Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology Made Easy:

A Concise Learning Guide to Master
the Fundamentals

Dr. Phillip Vaughn

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 Contents

Section 1: Introduction

Section 2: The Human Body

Section 3: Cells, DNA and Tissues

Section 4: Structural Organization and Essential Medical Terminology

Section 5: The Musculoskeletal System

Section 6: The Neurosensory System and the Sense Organs

Section 7: The Integumentary System

Section 8: The Endocrine System

Section 9: The Cardiovascular System

Section 10: The Hematologic System

Section 11: The Lymphatic System and Immunity

Section 12: The Respiratory System

Section 13: The Gastrointestinal System

Section 14: The Urinary System

Section 15: The Reproductive System

Section 16: Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base Balance

Section 17: Nutrition and Metabolism

Section 18: Final Notes

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Copyright 2016 by Phillip Vaughn - All rights reserved.
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 Section 1: Introduction

“The human body is the most complex system ever created. The more we
learn about it, the more appreciation we have about what a rich system it
is.”
- Bill Gates

Both human anatomy and physiology are closely related to biology – the
study of life and of living organisms. Anatomy is the science of body
structures and physiology is the way in which these body structures
function and cooperate to support the processes that enable life. In other
words, anatomy refers to the structure and physiology to the function of the
human body. Physiology is experimental, whereas anatomy is a descriptive
discipline – and the two, of course, go hand in hand because structure and
function influence each other reciprocally.

This book adopts a layered approach. It begins with an introduction to

anatomical terms of location and orientation, before looking at the basic
structural and functional unit of life – the cell. In the fourth section, the
structural organization of the human body and essential medical
terminology are covered. This will equip you with the fundamental
knowledge you need to embark upon your voyage around the human body.
What follows is a thematic presentation of the essential body systems
within the human body and their structural and functional significance.

The aim of this book is to help you navigate the human body and
understand the fascinating structures and processes that determine your
biorhythm. It is tailored toward the lifelong learner and explorer and can
also be used by students dipping into the subject, along with their anatomy
and physiology text.
Lastly, it is important to remember that there is always more to learn.
Despite the fact that we have been studying the human body for hundreds of
years, scientists make new discoveries all the time. I hope that you enjoy
this introduction to anatomy and physiology and that it marks the beginning
of a lifelong exploration and appreciation for the human body.

Best wishes,
Dr. Phillip Vaughn

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 Section 2: The Human Body

Medical terminology is the language scientists and medical practitioners use

to avoid ambiguity and effectively communicate with one another in an
accurate and science-based manner. To describe human anatomy and
physiology, medical terminology is used to combine several words into one
word, thereby making communication significantly more efficient and
precise. Because anatomy is a descriptive discipline, concerned with shape
and structure, understanding medical terminology and using anatomical
terms is crucial when navigating and exploring the human body in a
detailed manner.

In this section, we will look at the anatomical terms that are used to
describe directions within the human body, as well as those referring to
body planes, cavities and regions.

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 1. Directional Terms

Directional terms are used to determine the exact location of a structure

within the body. Directional root words are the foundation of directional
terms that refer to a certain part or area of the body.

Directional Root Word = Meaning

Anter(o) = Front
Caud(o) = Tail, downward
Cephal(o) = Head, upward
Dist(o)= = Away from
Dors(o) = Back
Infer(o) = Below
Later(o) = Side
Medi(o) = Middle
Poster(o) = Back, behind
Proxim(o) = Near (proximate)
Super(o) = Above
Ventr(o) = Front, belly

Anterior and ventral are used when referring to the front of the body. The
kneecap for example, is found on the anterior side of the leg.

Posterior and dorsal are used when referring to the back of the body. The
shoulder blades for example, are located on the posterior side of the body.
Cephalad and superior are used when referring to ‘above the waistline.’
The hand for example, is part of the superior extremity.

Caudal and inferior are used when referring to ‘below the waistline’. The
foot for example, is part of the inferior extremity.

Lateral is used when referring to the sides of the body. The little toe for
example, is found at the lateral side of the foot.

Medial is used when referring to the middle of the body. The middle toe for
example, is found at the medial side of the foot.

Proximal (“closest”) is used when referring to the center of the body or to

the point of attachment. The proximal end of the femur for example, joins
with the pelvic bone.

Distal (“farthest”) is used when referring to the outer part of the body, away
from the point of attachment or origin. The hand for example, is located at
the distal end of the forearm.

Superficial, pursuant to its medical definition, refers to something that is

‘on the surface’ or ‘shallow’. The skin for example, is superficial to the
muscles. Furthermore, the cornea is to be found on the superficial surface of
the eye.

Intermediate (“between”) is used to refer to a structure being or occurring

at the ‘middle place’. The abdominal muscles for example, are intermediate
between the small intestines and the skin.
Deep refers to ‘farther away from the surface.’ The abdominal muscles for
example, are deep to the skin.

Unilateral means that a structure is located/to be found ‘on only one side of
the body’, such as the liver or the stomach.

Bilateral means that a structure is located/to be found ‘on both sides of the
body’, such as the arms, legs, eyes or kidneys.

Ipsilateral means that a structure is located/to be found ‘on the same side
of the body’. For example, it could be said that the right ear and the right
eye are ipsilateral to one another.

Contralateral means that a structure is located/to be found ‘on the opposite

side of the body’. The left ear for example, is contralateral to the right ear.
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 2. Body Planes

Body planes or anatomical planes are hypothetical lines used to identify a

specific location or area by transecting the human body into different parts.

In human anatomy, three basic anatomical planes are used to divide the
body from right to left, back to front, and top from bottom.

The Frontal or Coronal Plane: This is a vertical plan that

separates the front from the back of the body, i.e. the anterior
from the posterior and the ventral from the dorsal.
The Sagittal Plane: The sagittal plane, also known as lateral, is
a vertical plane that separates the body into right and left sides.
The mid-sagittal or median plane is a specific sagittal plane
that divides the body into right and left at the body’s exact
midline.
The Transverse Plane: The transverse plane, also known as
horizontal or axial plane, is a horizontal plane that runs parallel
to the ground and through the waistline. It divides the body into
upper and lower halves.
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 3. Cavities

Body cavities are fluid-filled spaces that contain the internal, visceral or
splanchnic body organs. The dorsal body cavity and the ventral body cavity
are the two major closed cavities of the human body.

The Dorsal Body Cavity, located on the posterior region of the body,
comprises of:
The Cranial Cavity – which is enclosed by the skull and
contains the brain.
The Spinal Cavity – which contains the spinal cord. The spinal
cavity is also called the vertebral cavity or vertebral canal.

The Ventral Body Cavity, located on the anterior region of the body,
comprises of:
The Thoracic or Chest Cavity – this cavity contains the
esophagus, lungs, trachea, heart and aorta.
The Abdominopelvic Cavity – which comprises of:
The Abdominal Cavity – this cavity contains the
stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, gallbladder,
pancreases, ureters and kidneys.
The Pelvic Cavity – this cavity contains the urinary
bladder, urethra, rectum, uterus, a part of the large
intestine, and the reproductive organs.
Besides the two major cavities, the body also contains smaller cavities:
The nasal cavity (nose)
The oral cavity (mouth)
The orbital cavities (eyes)
The synovial cavities (joint cavity)
The tympanic cavities (a small cavity which surrounds the
bones of the middle ear, also called middle ear cavity)

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 4. Regions

Body regions are areas of the body that perform special functions or are
supplied by specific blood or nerve cells. In this section, we will cover the
most commonly used body region terms – those belonging to the abdominal
area – as well as other important terms pertaining to other small regions of
the body.

THE ABDOMINAL AREA

The abdominal area is divided into nine anatomical regions, the division of
which facilitates the diagnosis of abdominal problems.

