Category

The definition of CNC has also undergone discussion and development, moving
from the straightforward description of a high crystallinity rod- or needle-like par-
ticle with at least one dimension 100 nm to the ISO standard with a more specific
characterization of the CNC’s distinguishing characteristics (Trache et al., 2020).
According to the ISO standard, CNC is specifically defined as having at least one
elementary fibril of cellulose, having crystalline and paracrystalline regions for the
most part, having an aspect ratio of 5–50, a diameter of 3–50 nm, and a length rang-
ing from 100 nm to several m, and not having particle entanglement, longitudinal
splitting, or a three-dimensional network structure for the morphology of the parti-
cles (Blanco et al., 2018; Qi et al., 2023). Although, the notion size of CNC varies a
little bit. According to some researchers, CNC should have a length of no more than
500 nm (Grishkewich et al., 2017), even though some researchers specify that the
CNC’s typical diameter is between 2 and 20 nm (Phanthong et al., 2018). In contrast
to the ISO standard, these definitions modified the size range in accordance with the
unique circumstance, without overly broadening the scope or adhering to conven-
tions, which is helpful for the creation of the standard words for nanocellulose.
Because the amorphous portion is hydrolyzed during manufacture, CNCs have
excellent crystallinity and great hardness due to the neat stacking of cellulose chains
in the crystalline region (Samir et al., 2005). But its brittleness prevents it from
being used in flexible materials.

Cellulose Nanofibril (CNF): An Entangled Group

CNF is defined by ISO-TS 20477-2017 to be a nano-sized fibril having aninter-

twined and network like structure. CNF possesses the following properties: (1) at
least one elementary fibril, (2) comprise crystalline regions and amorphous regions.
Therefore, the crystallinity of CNFs is observed to be inferior toCNCs. Although,
the aspect ratio is greater than 10 and diameter at 3–500 nm, length up to several
μm.Nevertheless, some researchers reported that the size of CNF is smaller, with
diameter in 3–15 nm range and length of 1–2 μm (Yang et al., 2021). However,
some researchers described that some categories of CNFs might have residual hemi-
cellulose or lignin due to preparation process (Bian et al., 2018).
5 Cellulose Based Nanomaterials for Food Packaging: Opportunities and Challenges 95

Regenerated Nanocellulose (RNC): A Reinforced Strategy

RNC is a type of nanocellulose that is made through dissolving and precipitation. Its
typical form is spherical and ranges in size from 10 to 500 nm (Tian et al., 2022). It
is generally accepted thatduring the dissolution process, the solvent system breaks
down the hydrogen bonds that connect the molecules of cellulose by creating new
hydrogen bonds with them, while also preventing cellulose from forming hydrogen
bonds again (Cai et al., 2008). The molecules of cellulose are scattered in the fluid
during breakdown, and during regeneration, the molecules are reorganized by
hydrogen bonding to form RNC (Mahmud et al., 2021). The form, size, and other
characteristics of products are significantly influenced by the regeneration process
circumstances. The small size and high specific surface area of RNC, which can be
achieved by regulating the regeneration process, set it apart from other forms of
regenerated cellulose. Some reviews concentrate on the regenerated cellulose fibres
created by the electrospinning process, however due to their size, these products fall
outside the interpretation of the RNC covered in this work (Wsoo et al., 2020;
Kerwald et al., 2022). The native cellulose I allomorph’s molecular chains and
hydrogen bonding network have been rebuilt during the dissolution and regenera-
tion processes, and the cellulose II-based products are now more thermodynami-
cally stable (Shin et al., 2018).

Bacterial Cellulose (BC): An Ecofriendly Method

BC is a unique variety of nanocellulose that is weaved together by linear polysac-

charide polymers, which are mostly produced by bacteria. It has a translucent and
gelatinous look. Although BC is generally made up of ribbon-shaped fibrils, there
are minor variances in size between BC produced by various procedures. The single
BC fibril was estimated to be about 100 nm wide and 100 mm long by some
researchers (Liu et al., 2020), whereas it was estimated to be 35–70 nm wide,
13–24 nm thick, and several m long by other researchers. The usual cellulose bind-
ers found in lignocellulosic materials, hemicellulose and lignin, are absent from
BC, making it a relatively pure compound. It is frequently utilized in biology and
medicine and is typically thought to be non-toxic to cells.

