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Review of Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) on Electric Vehicles (EVs) Charging

Conference Paper in AIP Conference Proceedings · September 2019

DOI: 10.1063/1.5138558

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Review of wireless power transfer (WPT) on
electric vehicles (EVs) charging
Cite as: AIP Conference Proceedings 2190, 020072 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5138558
Published Online: 11 December 2019

Nikolaos Korakianitis, Georgios A. Vokas, and Georgios Ioannides

AIP Conference Proceedings 2190, 020072 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5138558 2190, 020072

© 2019 Author(s).
 Review of Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) on Electric
Vehicles (EVs) Charging
Nikolaos Korakianitis a) Georgios A. Vokas b) and Georgios Ioannides

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of West Attica,
Building Z, Campus 2, Athens GR: 12244, Greece
a)
[email protected]
b)
[email protected]

Abstract. This paper attempts to provide a review of wireless charging technologies suitable for electric vehicles (EVs)
charging. Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) and strongly coupled magnetic resonance technologies are chosen for detailed
review. Different cases of WPT technologies, their principle of operation and equivalent circuit based analysis is carried
out. Compensation strategies and their effectiveness are reviewed. Design trends of coil systems for electric cars have
been referenced. In addition, this paper presents special issues related to WPT and EV applications, the shielding
methods, the Solar Power Satellite (SPS), the Roadway Powered Electric Vehicles (RPEVs) and the Online Electric
Vehicles (OLEVs). Finally, recommendations and conclusions are made, based on the study and analysis of the available
literature showing the trends on the wireless power transfer of EVs.

INTRODUCTION
Electric Vehicles (EVs) are considered by many researchers and relevant companies as the future of
transportation, due to the possibility of increased well-to-wheel efficiency and the objectives of reducing the
emissions caused by conventional (internal combustion engine (ICE)-based) vehicles [1,2,3]. Electric vehicles are
categorized as: (a) hybrid EVs; and (b) pure EVs. In the first case of hybrid EVs, apart from on-board DC-sources of
energy such as batteries, lower sized ICEs are also used for traction power and are used to charge the on-board
energy sources when required. In the second case of pure EVs, the on-board batteries must to be charged by
receiving energy from the grid through on-board or off-board chargers. [4]. For the case of on-board chargers,
battery/ultra-capacitors can be charged through conductive or contactless means. Conductive charging uses wires
between the utility grid supply and the charging port of an electric vehicle. Even though conductive charging is
familiar, it suffers from problems like the need for connecting cables, galvanic isolation for on-board electronics,
increased weight and size of chargers and the problem of safety in wet environments [5].
Based on the flux generated, magnetic couplers are classified as polarized and non-polarized couplers. Polarized
couplers can generate both perpendicular and parallel flux components while non-polarized couplers generate only
the perpendicular component of flux. The detailed analysis of couplers was carried out in [10]. Polarized couplers
require synchronized converters which increases their cost and are sensitive to angular misalignments [11], so non-
polarized pads like asymmetrical circular spiral couplers are preferable for static charging to avoid synchronous
converters and to improve angular misalignment tolerance. High efficiency, maximum power transfer and low stress
on the devices can be obtained by using different compensation topologies. It can be observed that in case of series-
series compensation topology the power increases linearly with the coupling coefficient when supplied with a
current source, and on the conditions for the maximum efficiency and power output in series-series compensation
topology with respect to load resistance, mutual inductance, and resonant frequency when transmitter is fed with
voltage source or current source [12].
In contactless power transfer (CPT) power flow can be controlled from either or both the transmitting or
receiving end. For the case of multiple receiving coils coupled with a single transmitting coil, excitation and

Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability

AIP Conf. Proc. 2190, 020072-1–020072-11; https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5138558
Published by AIP Publishing. 978-0-7354-1937-7/$30.00