1. The portion in the center is the umbilical region. This is the

area that surrounds the umbilicus (navel). The organs that are
found in the umbilical region include the umbilicus, jejunum,
ileum, and the duodenum. On either side of the umbilical
region are the right and left lumbar regions.
2. The right lumber region comprises the gallbladder, the liver
and the right colon.
3. The left lumber region comprises the descending colon and
the left kidney.
4. The region directly above the umbilical region is called the
epigastric region. The organs that are found in this region
include the stomach, liver, pancreas, duodenum, spleen, and the
adrenal glands. To the right and left of the epigastric region are
the right and left hypochondriac regions.
5. The right hypochondriac region comprises the liver,
gallbladder, right kidney and the small intestine.
 6. The left hypochondriac region comprises of the spleen, colon,
left kidney and the pancreas.
7. The region directly below the umbilical region is called the
hypogastric region, which is the region of the abdomen below
the navel. The organs that are found in the hypogastric region
include the following: urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, and the
female reproductive organs. To the right and left of the
hypogastric region are the right and left iliac regions.
8. The right iliac region (fossa) comprises the appendix and the
cecum.
9. The left iliac region (fossa) comprises the descending colon
and the sigmoid colon.

When a patient is being examined, clinical regions are used to divide the
abdominal area into four equal quadrants.
 The Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ): This region is often
examined to localize pain as well as tenderness. Tenderness in
this region is common in clients with cholecystitis
(inflammation of the gallbladder), hepatitis, or a developing
peptic ulcer. Important organs that are found in this quadrant
include the liver, the gallbladder, and parts of the small and
large intestines.

The Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ): This region is often tender

in clients with abnormalities of the intestines and in clients with
appendicitis. Important organs that are found in this quadrant
include the stomach, pancreas, spleen, the left portion of the
liver, and parts of the small and large intestines.

The Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ): This region, which

stretches from the median plane to the right side of the body,
and from the umbilical plane to the right inguinal ligament, is
often tender and painful in clients with appendicitis. Important
organs that are found in this quadrant include the appendix, the
upper portion of the colon, the right ovary, the right ureter, the
Fallopian tube, and parts of the small and large intestines.

The Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ): This region, which is

located below the umbilicus plane, is usually tender and painful
in clients with ovarian cysts or patients with pelvic
inflammatory disease. Abdominal pain in this region can also
be a symptom of colitis, diverticulitis, or ureteral colic. Tumors
in the LLQ can be indicative of colon or ovarian cancer.
Important organs found in this region include the left ovary, the
left ureter, the Fallopian tube, and parts of the small and large
intestine.

THE SPINAL COLUMN

The spinal column is divided into five regions:

The Cervical Region (Abbreviation C) consists of seven

cervical vertebrae, C1 to C7, which are the smallest of the true
vertebrae. They are located in the neck region closest to the
skull.

The Thoracic or Dorsal Region (Abbreviation T or D)

consists of 12 thoracic or dorsal vertebrae: T1 to T12 or D1 to
D12. They are located in the chest region of the spine.

The Lumbar Region (Abbreviation L), sometimes referred to

as the lower spine, consists of five lumbar vertebrae, L1 to L5.
The lumbar region is found at the flank or loin area between the
ribs and the hip bone.

The Sacral Region (Abbreviation S), consists of five bones,

S1 to S5, which are located at the bottom of the spine. These
five bones are fused together to form one bone: the sacrum.

The Coccygeal Region, also referred to as the tailbone, is a

small bone at the very bottom of the spine. It is composed of
four vertebrae that are fused together to form one bone: the
coccyx.
SMALL REGIONS OF THE BODY

Auricular Region: This is the region around the ears.

Axillary: The armpit region.
Clavicular: The region on either side of the two slender bones.
Infraorbital: The region below the eyes.
Infrascapular: This is the region on each side of the chest,
down to the last rib.
Inguinal: The region of the groin, i.e. the depressed area of the
abdominal wall near the thigh.
Interscapular: This is the region on the back between the
shoulder blades (the scapulae).
Lumbar: The region of the lower back between the ribs and
the pelvis below the infrascapular area.
Mammary: The breast area.
Mental: The chin area.
Occipital: The lower posterior region of the head.
Orbital: The region around the eyes.
Pectoral: The chest area.
Perineal: The region between the anus and the external
reproductive organs (the perineum).
Popliteal: The area behind the knee.
Pubic: The area above the pubis and below the hypogastric
region.
Sacral: The area above the sacrum, between the hipbones.
Sternal: The area over the sternum.
Submental: The area below the chin.
Supraclavicular: The area above the clavicles.

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 Section 3: Cells, DNA and Tissues

Now that we have covered the basic medical terminology that you need to
navigate the human body, it is time to look into the most basic unit of living
organisms: the cell. In this section we will look at the structures and
components of cells, cellular transport, cell reproduction, DNA, RNA, and
the types of tissue that the human body contains.

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 1. Basic Cell Structure

The cell is the smallest functional and structural unit of an organism and the
basic unit of all living organisms (excluding viruses). In advanced
organisms, including homo sapiens, the cell consists of three essential parts:
the cytoplasm, bounding membrane, and nucleus.

1. The Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the protoplasm of the body of the cell that surrounds the
nucleus. It contains cytosol, organelles, inclusions, and most of the cell’s
ribonucleic acid (RNA). The protoplasm is the primary component of all
cells – both animal and plant cells. Visually, the protoplasm consists of a
gel-like matrix that is translucent and viscous in consistency and which
contains water, electrolytes (i.e. inorganic ions such as calcium,
magnesium, potassium and sodium), organic compounds (e.g.
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins), and other small molecules.

2. The Bounding Membrane (Cell Membrane, Plasma

membrane or Plasmalemma)

The cell membrane is the external boundary of a cell that separates it from
extracellular fluid and other cells. In all eukaryotic cells, the bounding
membrane is made of phospholipid molecules. These molecules form what
is known as a phospholipid bilayer, the chemical properties of which allow
it to control the substances that can pass through the membrane. In other
words, the membrane is said to be ‘semipermeable’.

3. The Nucleus

The nucleus is the largest organelle inside the cell, which directs the cell’s
activity. It also plays a vital role in cell growth, reproduction and
metabolism. The nucleus contains chromosomes and may also contain one
or more nucleoli. Nucleolus (plural nucleoli) is the structure that
synthesizes ribonucleic acid (RNA). In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes
occur as threadlike strands in the nucleus. Chromosomes contain genetic
information, control cellular activity, and are also directly involved in
protein synthesis through ribosomes in the cytoplasm. (The structure and
function of organelles will be discussed in further depth in subsection 3).

The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope that is similar to the cell

membrane of the cell. The nuclear envelope contains pores that allow RNA
and proteins to pass out of the nucleus, whilst keeping all of the chromatin
and nucleolus inside the nucleus.

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 2. Cellular Transport

Cells interact with other body fluids through the interchange of substances.
There are different methods of transportation, some of which are active
whilst others are passive in nature. There are three methods by which
substances can travel across the cell membrane using passive transport:
diffusion, osmosis and filtration. Passive transport means that the substance
that traverses the membrane (mostly ions or small molecules) can do so
unrestricted, without the need of energy input. Active transport is the
transport of substances across the cell membrane, which uses energy and
requires the assistance of carrier proteins. There are several transport
methods – including diffusion, osmosis, active transport, endocytosis and
filtration – all of which will be covered in this section.

1. Diffusion

In diffusion, substances that are lipid soluble move down a concentration

gradient. They move from an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration. Lipid soluble substances can diffuse through the cell
membrane because lipid dissolves in lipid. Movement by way of diffusion
continues until concentration distribution is uniform. The rate of diffusion is
influenced by a variety of factors including the particle size, the
concentration gradient, and the lipid solubility. Generally speaking, the
smaller the particles, the greater the rate of diffusion. The greater the
concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion. Finally, the more
lipid-soluble the particles are, the faster they diffuse through the plasma
membrane’s lipid layers.
The above diagram illustrates simple diffusion across the plasma
membrane. Diffusion is the movement of lipid soluble substances from
an area of higher to an area of lower concentration until an equilibrium
is reached.