Agricultural Derived Cellulose

Agricultural waste disposal has always been a problematic issue. The ethical use of
agricultural waste can help prevent environmental contamination to some extent
thanks to social advocacy for the circular economy and public support for recycling
agricultural waste resources (Prata et al., 2019). In order to increase the
96 S. Prasad et al.

effectiveness of recycling agricultural waste, Taiwan has recently updated pertinent

legislation and regulations (Rani et al., 2023). A number of techniques can be used
to extract cellulose from agricultural waste, which has always been a significant
supply of the substance (Fig. 5.1). In this approach, agricultural waste contributes to
the creation of a new renewable resource while still having a high environmental
degradability. Numerous agricultural wastes have been investigated as nanocellu-
lose resources, including, pineapple peel (Rani et al., 2023), and leaves (Nargotra
et al., 2023), sisal (Suryantoet al., 2023), and cocoa pod husk (Zambranoet al.,
2023). A variety of fibre sources include, rice straw, rice stalks, and wheat stalks
(Worku et al., 2023). Agricultural waste can be processed chemically with alkaline
treatment, bleaching, and acid hydrolysis to separate the cellulose (Lima et al.,
2023). The most typical illustration should be sugarcane. After sugar and alcohol
are separated, sugarcane bagasse serves as the primary source of cellulose, which is
then extracted from agricultural waste using ultrasonic irradiation, varying concen-
trations of alkali, and alkaline peroxide (Chandel et al., 2023). Various cellulose
components are extracted using various techniques. Among other things, agricul-
tural waste contains lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose, dietary fibre, and sugar. The
agricultural plant’s natural fibre portion shows enormous potential as cellulose
sources (Table 5.1). According to the varied raw materials, the fibre extraction
method is often constructed differently. The yield, shape, and chemical structure of
cellulose are greatly influenced by reaction time and the ratio of source materials.

Fig. 5.1 Diagrammatic representation of different sources of nanocellulose

5 Cellulose Based Nanomaterials for Food Packaging: Opportunities and Challenges 97

Food
packaging

Carbon Waste water

dioxide treatment
capture

Applications
of
Nanocellulose

Cosmetics Bio-medicine

Wood
adhesives

Fig. 5.2 General applications of nanocellulose

The extraction of cellulose from agricultural waste has grown in importance as a

research area (D’Acierno et al., 2023) (Fig. 5.2).

Application in Food Packaging

Food can deteriorate due to a variety of reasons. The primary factors are ambient
temperature, humidity, and meteorological conditions. Natural elements also have a
significant role in the movement of products. The quality of the product is signifi-
cantly impacted by the loading and unloading, transshipment, receipt, and delivery
during the circulation of goods. Due to its numerous sources, non-toxicity, light
weight, and high hygroscopicity characteristics, cellulose-derived material has
received a lot of interest in the composites industry. In addition to simple composite
materials, complicated nano-reinforced films with unique functionalities connected
to cellulose are also being researched (Ifukuet al., 2007; Picheth et al., 2014;
Balasubramaniam et al., 2020; Willberg-Keyriläinen et al., 2017). Examples include
ultra-thin films, electrostatic self-assembled thin films, adsorption films, hydropho-
bic films, and others. The internal structure of cellulose is quickly destroyed by
environmental factors like temperature and humidity. The reduction of barrier
98 S. Prasad et al.

property resulted from this. As a result, it is frequently used in the creation of com-
posite films based on nanocellulose. Due to the high rigidity and low oxygen perme-
ability, nanocellulose has been considered a huge rise in recognition as an aspect for
food packaging. Nanocomposite technology has been considered as a best approach
to upgrade the performance of the polymers (such as polyhydroxyalkanoates, poly
lactic acid and thermoplastic starch) to a level suitable for food packaging applica-
tions. This method consists of combining two or more components to improve the
material’s overall properties.

The Components Based on Nanocellulose

In order to generate nanocomposites for food packaging, nanocellulose (NC) has

been employed as a filler and a coating. To maximise the product’s overall perfor-
mance, it is essential to recognize each component’s role and the way interact.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that adding nanocellulose to other materials
can produce useful functionality, including barrier features, abrasion resistance,
antibacterial features, etc. (Bharimalla et al., 2017).

Application in Composite Reinforced Packaging

Two-phase material is usually referred to as a composite material in nanocellulose

packaging. Nano cellulose based composite materials used in food packaging have
more superior qualities than conventional materials. The qualities of cellulose are
beneficial, including accessibility, nontoxicity, and biodegradability. As a result,
cellulose composite material is gaining increasing amounts of interest from the
packaging industry. Overall, the particle size, length, and component ratio of com-
posites will be significantly affected by the distribution and dispersion of cellulose
fibre within the composites (Willberg-Keyriläinen et al., 2017). The most popular
ways of reinforcing include surface modification, additive addition, and mixing. As
a result, the fibre can acquire both mechanical and intrinsic flexibility. Common
nanocellulose materials primarily consist of starch-based nanocellulose composites,
polyhydroxybutyrate-based nanocellulose composites, and nanocellulose compos-
ites based on polylactide. (Eichhorn et al., 2010; Abdul Khalil et al., 2012). The
mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of faba bean protein packaging film can
all be significantly enhanced by the addition of cellulose nanocrystals, making it
more useful in the packaging industry (Diop et al., 2017). Additionally, cellulose
can enhance the physical properties of packaging material made from chitosan. As
society continues to develop sustainably, cellulose will be a key component of com-
posite reinforcement (Kumar et al., 2019).
5 Cellulose Based Nanomaterials for Food Packaging: Opportunities and Challenges 99

Coating Reinforcement

A linear polymer called cellulose has a large number of free hydroxyl groups that
can take part in several processes to make it interactive. Furthermore, it is simple to
create both intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds with the application of cellu-
lose. Utilizing cellulose as a coating for material reinforcement is one method of
improvement (Gicquel et al., 2016). A coating is present on the majority of paper
and board products used in food packaging to improve moisture and grease resis-
tance. Coating methods include solvent-based coating, extrusion coating, aqueous
dispersion coating, wax coating, hot melt coating, and vacuum coating. Some of the
techniques are said to apply one or more layers where NC is a part of the coating,
while others are said to coat a layer of NC.