020072-1
frequency are kept constant and power flow control is achieved at the receiving end with the help of a rectifier and
DC-DC converter [13]. For stationary charging as there is a single receiving coil, it is better to control from the
transmitting side so that DC-DC converter at the receiving side can be eliminated there by losses in the receiving
side can be reduced [14]. Transmitting side control techniques are classified as fixed frequency and variable
frequency. Variable frequency control techniques can maintain unity power factor but issues of bifurcation and
instability arise [15], so fixed frequency control is preferable for stationary charging.
As the chassis of the EV deteriorates the coil performance, aluminum plates of greater thickness than the skin
depth are placed in between the chassis and coils with a ferrite core. This arrangement is known as passive shielding.
If the time varying electromagnetic field within the surroundings of a vehicle is greater than the limit specified by
International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), a reactive resonant current loop is used
to decrease the EMF below the ICNIRP limits [16].
Static CPT is convenient for charging at home or office parking spots [17]. One solution proposed by researchers
to decrease the weight of the on-board batteries and to improve EVs features is dynamic charging [18,19]. Research
articles in the past few years also showed improvements in the limitations of CPT like increases in power transfer
with high efficiency, increases in misalignment tolerance and reduction in charging time.

TECHNOLOGIES IN WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER

General
A generic WPT consists of a transmitter supplied with high frequency alternating current (AC), which is
generated by a high frequency power converter. The transmitter is coupled with a receiver either through an electric,
magnetic or electromagnetic field and induces a voltage in the receiver. The voltage induced at the receiver is fed to
the load through a power converter to match the voltage according to the load specifications. The general block
diagram of the CPT is given in Fig. 1.
Control Control
Circuit Circuit

Power Coupling Coupling Power

AC mains Load
Converter Device Device Converter

Transmitter Receiver

FIGURE 1. General block diagram of Wireless Power Transfer (WPT).

Depending on the type of the field involved in transferring energy WPT is differentiated into three different
technologies and are: (i) capacitive; (ii) inductive; and (iii) radiant WPTs. A common aspect of the WPT is that the
transmitter energizes its surrounding space. The energy stored in inductive and capacitive fields per unit volume of
space is:
𝑊 (1)
∙
𝑊 ∙𝜀 ∙𝛦 (2)
where mo, εo, B, and E are the permeability and permittivity of free space, magnetic flux density, and electric field
intensity, respectively. In practice the maximum energy density in a magnetic field is 104 times greater than that in
an electric field, for the maximum values of E, B in free space [20].

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 INDUCTIVE POWER TRANSFER

Electrical equivalent circuit analysis

The electrical equivalent circuit of inductive charging is shown in Fig. 2 where r1, r2, and L1, L2 are the
resistances and inductances of the transmitting and receiving coils, respectively, M is the mutual inductance between
two coils, and RL is the equivalent AC load resistance.

r1 L1 𝐼 𝐼 r2 L2
𝑉 ‐jωM𝐼 jωM𝐼 RL

FIGURE 2. Equivalent circuit of inductive charging.

Let the transmitting coil is excited with sinusoidal voltage (𝑉 ) of angular frequency ω. From the electrical
equivalent circuit model, steady state equations at transmitter and receiver side are:
𝑉 𝐼𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐼 𝑗𝜔𝑀𝐼 (3)
𝑗𝜔𝑀𝐼 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐼 𝐼𝑟 𝐼𝑅 (4)
where 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 are the currents flowing in the transmitting and receiving coils. From Equation (4) the current 𝐼2
is:
𝐼 (5)
Z2 represents the equivalent impedance at the receiving side. Substituting Equation (5) in to Equation (3) gives:
𝑉 𝑟𝐼 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐼 𝐼 (6)
Total impedance (Zt) seen from the transmitter side is given by:
𝑍 𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝐿 (7)
From Equation (7) reflected impedance (Zr) [26] at transmitter side is given by:
𝑍 (8)
From Equations (4)–(8) it can be observed that the induced and reflected voltage depend on the mutual
inductance (M) between the transmitting and receiving coils. M depends on the coupling coefficient (k) given by:
k (9)