Diffusion happens with lipid soluble substances because these can move
across the phospholipid cell membrane. Examples of substances which are
lipid soluble include oxygen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids, alcohols, and lipid
soluble medications. Non lipid soluble substances move through protein
channels in the cell membrane in a process called ‘facilitated diffusion’.

2. Facilitated Diffusion

Other molecules, such as glucose (see diagram below), also move from an
area of high concentration to an area of low concentration but do so through
a protein channel. Cell membranes contain proteins, some of which span the
entire width of the membrane and act as channels for specific substances.
These are called channel proteins or carrier proteins because they ‘carry’
non-lipid soluble substances across the plasma membrane by facilitated
diffusion.
Facilitated diffusion is similar to diffusion because substances move
from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
However, it is distinguishable due to the fact that the transport of the
substances across the plasma membrane is facilitated by a protein
channel. In both cases, movement continues until distribution is uniform.

Examples of substances that move by facilitated diffusion include glucose,

sodium, potassium, and chloride. The forces that influence the rate of
diffusion in facilitated diffusion are similar to those found in diffusion; a
main one being concentration gradient – the greater the concentration
gradient or the difference in concentration, the greater the rate of diffusion.
In facilitated diffusion however, the rate of diffusion is also influenced by
the saturation of receptors on the carrier protein.

As substances move in and out of cells via facilitated diffusion, they must
bind to the receptor on the carrier protein (see diagram below). Once the
insoluble substance and the carrier protein bind, the protein changes its
shape, allowing the substance to pass through the plasma membrane. But
because proteins only have a certain amount of receptors, a higher
concentration gradient will in some cases not move substances across the
membrane at a faster rate. In this case, the rate of facilitated diffusion will
depend on the saturation of receptors on the carrier protein.

3. Osmosis

The passive transport or movement of water across the semipermeable cell

membrane is called osmosis. In osmosis, water moves through the
semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an
area of higher solute concentration. Fluid movement continues until the
solute concentration on both sides of the membrane equalize.

Fluid moves down the osmotic gradient - which is the difference in

concentration between two solutions on either side of the cell membrane.
The osmotic gradient is generally used when comparing two solutions that
are separated by a semipermeable membrane that allows water to move
toward the hypertonic solution (i.e. the solution with the higher
concentration). An easy way to remember the movement of water in
osmosis is that “water follows sodium” – which means that water always
moves toward the area of higher solute concentration.
Osmolarity or osmotic concentration (Osm/L or osmol/L) is the measure of
a solution’s particle concentration, which is defined as the number of
osmoles (Osm or osmol) of a solution per litre (L). In physiology however,
the term tonicity is used when referring to the concentration of solutions
across the semipermeable membrane of cells. Tonicity is the relative
concentration of solutions that determines not on only the direction of the
movement of water, but also its extent or rate. There are three types of
tonicity that characterize solute concentration: hypertonic, isotonic, and
hypotonic.

A ‘hypertonic’ solution is one that contains a higher concentration of

solutes outside the cell than inside the cell. If a solution is more
‘concentrated’ than the surrounding body fluids, that solution is said to be
hypertonic. Therefore, if a cell is placed into a hypertonic solution, water
will flow out of the cell through osmosis in order to balance out the
concentration of solutes between the two solutions (on both sides of the
semipermeable membrane). The cell will thus loose water by osmosis.

The term ‘isotonic’ denotes a solution that has the same osmotic pressure as
the solution on the other side of the semipermeable membrane. In these
cases, as illustrated by the diagram below, there is no net movement of
water across the cell membrane.

A ‘hypotonic’ solution is one that contains a lower concentration of solutes.

In other words, if a solution is less concentrated than the body fluids (the
concentration of solutes outside the cell are lower than the concentration of
solutes inside the cell), that solution is said to be hypotonic. Thus, if a cell is
placed in a hypotonic solution, the cell will gain water through osmosis.

The effect of osmosis on cells can be illustrated by the following diagram.

When red blood cells are placed in a hypertonic solution (as in the left
image), they will loose water by osmosis which will cause the cell to
crenate (i.e. shrink and acquire a notched appearance). If red blood cells are
placed in an isotonic solution (as in the middle image), there will be no net
movement of water since the tonicity is equal. Lastly, if the red blood cells
are placed in a hypotonic solution, they will gain water by osmosis, causing
the cells to swell and potentially burst.

4. Active Transport
Active transport is active because it requires energy. Active transport
generally involves the movement or transport of substances against the
concentration gradient, from an area of lower concentration to one of higher
concentration, using carrier proteins. The energy that is required to transport
substances against their concentration gradients is sourced from ATP. ATP is
stored in all cells, providing the energy needed to move molecules and ions
in and out of cells.

How ATP Generates Cellular Energy

ATP is the ‘fuel’ which powers processes inside the cell that require energy.
Because of this, ATP is sometimes referred to as the “molecular unit of
currency”. ATP, which stands for adenosine triphosphate, is made up of an
adenosine that is joined to three phosphate groups (called a triphosphate).
High-energy bonds are found in the chemical bonds between the first and
the second phosphate group, and the second and third phosphate group.
When one phosphate group is removed in a process called hydrolysis,
energy is released and ATP is converted to ADP (adenosine diphosphate).

Sodium-Potassium Exchange Pump

One example of an active transport process is the sodium potassium pump,

which transports sodium and potassium ions across the plasma membrane.
The sodium potassium pump is vital in maintaining the workings of the
human body and in establishing the concentration gradients essential for
life. In the sodium-potassium exchange pump (see diagram below), sodium
is transported out of the cell against its concentration gradient, while
potassium is transported into the cell against its concentration gradient. The
carrier protein uses energy in the form of ATP – one ATP transports three
sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions into the cytoplasm of the
cell.
Endocytosis

Endocytosis is another form of active transport. But instead of passing

through the cell membrane, the substance is engulfed by the cell itself. The
cell engulfs the substance, forming a cavity – called a vacuole – which
transports the substance into the cell.

Endocytosis involves either phagocytosis or pinocytosis. Phagocytosis

involves the engulfment and ingestion of substances that are too large to
pass through the plasma membrane. In phagocytosis, the cell brings a
particle into the cell for destruction (ingestion). Pinocytosis occurs in order
to bring in small particles or dissolved substances contained in fluid.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is when substances attack receptors on the
plasma membrane.

Active transport is the transport of substances that requires the cell to

use energy in the form of ATP. Both the sodium-potassium pump and
endocytosis are examples of active transport mechanisms.

5. Filtration

Fluids and dissolved substances can also move across the cell membrane
through filtration. In filtration, fluids and other dissolved substances are
transported across the capillaries into the interstitial fluid, also called tissue
fluid.

The force that drives filtration is called fluid pressure or hydrostatic

pressure. This pressure forces fluids and dissolved particles to pass through
the cell membrane. The rate of filtration – how quickly the fluids and
dissolved particles pass through the membrane – depends on the amount of
pressure that is exerted. Hydrostatic pressure is generated by the
cardiovascular system.

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 3. The Components and Structures of Cells

Although cells vary significantly in appearance, they are very similar to one
another when looking at their inside components. This is particularly true
for eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells make up eukaryotes – which includes
animals, plants and fungi. Despite the huge variety of eukaryotes,
eukaryotic cells all share common fundamental components and structures,
as outlined in the cross section below. Each single component plays an
important role in upholding the health of the cell.