Additive Reinforcement

Cellulose can also be added as a film additive material to create multiphase composite
films. A substance made primarily of cellulose and snail mucus is known as cellulose
derived-snail film. Following carboxymethyl cellulose and polymer composite, its
ultraviolet 300–800 nm wavelength transmittance may reach 80%, demonstrating
good visible light transmittance. This composite material has a UV-screening effect
and is very transparent. The cellulose-based materials offer a somewhat higher capa-
bility for bacterial suppression than pure polymer-based films. Most crucially, com-
pared with a single snail mucus layer, water solubility significantly decreased.

Application in Antimicrobial Packaging

Antibacterial film with cellulose has an elevated status since it has green degrada-
tion, a variety of sources, and other benefits. Numerous natural substances, antimi-
crobial nanoparticles and synthetic antimicrobial compounds have had their
antibacterial components isolated by scientists. Through a series of experimental
studies, they were combined with cellulose substrates to test their antibacterial
effectiveness. The development of cellulose-based antimicrobial membranes has
made significant advancements.

Synthetic Antimicrobial Agent

According to Sanla-Ead et al. (2012), cellulose film that contains cinnamaldehyde

and eugenol has outstanding antibacterial characteristics. Cinnamaldehyde has been
found to have an excellent inhibitory impact on Staphylococcus aureus, Enteritidis,
100 S. Prasad et al.

and Candida albicans. It was observed through a variety of antimicrobial tests that
cinnamaldehyde and eugenol significantly suppress food pathogenic and spoilage
microorganisms (Sanla-Ead et al., 2012). The test revealed some significant changes
in the mechanical characteristics of the composite films (Rammak et al., 2021).
Food films can combine naturally occurring antimicrobial compounds like capsa-
icin, gallotannin, fruit and vegetable seeds and leaves, etc. Another widely used
technique is doping antimicrobial nanoparticles to create antimicrobial films (Zhao
et al., 2020). To create a type of nano-composite antibacterial film, sodium alginate
and copper nanoparticles were successfully incorporated into the cellulose-based
food packaging film (Saravanakumar et al., 2020). Agglomeration was seen to
appear in the film when the concentration of cellulose nano-whisker increased. Cu
nanoparticles modify the colour of the film, but they also enhance its antibacterial
and antioxidant characteristics. As a result, food can be stored for a longer period of
time and has a longer shelf life. Nano silver ions, nano zinc ions, and other small ion
types can also be added to packing films of the cellulose type that have antibacterial
qualities (Dairi et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2020).

Conclusion

In the present chapter, the sources and properties of cellulose are discussed, along
with how it might be used to reinforce antibacterial and intelligent packaging. In
this study, the cellulose extraction process and its impact on packaging are covered
in great detail. To produce environmentally friendly packaging and commercial
packaging, cellulose must be used in the packaging process.The advancement of
new technologies, preservation, and environmental protection will be the primary
areas of emphasis for packaging development in the future. As a result, packaging
performance requirements will be raised. The future trend in package development
will be the creation of novel packaging with a variety of features, including high
barriers, high mechanical qualities, anti-bacterial, anti-oxygen, and freshness moni-
toring. In the future, functionally modified cellulose, particularly nanocellulose,
will be utilized extensively in packaging for hydrophobic goods, changed environ-
ment goods, high barrier goods, culinary goods, antistatic goods, and hoover goods.
Extrusion composite, coating composite, solvent free composite, etc. are typical
production processes in the area of composite flexible packaging.
The majority of cellulose-based packaging materials are composite materials,
therefore it’s important to regulate the degree of polymerization, modify the surface,
and ensure material compatibility. Polystyrene is anticipated to be replaced with
agricultural cellulose that has been modified to increase cellulose stiffness and light
transmission in blister packaging. It also makes cellulose more resilient so that it
can take the place of polyethylene in body-conforming packaging. In addition, it is
anticipated that it will be used in shrink packaging by altering the heat stability of
cellulose. Additionally, a significant number of the chemicals used in the extraction
of cellulose and nanocellulose will have a negative influence on the environment. In
5 Cellulose Based Nanomaterials for Food Packaging: Opportunities and Challenges 101

order to minimize the impact on the environment, the process should be optimized
from a green and sustainable standpoint. By gathering waste materials for effective
conversion and lowering the usage of toxic chemicals, sustainable packaging can be
encouraged even further. We can only make opportunities for genuinely achieving
sustainable goals in this way.

Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge the facilities of Institute of Biosciences and

Technology, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Barabanki.

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