For contactless charging M is small, L1, L2 are large so k is small and the range is 0.1 to 0.5 [27]:
(10)
The key performance indexes of the inductive power transfer are efficiency, maximum load power, and sizing
power ratio of the voltage source [28]. These are defined as follows:
From Equations (7) and (10) efficiency is given by:

𝜂 (11)

where Re{Zt} is the real part of the total impedance as seen from the transmitting end.
Maximum load power (PLmax) can be calculated from the short-circuit power (Ssc) [29] which is the product of
the open circuit voltage and short circuit current:
𝑆 (12)

020072-3
 According to the maximum power transfer theorem, PLmax is obtained when RL  L2 by neglecting the
resistance of the coil and is given by:
𝑃 , (13)
where PLi,max is maximum load power in uncompensated system. Sizing Power Ratio (SPR) is defined as the ratio
of the nominal apparent power to nominal load power. For the protection of the source SPR should be near to unity.
For simplification, we can neglect the resistance and the calculated expression is given by Equation (14):

𝑆𝑃𝑅 (14)
Where, SPRi is the sizing power ratio of the voltage source in the uncompensated system. From Equation (11) it
can be observed that for maximum efficiency ω and M should be high or resistance should be low.
It is observed that maximum efficiency is obtained at higher frequency [30] and is given by the condition:

𝜔≫ (15)
From Equation (7) it can be observed that at high frequency total impedance seen by the source becomes more
inductive and the input power factor decreases. This means that for getting high frequency the source side inverter
should have a large apparent power rating. That indicates the need of compensation in Inductive Power Transfer.

Operating principle for ICPT system

The inductive power transfer offers low efficiency when the air gap is increased between charging coils and also
involves wired chargers, while the designs for full wireless charging systems have been developed to overcome the
deficiencies of IPT and make the charging system convenient for the users.
The inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT) employs capacitors connected to both the primary and secondary
coils to compensate the leakage flux due to the increased air gap, as shown in Fig. 3. Both the LC circuits work on
resonance phenomena to enable effective energy transfer at resonant frequency [31].

FIGURE 3. ICPT circuit.

The inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT) method is known for its high power transfer in many
applications, mainly in electric vehicles [41, 31]. It provides a rapid charging process, and optimized power
transmission by frequency variation and control over the loss due to low magnetic coupling. The ICPT has been
used for both stationary and moving electric vehicles [47]. If the vehicle being charged is stationary, it is said to be
“charging of the battery electric vehicle (BEV)” or “static charging”, while, if the vehicle is moving, some names
given to it are dynamic charging and online electric vehicle (OLEV). In the OLEV set-up, the primary coil is placed
in the pavement at spaced locations, thereby establishing a charging roadbed that allows power transfer at several
spaced locations throughout the roadbed. Although it involves high capital cost for infrastructure installation, its
feature of frequent charging can elude the need for high capacity batteries.
The requirement for WPTS in RPEVs is that a high power should be efficiently delivered via a moderate air gap
to avoid collisions between the RPEVs and the road. The WPTS are consist of two subsystems:
i. Roadway subsystem for providing power, which includes a rectifier, high-frequency (HF) inverter, primary
capacitor bank, and power supply rail.
ii. On-board subsystem for receiving power, which includes a pick-up coil, secondary capacitor bank, rectifier,
and regulator for battery, as shown in the Fig. 6.
The roadway subsystem should be so robust and cheap that it may withstand severe road environments for a long
time and should be economic to install over a long distance, whereas the on-board subsystem should be compact in
size and light in weight so that it may be adopted into the RPEV.[43]

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 The online electric vehicle (OLEV) uses relatively low resonant frequency as the system is installed for the
charging of moving electric vehicles in an open public area. Therefore, it is necessary to maintain safety regulations
prescribed by safety regulation organizations, such as the International Committee on Electromagnetic Safety
(ICES), and the International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) to avoid the exposure by
humans to the electromagnetic field.