The cross section shows the general structure of eukaryotic cells, the cell
being a membrane-bound structure that contains organelles – the functional
subunits of a cell – that are hosted within the cytoplasm.
Organelles (little organs) are also the metabolic units of a cell. The nucleus
(one of the largest organelles) controls the functioning of the cell. Like the
nucleus, each organelle performs a specific function that maintains the life
of a cell.

ORGANELLE FUNCTION

Centrioles Involved in cell division

(specifically in the
development of spindle
fibers). Centrioles occur in
pairs and are found near
the nucleus.
Endoplasmic Reticulum Transports protein and
lipid components and
plays a crucial role in
protein synthesis.
The rough endoplasmic
reticulum produces
certain proteins and is
covered with ribosomes.
The smooth endoplasmic
reticulum contains
enzymes that synthesize
lipids.
Golgi Complex/Golgi Involved in secretion and
Apparatus intracellular transport.
 1. Processes and
packages protein in
sacs called vesicles.
Vesicles are
composed of a lipid
bilayer and are used
to transport
materials from one
place to another.
2. Each apparatus also
synthesizes
carbohydrate
molecules that
combine with
proteins (produced
by the rough
endoplasmic
reticulum) to form
secretory products
(e.g. lipoproteins).
Lysosome Contain digestive enzymes
that break down waste
material (foreign or
damaged material) and
harmful cell products and
transport them out of the
cell via active transport.
Mitochondrion This is the cell
‘powerhouse’, i.e. the
production site from
where cellular energy is
 generated (in the form of
adenosine triphosphate).
Nucleus Houses genetic material
and controls the cell.
Ribosomes Sites of protein synthesis.
Vacuoles Vacuoles are membrane-
bound spaces (enclosed
compartments) in the
cytoplasm of the cell.
They usually contain
water and small molecules
and are sometimes also
involved in active
transport.

OTHER COMPONENTS AND STRUCTURES

OF A CELL
Cell membrane The ‘gatekeeper’ – the
structure that encloses
the cell.
Centrosomes The structure that
contains centrioles.
Chromatin The material of which
chromosomes of
eukaryotes are made of.
It consists of DNA,
RNA, and protein.
Cytoplasm The protoplasm that
surrounds the nucleus.
Cytoskeleton Cytoskeletal elements
form a network of
protein filaments and
tubules in the
cytoplasm.
Inclusions These are
nonfunctioning units
which are sometimes
found in the cytoplasm.
Inclusions are usually
temporary.
Microvilli Microvilli increase the
surface size of the cell,
thereby increasing its
absorptive capacity.
Nucleolus The site of ribosomal
RNA.
Ribonucleic Acid Transfers genetic info to
ribosomes.

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 4. DNA, RNA, and Cell Reproduction

Protein synthesis is one of the most vital biological processes in which cells
generate new proteins. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) carries genetic
information, as well as provides the essential blueprint for protein synthesis.
Protein synthesis is necessary for the repair of damaged tissues and for the
growth of new tissues. RNA (ribonucleic acid) is what transfers genetic
information to the ribosomes, the site where protein synthesis occurs.

DNA is a nucleic acid, the basic structural units of which are nucleotides.
Linked together, nucleotides form the building blocks of DNA or RNA.
Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogen-containing nucleobase, a
phosphate group, and a sugar called deoxyribose. The four nucleobases that
make up DNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C).
The nucleobases are divided into two groups:
Adenine and guanine are double-ring compounds classified as
‘purines’.
Thymine and cytosine are single-ring compounds classified as
‘pyrimidines’.

Complementary Base Pairing

Nucleobases that link together are said to be ‘complementary’. Held
together by a weak chemical attraction between the nitrogen bases, the two
nucleotides join up across the DNA double helix to form a ‘base pair’.
Because of the chemical shape of the nucleobases however, adenine only
binds to thymine and guanine only binds to cytosine.
The nucleotides that make up RNA are slightly different to those found in
DNA. Different types of RNA are involved in the transportation of genetic
information to the ribosomes (the site of protein synthesis). These are:
ribosomal RNA, messenger RNA and transfer RNA.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Ribosomal RNA molecules are used

to make ribosomes in the endoplasmic reticulum of the
cytoplasm. Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
Messenger RNA (mRNA): Messenger RNA molecules
mediate the transfer of genetic information from the DNA to
the ribosome, specifying the arrangement of amino acids to
make proteins.
Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfer RNA molecules help decode
the mRNA sequence into a protein. In other words, they
‘transfer’ the genetic code from the mRNA for production of a
specific amino acid.
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Cell Reproduction

Different cells have different lifespans and will all (excluding germ cells)
experience aging (senescence) and death. The human body contains
specialized cells that cannot divide and are therefore irreplaceable.
Examples of these are muscle cells and nerve cells. In contrast to this, the
body also has cells that reproduce at a fast rate to replace those cells with a
short life span. These include the cells found in the outer layer of the skin.
Lastly, there are cells that divide slowly under normal circumstances, and
also rapidly when necessary. Such cells are found in connective tissue
(repair after injury). In general, the simpler the cell, the greater its ability to
regenerate. The more specialized a cell, the shorter its life span, and the
weaker its power to regenerate.

DNA Replication
Cell division is the process by which cells reproduce. Cell division can be
achieved through the process of mitosis or meiosis. Before cell division can
occur however, the chromosomes are replicated in a process called DNA
replication. DNA replication occurs during interphase, prior to the
beginning of mitosis or meiosis.

To replicate, the DNA double helix separates (‘unzips’) into two separate
DNA chains.
Each separate chain then acts as a ‘template’ for the construction of a new
chain. New nucleotides are then added to the new strand, forming an
identical double helix due to the fact that adenine only binds to thymine and
guanine only binds to cytosine. Because of complementary base pairing, the
two new double helixes (each of which contains one original strand and one
newly formed strand) are therefore an exact duplicate of the original DNA
double helix.
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Mitosis

In the human body, mitosis is the preferred method of replication by all

cells except for gametes. Mitosis is the division of the cell nucleus
(karyokinesis), followed by a division of the cell body (cytokinesis),
bringing about the separation of the cell into two daughter cells. In other
words, the nuclear content of all cells of the body (except for gametes)
reproduces and divides through the process of mitosis – the result of which
is the formation of two newly formed daughter cells. Each new daughter
cell contains the diploid (46) number of chromosomes (i.e. 23 pairs of
chromosomes).

A cell enters mitosis in response to signals received from the nucleus via
mRNA. Mitosis comprises five stages, one of which is inactive (interphase)
and four of which are active phases:

1. Interphase: Interphase starts when the cell membrane fully

encloses the new cell. During interphase, chromosomes
replicate. Both the nuclear membrane and the nucleus are
well defined.
2. Prophase: In prophase, the nucleus disappears, the nuclear
membrane begins to disappear, and the chromosomes
become more pronounced. Each duplicated chromosome is
 made up of two identical strands of DNA (chromatids –
remember that once chromatids separate, each is
considered to be a new chromosome). The chromatids
remain attached by the centromere. The centrioles then
migrate towards opposite poles and produce spindle fibers
that extend to the midline (the equator) of the cell.
3. Metaphase: Metaphase occurs when the chromosomes line
up at the equator of the cell between the spindles, which is
called the metaphase plate. At this stage, the centromeres
divide.
4. Anaphase: During anaphase, the centromeres move apart
(they are now referred to as chromosomes), the sister
chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles.
5. Telophase: Telophase is the final stage of mitosis. During
telophase, the spindle fibers disappear and a nuclear
membrane forms around each nucleus. The cytoplasm
compresses, dividing the cell in half. Each new cell contains
a diploid (46) number of chromosomes – identical to those
in the original nucleus.
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Meiosis

A cell divides by mitosis for asexual reproduction and growth. The process
of meiosis is reserved for gametes, also called sex cells. Gametes are of two
kinds: ova and spermatozoa. Division by meiosis intermixes genetic
material between homologous chromosomes – the result of which is the
formation of four new daughter cells. Each new daughter cell contains the
haploid (23) number of chromosomes.

Like mitosis, division by way of meiosis begins with an interphase during

which DNA replication occurs (stage A in the diagram above). Unlike
mitosis however, meiosis has two divisions, called meiosis I (stage B) and
meiosis II (stage C). The two divisions are separated by a resting phase.
The first division comprises six phases and the second division has four
phases.

THE FIRST DIVISION: MEIOSIS I

1. Interphase
During interphase, DNA replication occurs. The chromosomes are not yet
distinct in appearance. Both the nuclear membrane and the nucleus are well
defined.

2. Prophase I

The nucleus disappears and the nuclear membrane begins to disappear.

Homologous chromosomes condense, move closer together, and exchange
genetic information. Genetic recombination may occur, which can result in
a new set of genetic information. The centrioles migrate towards opposite
poles of the cell, forming spindle fibers between them.

3. Metaphase I

Synaptic chromosome pairs align along the metaphase plate and the spindle
apparatus attaches to the chromosomes.
 4. Anaphase I

During anaphase I, the synaptic pairs of chromosomes separate. The spindle

fibers pull the homologous double-stranded chromosomes to opposite poles
of the cell. Centromeres do not divide.

5. Telophase I

Nuclear division begins – the nuclear membrane forms and the cytoplasm
compresses, dividing the cell into halves. The chromosomes and spindle
fibers disappear. Two new daughter cells are formed, each containing the
haploid (23) number of chromosomes.
 6. Interkinesis

Interkinesis is the resting phase between meiosis I and meiosis II. During
interkinesis, the nucleus and the nuclear membrane are well defined.

The Second Division: Meiosis II

1. Prophase II

During prophase II, the nuclear membrane disappears and the chromosomes
condense. Spindle fibers begin to form between the centrioles, which begin
to migrate towards opposite poles.

2. Metaphase II

During metaphase II, the chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate
and the spindle apparatus attaches to the chromosomes.
 3. Anaphase II

During anaphase II, sister chromatids separate into single-stranded

chromosomes. These single-stranded chromosomes begin to migrate
towards opposite poles.

4. Telophase II

During telophase II, the nuclear membrane forms and the chromosomes and
spindle fibers disappear. The cytoplasm compresses, dividing in half. At this
stage, cell division is complete. Four new daughter cells are created, each
containing the haploid (23) number of chromosomes.
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 5. Human Tissue

Tissues are groups of cells that are morphologically similar and that act
together to perform specific functions in the body. The human body
contains four basic types of tissue: epithelial tissue, connective tissue,
muscle tissue, and nerve tissue.

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 1. Epithelial tissue

Epithelial tissue or epithelium is the thin tissue that covers the body’s
surface. The outer layer of the skin for example, is made up of epithelial
tissue. The epithelium also lines the inside of organs within the body and
the body cavities. Epithelial tissue is classified in two ways: by the number
of cell layers and by the shape of the surface cells.

Number of Cell Layers

Classified by the number of cell layers, epithelium can be simple, stratified
or pseudostratified (an epithelium that gives the superficial appearance of
being stratified):

Simple = One layer

Stratified = Multilayered
Pseudostratified = Tissue which only has one layer despite
appearing to be multilayered

Cell shape
Classified by the shape of the surface cells, epithelium may be squamous,
columnar, or cuboidal:

Squamous = tissue contains flat surface cells

Columnar = tissue contains tall surface cells that appear to
have a cylindrical shape
Cuboidal = tissue contains cube-shaped surface cells
Borders of Columnar Epithelial Cells
Some columnar epithelial cells have vertical striations (a series of ridges),
which form a striated border. Epithelial cells with a striated border are
found in the lining of the intestines for example.

Some epithelial cells have brush-like structures on their surface (microvilli).

Epithelial cells with a brush border are found in the tubules of the kidneys
for example.

Endothelium
Epithelial tissue (also called epithelium) that is made up of a single layer of
squamous cells is called endothelium. Endothelium tissue lines the heart,
blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.
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 2. Connective Tissue

Connective tissue connects, supports, and binds body structures. It also

joins, nourishes, insulates, and protects organs. Connective tissue is
classified as being loose or tense.

Loose (areolar) connective tissue contains a lot of intercellular fluid and

has large spaces that separate cells and fibers.

Adipose tissue (fat) is a special type of loose connective tissue composed

of mostly adipocytes. Adipocytes are cells that specialize in the storage of
lipids (fats).

Dense (fibrous) connective tissue has a great fiber concentration and

provides structural support. Dense connective tissue is further classified
into regular dense and irregular dense.
Regular dense connective tissue is made up of tightly packed fibers that
form a consistent pattern (the pattern is ‘regular’). Tendons, ligaments and
aponeuroses consist of regular dense connective tissue.

Irregular dense connective tissue consists of tightly packed fibers that

create an inconsistent pattern (the pattern is ‘irregular’). Irregular dense
connective tissue can be found in the fasciae, the submucosa of the GI tract,
fibrous capsules, and the dermis.

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 3. Muscle tissue

Muscle tissues are made up of muscle cells that contract and relax to
produce movement. Muscle cells are elongated in shape in order to
facilitate contractibility and benefit from generous blood supply.

There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal (striated) muscle tissue,
smooth muscle tissue, and cardiac muscle tissue.

1. Skeletal (Striated) Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle tissue contracts voluntarily. This tissue type is found in the
muscles that are attached to the skeleton. Skeletal muscle tissue is made up
of long striated tubular cells (see number 3 in the above diagram) and
multiple nuclei (4). The nuclei are embedded in the plasma membrane (5).
 2. Smooth Muscle Tissue

Smooth muscle tissue is primarily found in the digestive tract and in the
walls of blood vessels, but it also lines the walls of any internal organs and
other bodily structures. This type of muscle tissue consists of long and
spindle-shaped cells (6), each of which contains its own nucleus (7).
Smooth muscle tissue is non-striated and involuntary with its contractions
being stimulated from the autonomous nervous system.
 3. Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Cardiac muscle tissue is made up of cells that have striations (8), but differs
from skeletal (striated) muscle tissue in two ways: firstly, its contractions
are involuntary and secondly, its fibers are separate cellular units. Cardiac
muscle cells each contain a single nucleus (10) and branch off from each
other. This branching off creates junctions (9) between adjacent cells.
Cardiac muscle tissue is only found in the heart and its primary function is
to pump blood.
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 4. Nervous tissue

The primary function of nervous tissue is communication – to transmit

information through the body in the form of nerve impulses. Nervous tissue
is found in the brain, nerves, and sense organs and has two main properties:

Irritability: the ability to respond to a stimulus, to react to an

array of different physical and chemical agents.
Conductivity: the ability to transmit the ‘response’ (the
resulting action) from one point to another.

Nervous tissue is composed of neurons (nerve cells) and neuroglia.

Neurons are highly specialized cells that generate and conduct nerve
impulses. The anatomy of neurons and how neurons operate to receive and
transmit impulses is covered in section 6 (the neurosensory system) in
greater depth. Neuroglia is the support structure of nervous tissue which is
only found in the central nervous system. Neuroglia nourishes, insulates,
and protects neurons. It also assists in the propagation of nerve impulses.

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Section 4: Structural Organization and Essential
Medical Terminology

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Structural Organization of the Human Body

The human body contains six levels of structural organization: the chemical
level, the cellular level, the tissue level, the organ level, the organ system
level, and the organism level.

1. Chemical Level

The first and simplest level in the body’s structural hierarchy is the
chemical level. The chemical level comprises the smallest building blocks
which combine to form molecules. These molecules in turn combine to
form the organelles found in cells.