FIGURE. 4: Roadway powered electric vehicle.[43]

The achievements in research of ICPT technology are tabulated in Table 1:
TABLE 1. ICPT applied projects.
Manufacturer/institute Power rating Efficiency (%) Air gap (cm)
2007 [50] 60 W 40 200
2011 [63] 1 kW 88 30
2011 [64] 3.3 kW 84 – 90 10
2011 [65] 60 kW 92 40
2012 [66] 3.3 kW 90 18
2012 [95] 30 kW 92 14
2013 [67] 180 kW 85 10
2014 [68] 300 – 600 kW 83 3
A comparison of charging methods with respect to the parameters including efficiency, frequency, cost, power
level and distance is shown in Table 2:
TABLE 2. Comparison of various EV battery charging methods.
Techonlogy Efficiency Frequency Power level Distance Cost
Microwave P.T. Medium 1-30 GHz Low/medium Long High
I.P.T. (uncompensated) High 15-100 kHz High Very low High
I.C.P.T. Medium 20-200 kHz High Medium Medium
From developed methods of electric vehicle charging, the ICPT method has enabled the high power transfer.

Development of Inductive Coupled PT for EV Charging

The general block diagram of an inductively coupled WPT is shown in Fig. 5. In general, the transmitting coil is
paved into the ground and the receiving coil is attached to the chassis of the vehicle. The AC grid supply is
converted into DC with a power factor correction (PFC) rectifier.
Inductive
Coupling
Compensation

Compensation
Frequency

Frequency
Secondary

Converter

(Battery)
Rectifier

Rectifier
Inverter

DC – DC
Primary

AC
Load
High

High
PFC

Mains

Transmitter Receiver

FIGURE 5. Block diagram of an inductively coupled WPT. (PFC: power factor correction).
A diode bridge rectifier along with boost converter can be used as the PFC rectifier. The inductor at the input
side of the boost converter helps to maintain the current sinusoidal and in phase with the applied voltage. The sizing

020072-5
of the PFC rectifier for WPT is given in [35] and the main focus of this review is between the DC-DC stage of the
transmitter and receiver as the PFC rectifier is mature in design. The DC output of the PFC is converted into high
frequency AC by a high frequency inverter and is supplied to the transmitting coil through a compensation network.
According to Faraday’s law voltage is induced in the receiving coil and is rectified through the high frequency
rectifier for DC loads. A DC-DC converter at the output side is used to match the impedance of the battery.

Compensation technologies
The increase in air gap between two inductive coils increases the leakage inductance and magnetizing current,
and, accordingly, the coupling between them weakens. The circuit is operated at a resonant frequency to compensate
the leakage inductance and to strengthen the coupling between the resonant coils [45]. It has been analyzed that the
primary coil compensation can minimize the apparent power rating of the power supply of the ICPT system, while
the secondary coil compensation can increase the capability of the pick-up coil [26]. This is achieved by operating
the system at the zero phase angle frequency, i.e. the angle between the current and voltage is always kept at zero.
The arrangement of the capacitor connections for compensation on both sides either in series or parallel makes 4
topologies – series–series (SS), series–parallel (SP), parallel–series (PS) and parallel–parallel (PP) – as shown in
Fig. 6.

FIGURE 6. Compensation topologies (a) SS, (b) SP, (c) PS, (d) PP.