The body is composed of cells that consist of thousands of different

chemicals elements, but four of these (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and
nitrogen) make up 96.2% of the human body.
 2. Cellular Level

The cellular level is composed of cells, the smallest unit of living

organisms. Each cell carries out a set of specific tasks within the human
body.
3. Tissue Level

Cells that share a common function group together to form tissues. The four
main types of tissue in humans include epithelium, connective, muscle, and
nervous tissue.

4. Organ Level
An organ is a structure found in the body which performs a specific and
typically more complex function. Organs are composed of at least two
different types of tissue.

5. Organ System Level

An organ system consists of a group of organs that work together to

perform one or more functions. (This book is structured according to the
organ system level).

6. Organism Level

The organism level is the highest level of organization – an individual form

of life, such as the human being.

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Anatomical Terms

Throughout this book, reference is made to anatomical terminology to

describe the anatomical location and / or action of different body structures.
Acromial: Point of the shoulder
Antebrachial: Forearm
Axillary: Armpit
Brachial: Arm
Buccal: Cheek
Carpal: Wrist
Celiac: Abdomen
Cephalic: Head
Cervical: Neck
Costal: Ribs
Coxal: Hip
Crural: Leg
Cubital: Elbow
Digital: Finger
Dorsum: Back
Femoral: Thigh
Frontal: Forehead
Genital: Reproductive organs
Gluteal: Buttocks
Mental: Chin
Nasal: Nose
Oral: Mouth
Otic: Ear
Palmar: Palm of the hand
Patellar: Kneecap or kneepan
Pedal: Foot
Pelvic: Pelvis
Plantar: Sole of the foot
Tarsal: Tarsus of the foot, instep of the foot
Umbilical: Navel
Vertebral: Spinal column

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Essential Anatomical Terms:

Acromial: Point of the shoulder

Antebrachial: Forearm
Axillary: Armpit
 Brachial: Arm
Buccal: Cheek
Carpal: Wrist
Celiac: Abdomen
Cephalic: Head
Cervical: Neck
Costal: Ribs
Coxal: Hip
Crural: Leg
Cubital: Elbow
Digital: Finger
Dorsum: Back
Femoral: Thigh
Frontal: Forehead
Genital: Reproductive organs
Gluteal: Buttocks
Mental: Chin
Nasal: Nose
Oral: Mouth
Otic: Ear
Palmar: Palm of the hand
Patellar: Kneecap or kneepan
Pedal: Foot
Pelvic: Pelvis
Plantar: Sole of the foot
Tarsal: Tarsus of the foot, instep of the foot
Umbilical: Navel
Vertebral: Spinal column

Anatomical Root Words

Root Word = Meaning

Skeletal System
Os-, Oste- = Bone
Arth- = Joint

Muscular System
Myo- = Muscle
Sarco- = Striated muscle

Integument
Derm- = Skin

Nervous System
Neur- = Nerve

Endocrine System
Aden- = Gland
Estr- = Steroid

Circulatory System
Card- = Heart muscle
Angi- = Vessel
Hema- = Blood
Arter- = Artery
Ven- = Venous
Erythro- = Red
Respiratory System
Pulmon- = Lung
Bronch- = Windpipe

Digestive System
Gastr- = Stomach
Enter- = Intestine
Dent- = Teeth
Hepat- = Liver

Urinary System
Ren-, Neph- = Kidney
Ur- = Urinary

Immune System
Lymph- = Lymph
Leuk- = White

Reproductive System
Vagin- = Vagina
Uter- = Uterine

Anatomical Root Words

Root Word = Meaning

Skeletal System
Os-, Oste- = Bone
Arth- = Joint

Muscular System
Myo- = Muscle
Sarco- = Striated muscle

Integument
Derm- = Skin

Nervous System
Neur- = Nerve

Endocrine System
Aden- = Gland
Estr- = Steroid

Circulatory System
Card- = Heart muscle
Angi- = Vessel
Hema- = Blood
Arter- = Artery
Ven- = Venous
Erythro- = Red

Respiratory System
Pulmon- = Lung
Bronch- = Windpipe

Digestive System
Gastr- = Stomach
Enter- = Intestine
Dent- = Teeth
Hepat- = Liver

Urinary System
Ren-, Neph- = Kidney
Ur- = Urinary

Immune System
Lymph- = Lymph
Leuk- = White

Reproductive System
Vagin- = Vagina
Uter- = Uterine

An understanding of the following directional prefixes is important to

navigate human anatomy:

Prefix = Meaning

Ab- = Away from

Ad- = Toward
Circum- = Around
Contra- = Opposition, against
De- = Down, away from
Ecto-, Exo- = Outside
Endo- = Within
Epi- = Upon, over
Extra- = Outside
Infra- (sub) = Below, under
Intra- = Inside
Ipsi- (iso) = Same (equal)
Ir- = Into, toward
Meso- = Middle
Meta- (supra) = Beyond, over, after
Para- = Near, beside
Peri- = Around, surrounding
Retro- = Behind, backward
Sub- = Under, rear,
Trans- = Across, through

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 Section 5: The Musculoskeletal System

The musculoskeletal system consists of the structures that determine the

shape of the human body and that allow it to move. It consists of the bones
that make up the skeleton, the muscles that support the body, and a number
of other structures, such as tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the joints,
which help bind and support structures of the body. The primary role of the
musculoskeletal system is to support the body, protect internal structures
and vital organs, and facilitate movement.

This section will begin by looking at the major muscles of the body, muscle
structure and attachment. We will then cover the major bones of the body,
bone structure, growth, and remodeling. Lastly, we will cover other
important musculoskeletal structures that support and bind tissues and
organs together, such as the joints and cartilage.

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The Muscular System

The human body comprises around 600 skeletal muscles that are attached to
the bones by tendons, which are bundles of collagen fibers. These muscles
hold the body together, maintain posture, generate body heat, and protect
the organs.

Just as there are three types of muscle tissue (see section 3), there are three
types of muscle in the human body: the skeletal (voluntary and reflex)
muscle, the smooth (involuntary) muscle, and the cardiac (heart) muscle.
The structure and function of the heart muscle are covered in section 9.
This section focuses largely on skeletal muscles – the muscles responsible
for all voluntary and reflex movements.

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Illustration 1: Anterior View of the Major Muscles of the Body

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Illustration 2: Posterior View of the Major Muscles of the Body

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The Structure of a Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles are made up of muscle fibers. Muscle fibers are large
cells that contain multiple nuclei and internal fibrous structure. They are
composed of many myofibrils – threadlike structures of protein filaments.
These myofibrils contain even finer fibers called actin (thin filaments) and
myosin (thick filaments).

Muscle fibers are covered by endomysium – a connective tissue layer that

covers each individual skeletal muscle fiber. The skeletal muscle fiber is
enclosed by a plasma membrane called sarcolemma which contains
sarcoplasm (the cytoplasm of muscle cells).

Bundles of muscle fibers are called fascicles. Fascicles are surrounded by a

sheath of connective tissue called perimysium. The perimysium binds the
muscle fibers together into a fascicle. The fascicles are bound together by
epimysium (a sheath of fibrous elastic tissue) to form a muscle.
How Muscles Attach to Bones
Beyond the muscle, the epimysium becomes a tendon. Muscles attach to the
bone either directly or indirectly. Attachment is considered to be ‘direct’
when the muscle’s epimysium fuses with the periosteum (the connective
tissue that envelops bones). Attachment is considered ‘indirect’ when the
epimysium extends beyond the muscle to form a tendon which attaches to
the bone. In the human body, indirect attachment is the most common way
by which skeletal muscles attach to bones.

Tendons are strong fibrous connective tissue that attach to the periosteum
(the connective tissue that covers all bone except at the surface of the
joints). Tendons should not be confused with ligaments. (Ligaments are
strong fibrous connective tissue that connect two bones or hold together the
joint).

Origin and Insertion

Most skeletal muscles attach to the bone through a tendon. During
contraction, one of the bones to which the muscle is attached remains
relatively stationary whilst another bone (the more movable bone) is pulled
in towards the ‘stationary’ or less movable bone.

The origin is the attachment site where the muscle attaches to

the ‘stationary’ bone. The origin is typically found on the
proximal end of the bone (closer to the body relative to the
insertion).
The insertion is the attachment site where the muscle attaches
to the more movable bone, i.e. the site of movement during
muscle contraction. The insertion site is typically on the distal
end.

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Basic Muscle Movement

Muscles work together in groups because ‘team work’ enhances a particular

movement. During a particular movement, depending on the origin or
insertion, different muscles will play different roles. The muscle that does
most of the moving is called an ‘agonist’ or ‘prime mover.’ Groups of
skeletal muscles that contract at the same time to help move a body part are
called ‘synergists.’ Synergists are muscles that help the prime mover
achieve a certain body movement.

Muscles that act together to move a body part, but where one group of
muscle counteracts another group of muscles, are said to be antagonistic.
These muscles are called ‘antagonists.’

The skeletal muscle can perform several types of movement.

1. Flexion and Extension

Flexion and extension are both movements that involve anterior or posterior
movements of the body. Flexion is the bending (decreasing) of the joint
angle. Extension is the straightening (increasing) of the joint angle.

The illustration below displays flexion and extension at the shoulder and
knees (angular movements). These movements can also take place at the
hip, elbow, wrist, the joints of the hand and the feet. Flexion and extension
movements take place in the sagittal plane of movement (see Section 2).

2. Abduction, adduction, and circumduction

Abduction entails ‘moving away from the midline of the body.’ Adduction
involves ‘moving toward the midline of the body.’ Abduction and adduction
movements take place in the coronal plane of motion.

Circumduction is the circular movement of a body part (of, for example, the
hand, finger or a limb). Circumduction uses a combination of flexion,
extension, abduction and adduction movements.

The illustration below displays abduction, adduction and circumduction of

the upper limb at the shoulder (angular movements). Abduction and
adduction are movements of the limbs, fingers, hands, and toes. Abduction,
adduction and circumduction can all take place at the hip, shoulder, MCP
and MTP joint.

3. Medial and Lateral Rotation

Medial or internal rotation involves ‘turning toward the midline of the

body’. Lateral or external rotation involves ‘turning away from the midline
of the body.’

The illustration below displays rotation of the head, neck, and the lower
limb. Medial rotation of the upper limb of the should for example, involves
turning the limb’s anterior surface toward the body’s midline. Lateral
rotation of the upper limb of the shoulder, in turn, involves turning the limb
away from the midline of the body.

4. Protraction and Retraction

Protraction is ‘moving forward’ and retraction is ‘moving backward.’
Protraction of the mandible (jawbone) for example, pushes the chin
forward, whereas retraction of the mandible pulls the chin inward.

5. Pronation and Supination

Pronation is ‘turning downward’ and supination is ‘turning upward.’

Supination of the forearm, as illustrated in the diagram below (S), turns the
palm of the hand into a forward position. Pronation of the forearm (P), on
the other hand, turns the palm of the hand into a backward position.

6. Eversion and Inversion

Eversion is ‘turning outward’ and inversion is ‘turning inward.’ Eversion of

the foot for example, turns the sole of the foot away from the body’s
midline, whereas inversion turns the bottom of the foot toward the body’s
midline.

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The Skeletal System

The human skeleton is made up of 260 bones. 80 bones are found in the
axial skeleton and 125 bones are found in the appendicular skeleton. The
axial skeleton consists of the bones which are found along the midline of
the human body and the appendicular skeleton contains the bones and joints
of the appendages (the upper and lower limbs) and the two girdles. The
body has two girdles. The pectoral girdle, also called the shoulder girdle,
encircles the top vertebral column. The pelvic girdle encircles the bottom
vertebral column.

The Axial Skeleton forms the ‘central axis’ of the human body and
includes the following bones:
Bones of the skull (facial and cranial bones)
Ossicles (small bone found in the middle ear)
Hyoid bone (of the throat)
Vertebrae
Rib cage (also called thoracic cage)
Sternum

The Appendicular Skeleton consists of the girdles (which join the

appendages to the axial skeleton) and the bones of the limbs which are
found in six major regions:
Pectoral girdles (clavicle and scapula)
Arms and forearms (humerus, ulna, and radius)
Hands (left and right carpals, metacarpals, proximal phalanges,
intermediate phalanges, and distal phalanges)
Pelvis (left and right hip bone)
Thighs and legs (left and right femur, patella, tibia, and fibula)
Feet and ankles (left and right tarsals, metatarsals, proximal
phalanges, intermediate phalanges, and distal phalanges)
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Anterior View of the Human Skeleton

Posterior View of the Human Skeleton

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Bones

Bones perform various functions. Such functions include: stabilizing and

supporting the body, protecting internal structures and vital organs, storing
salts, producing red blood cells (in the bone marrow), and providing an
attachment site for muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Bones are classified by
shape, as being either long, short, flat, irregular (e.g. the mandible and the
vertebrae), sutural (irregular bones located along the sutures of the skull), or
sesamoid (a small independent bone developed in a tendon).

Bone Tissue and Structure

Each bone is made up of an outer layer of compact bone that is dense and
smooth and an inner layer of spongy bone.
Cortical (compact) bone, the outer layer, is composed of a
hard calcified matrix that contains a dense layer of bone cells.
 Compact bone tissue also contains lamellae (bone layers) and
haversian canals (central canals). Blood reaches the bones
through either the haversian canals, the Volkmann’s canals, or
through vessels found in the bone marrow.
Lacunae are small cavities within the bone matrix that contain
osteocytes (bone cells). Small canals called canaliculi connect the
lacunae and also provide nutrients to the bone.

Spongy (cancellous) bone, the middle layer, is composed of

trabeculae, which are plates of bone tissue that form
cancellous bone. In some bones, red bone marrow fills the
spaces between the trabeculae.

Long Bone
The long bone consists of three main parts: the diaphysis (the shaft),
epiphysis (the ends), and the metaphysis, which is where the diaphysis
merges with the epiphysis. Examples of long bones include the thighbone
(femur) and the forearm bone (radius).
Bone Development: Growth and Remodeling
Ossification is the natural process of bone formation. Bones start off in the
form of cartilage which is then replaced by bone – a process called
ossification. There are two types of ossification: intramembranous and
endochondral.

Intramembranous Ossification
Intramembranous ossification is the replacement of connective tissue
membranes with bony tissue. It is one of two processes during fetal
development of the mammalian skeletal system by which bone tissue is
created. Bones that are formed in this manner, which include certain
irregular bones and some flat bones of the skull, are called
intramembranous bones.

Endochondral Ossification
Endochondral ossification is the replacement of hyaline cartilage with bony
tissue. The majority of bones in the human body are formed through
endochondral ossification. These bones are called endochondral bones.
Endochondral ossification also plays a central role in the formation and
growth of long bones, and in the healing or remodeling of bone fractures.

Osteogenesis
Osteogenesis is the formation of bone (the ossification of cartilage into
bone). Both terms, osteogenesis and ossification are typically used
synonymously to indicate the process of bone formation. In children,
osteogenesis starts in the ninth week of fetal development. Ossification and
bone growth occur at the same time in children: the cartilage cells divide,
the bone lengthens, and the cartilage calcifies. Once adult height is reached,
the cartilage cells of the bone stop to divide, which also puts an end on bone
growth. Bone development in adults however, continues in the form of
fracture repair and remodeling (to meet changing lifestyles).