Design of the Coil System

The first step of coil design is its preliminary sizing, based on the chassis to ground clearance (air gap),
dimensions of the chassis, space available for placing a coil system and technical requirements of the vehicle [46]. It
is observed that in S-S topology C2, C1 are independent of load resistance and mutual inductance between the coils
and there is no imaginary part in the reflected impedance, so this topology is best suited for EVs where the load and
coupling coefficient are variable [12]. By considering the advantages of the S-S topology, the approach of coil
system design is presented considering this topology. Under resonance conditions Equations (3) and (4) become as
follows:
𝑉 𝑗𝜔 𝑀𝐼 (16)
𝑗𝜔 𝑀𝐼 𝐼𝑅 (17)
From Equation (16) it is clear that the magnitude of the source voltage must satisfy |𝑉 | 𝜔𝑜 𝑀𝐼2 for the
power to transfer from the transmitting side to the receiving side. From the above condition the maximum value of
M can be calculated by considering a frequency of 85 kHz as recommended by the Society of Automotive Engineers
standard SAE J2954, the peak voltage of the high frequency inverter and the nominal load current. Then, based on
the preliminary sizing and shape of the coil, the number of turns can be calculated from the analytical expressions.
To reduce the losses due to skin effect, Litz wire is used for the coil.

Charging distance
The large air gap is the main consideration in the development of EV charging, as a reasonable ground clearance
is required between the EV chassis and the charging pad fixed in the ground. An air gap of a few centimeters is
necessary for EV application [59] and the value of k in the EV charging ICPT systems has been observed to be
between 0.3 and 0.6 [31]. Table 3 shows a comparison between ICPT EV charging systems employing a ferrite core

020072-6
and an air core, where the coupling coefficient in the ICPT systems using a core is higher than in the air core
systems.
TABLE 3. ICPT systems using ferrite core. [48,49,50,51,52,53]
Ferrite cored ICPT systems Air cored ICPT systems
Ref № Charging distance Coupling Ref № Charging distance Coupling
(mm) coefficient (mm) coefficient
48 70 0.35 49 200 0.16
51 80 0.25 50 2000 0.01
52 6 0.72 53 300 0.05

Power level
The power level for the ICPT system accommodates several important aspects including charging time, location,
and cost [54]. The suitability of ICPT in different applications, charging time and the cost significantly depends
upon the selection of the power level. A high power level is desirable when more vehicles are being charged from a
single charging track. The static charging of EV prefers power levels of 2–7 kW with an operational air gap of 100–
250 mm. Different codes and standards suggest different criteria for the suitability of the power level selected for
EV charging, by the Society of Automotive Engineers:
TABLE 4. The Power levels defined by code J2954 [55].
SAE TIR J2954 WPT Power Class
Classification WPT1 house parking WPT2 private/public parking WPT3 LD fast charge
Maximum input WPT power rating (kW) 3.7 7.7 22
TABLE 5. Power levels defined by code SAE J1772 [56].
Power level type Charger Typical use Energy supply Expected Charging Vehicle technology
location interface power level time
Level 1 On-board Charging at Convenience 1.4kW (12A) 4-11h PHEVs (5-15kWh)
(Opportunity) 1-phase home or office outlet 1.9kW (20A) 11-36h EVs (16-50kWh)
120Vac (US)
230Vac (EU)
Level 2 (Primary) On-board Charging at Dedicated 4kW (17A) 1-4h PHEVs (5-15kWh)
240Vac (US) 1-phase or private or EVSE 8kW (32A) 2-6h EVs (16-30kWh)
400Vac (EU) 3-phase public outlet 19.2kW (80A) 2-3h EVs (3-50kWh)
Level 3 (Fast) Off-board Analogous to a Dedicated 50kW 0.4-1h EVs (20-50kWh)
280-600 Vac or Vdc 3-phase filling station EVSE 100kW

Misalignment toleration
Misalignment is the displacement of the pick-up coil with respect to the transmitting coil and leads to a decline
in both the efficiency and power transfer of the ICPT system. The ICPT system for EV charging requires maximum
alignment between the coils to avoid inefficient power transfer due to driver mistake while parking the vehicle in the
desired position [60]. The car weight may slightly change the air gap between the EV chassis and the ground and
thereby coupling, consequently it would affect the power transfer efficiency [61]. The ICPT charging system with
perfect alignment will reduce the leakage flux, and, as a result, it reduces the electromagnetic interference emission
from the system; however, an ICPT system that could offer good tolerance for misalignment to give maximum
freedom to the driver, is desirable [31]. Misalignment may be classified as lateral or longitudinal, in which the lateral
misalignment can occur when coils are horizontally misaligned and longitudinal misalignment can occur when the
coils are irregular with respect to their length [57]. Both types of misalignment may reduce the mutual inductance,
and cause the ICPT system to operate on a frequency other than what was designed with a low coupling coefficient
k.
The ICPT systems can have a variable coupling coefficient, thus a perfect frequency control that keeps the ICPT
circuit to remain in the state of resonance or coil geometry optimization that can offer high efficiency with a
reasonable misalignment between coils may be employed, however, the system becomes either complex in terms of
frequency control or costly due to the geometry of the coils [60, 58].

020072-7
 SOLAR POWER SATELLITE (SPS) TECHNOLOGY
The Solar Power Satellite (SPS) is believed to be the future of technology. Hence, wireless power
transmission is very important for the transmission from the geostationary orbit to the ground. Power
transmission using microwaves have been demonstrated for over 40 years but still requires research. To choose
a frequency in the medical and scientific band (ISM) 2.45 GHz was selected earlier but 5.8 GHz is now
considered more desirable due to the recent advancement in C-band RF technologies.

CONCLUSION
The input stage is the conversion of grid supply AC into DC and DC in to high frequency AC. As this is a two-
stage process there is scope to implement direct AC-AC conversion to reduce size, cost, losses, and control
complexity. The research papers showed improvement in performance during misalignment and gap variation, but
there is still scope to improve the performance during misalignment and gap variation. Even though asymmetrical
coils with greater transmitting coil inner diameter than the receiving coil outer diameter are less sensitive to
misalignment, the coefficient of coupling decreases. Study on asymmetrical coils with equal outer diameter in both
coils and variation in the inner diameter of the coils is required for a high coefficient of coupling and misalignment
tolerance.
The study of asymmetrical coils with shielding is a useful task as most of the research papers fail to consider the
effect of shielding in designing the coils. Comparative study of efficiency with silicon and SiC MOSFETS is also
essential for adopting SiC MOSFETS, because they have low switching losses. The most important drawback of
all Wireless Power Transfer systems is the fact that low efficiency energy is transferred. Most of the losses
takes place during the energy transfer from coil to coil.
Wireless Power Transfer systems leads to various health hazards due to the exposure to RF radiation. In
many countries the regulations is decided in advance by the organization to limit the exposure of humans to
RF frequency. In Canada, these regulations are set by Canadian Safety Code 6. In the United States, the rules are
regulated by the IEEE C95.1 standard whereas in Europe the organization using WPT technology have to follow the
standard regulations set by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). In
Australia, the same is being done by the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA)
on RF exposure. The International Committee on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) limits the exposure
to magnetic field. ICNIRP also regulates the exposure of time dependent EM fields on humans. According to
ICNRP regulations, the limit on exposure of average flux densities to human body should not exceed 6.25 μT in the
frequency range of 0.8–150 kHz.
An inclusive review of wireless power transfer for EV charging is carried out. Different WPT technologies were
discussed; it has been observed that inductive power transfer is suitable for EV charging. From the analytical study
of inductive power transfer, it is noticed that compensation is required to reduce the equivalent reactance as seen
from the input side of the transmitting side and receiving side coil reactance to improve the efficiency, power
transfer capability and to reduce the sizing power ratio. Various types of compensation topologies available in the
literature are explained. The approach to the design of coil is presented with the misalignment study and it has been
justified that asymmetrical coils with ferrite cores give better performance during misalignment and airgap variation.
Finally, the need of high frequency converters is discussed with the transmitter side control technique and future
requirements for EVs have been presented.

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