Bone Growth
The three cells which are involved in bone growth, development and
remodeling are osteoblasts (bone-forming cells), osteocytes (mature bone
cells), and osteoclasts (cells that break down and reabsorb bone).

In a long bone, the epiphyseal plate is the site of bone growth. In immature
bones, ossification occurs in the layer of hyaline cartilage. Cartilage is
formed in mitosis on the epiphyseal plate. As chondrocytes in the diaphysis
degenerate, osteoblasts migrate to the region and begin to ossify the
cartilage into bone tissue. When osteoblasts reach the membrane, they
deposit bony matrix around themselves at which point they are called
osteocytes (bone cells). This process, which allows the diaphysis to grow in
length, continues until cartilage growth slows, comes to an end, and once
adult height is reached. When cartilage growth stops, the epiphyseal plate
becomes completely ossified, and the longitudinal growth of the bone
ceases.

Although the bone stops growing in length at this stage, they can still
continue to grow in diameter or thickness throughout life in response to
lifestyle changes, e.g. due to increased weight or muscle activity.

Bone Remodeling
Bone remodeling or bone metabolism is the replacement of old bone with
new bone. Bone remodeling continues even once adult height is attained.
Ordinary activity causes microscopic cracks to form in the bone. These are
then dissolved and replaced with new bone tissue. The process of bone
remodeling entails removal of mature bone tissue from the skeleton (called
bone resorption – which occurs when osteoclasts break down bone to
release minerals), followed by bone formation (ossification).

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Joints

Joints are the contact point at which bones are held together. Joints can be
classified by either their function (i.e. by their range of motion) or their
structure. The human body contains three major types of joints that are
classified according to their function and three types of joints which are
classified pursuant to their structure.

Classification by Function:
1. Diarthrosis: These are freely movable joints that are also
called synovial joints. Diarthroses, such as the elbows, are
joined together by ligaments.
2. Amphiarthrosis: These are joints that are slightly movable
and which are connected by either hyaline cartilage or
fibrocartilage. The intervertebral disks for example are
amphiarthroses.
3. Synarthrosis: These are joints that are immovable, e.g. joints
between the bones of the skull. Synarthroses are joint together
by sutures (a layer of fibrous connective tissue).

Classification by Structure:
1. Synovial joints are also called diarthroses.
2. Cartilaginous joints are also called amphiarthroses.
3. Fibrous joints: Fibrous joints allow for little movement and
are joined together by fibrous connective tissue. Examples
include sutures, the dental alveolar joint, and the radioulnar
joint (the joint between the two bones in the forearm).

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Cartilage

Cartilage is a firm connective tissue that consists mostly of protein fibers.

Cartilage is the main component of joints and also supports other structures
in the body, including the larynx, the intervertebral disks and the auditory
canal. Compared to bone tissue, cartilage has fewer cells and little to no
blood supply, which affects its ability to heal. There are three types of
cartilage – hyaline, fibrous, and elastic cartilage.
Hyaline Cartilage: the most common cartilage type found in
the body and a major component of synovial joints and
articular bone surfaces. Hyaline cartilage is also found in the
nasal septum, the bronchi, and the trachea.
Fibrous Cartilage or Fibrocartilage: a strong, fibrous and
spongy tissue that forms the pubic symphysis.
Elastic Cartilage: abundant in elastic fibers, it is the most
flexible cartilage in the human body. Elastic cartilage can be
found in the epiglottis, the auditory canal, and in the external
ear.

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Synovial Joints

Synovial joints are freely movable and include most of the joints found in
the arms and legs. Structures found in the synovial joint include the
following:
Bursae: Bursae are saclike cavities which contain fluid. They
are found around joints at friction points where they act to
facilitate the gliding of tendons and muscles over surfaces that
are either bony or ligamentous. Most bursae are found at the
hip, knee, elbow, and shoulder.
Joint cavity or synovial cavity: The joint cavity is the space
that separates the articulating surfaces of two bones.
Joint capsule or articular capsule: This is the envelope that
surrounds the synovial joint comprising of an outer fibrous
membrane and an inner synovial membrane.
Ligaments: Ligaments are strong fibrous connective tissue that
connect bones at the joints and which strengthen the capsule.
Based on their function and structure, synovial joints can be further
classified into subcategories: pivot (a), hinge (b), saddle (c), plane (d),
condyloid (e), and ball-and-socket (f).

Pivot joints are found where a rounded bone portion fits into
the grove portion of another bone.
Hinge joints are found where a convex-shaped bone portion
fits into a concave-shaped bone portion.
Saddle joints have a saddle-shaped surface. The only saddle
joints found in the human body are the carpometacarpal joints
of the thumb.
Plane joints are joints that only allow gliding (or sliding)
movements. In plane joints, a convex shaped bone portion fits
into a concave-shaped bone portion.
Condyloid joints are found where the oval-shaped bone
portion fits into a concavity of another bone.
Ball-and-socket joints are found where the spherical head of a
bone fits into a concave-shaped portion of another bone.

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 Section 6: The Neurosensory System and the
Sense Organs

The nervous system coordinates all bodily functions, allowing the body to
respond to internal and external stimuli. The sensory system is the part of
the nervous system that is responsible for relaying sensory information. In
this chapter, we will cover the anatomy and physiology of the nervous
system, the special sense organs of the body and their respective functions.

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The Nervous System

The nervous system has two main types of cell: conducting cells called
neurons and supportive cells called neuroglia.

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Neuron Structure
A neuron is composed of one axon and multiple dendrites. The axon, also
called the nerve fiber, is the part of the neuron responsible for the
transmission of information to different neurons or other body structures.
Axons carry nerve impulses away from the cell body. Dendrites are short
branched extensions of the neuron that conduct impulses toward the cell
body, i.e. they are responsible for receiving nerve impulses from other cells.

Neuroglia
Neuroglia, also called glial cells, are the supportive cells of the nervous
system. Four types of neuroglia exist in the nervous system.
1. Ependymal cells help produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Ependymal cells line the central canal of the spinal cord as well
as the ventricular system of the brain.
2. Oligodendrocytes are glial cells in the central nervous system
that create a myelin sheath.
3. Astrocytes, collectively known as astroglia, are star-shaped
glial cells. They are present throughout the nervous system
where they supply nutrients to the neurons and also help
neurons maintain their electrical potential. They also perform
other functions, such as supporting endothelial cells.
Endothelial cells are squamous cells that form the blood-brain
barrier that prevents harmful molecules from entering the
brain.
4. Microglia are a type of glial cell that function as phagocytic
cells in the central nervous system where they protect the body
by engulfing and ingesting microorganisms and waste products
from injured neurons.
Neurotransmission
Neurons (nerve cells) are responsible for neurotransmission (also called
synaptic transmission). Neurotransmission, a process essential for
communication between two neurons, is the conduction of nerve impulses
through the body. During neurotransmission, neurons release chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters ‘transmit’ signals
from one neuron to another neuron.

Neurons can receive (via the dendrites) and transmit (through the axon)
electrochemical messages. Dendrites receive impulses sent from other cells
and conduct these impulses toward the cell body. Axons conduct impulses
away from the cell body.
Neuron activity can be stimulated by any of the following:
A chemical stimulus, e.g. a chemical released by the body
A mechanical stimulus, e.g. pressure or ‘touch’
A thermal stimulus, e.g. heat or cold

How Neurotransmission Works

1. Once the impulse has been generated, it travels along the axon
of the neuron.
2. As it reaches the end of the axon, the synaptic vesicles in the
presynaptic nerve terminal are stimulated.
3. This provokes the release of chemical substances
(neurotransmitter molecules – also called neurotransmitters)
into the synaptic cleft between the two neurons (the synapse).
4. The neurotransmitters then diffuse across the synapse to the
receiving neuron. The receptor sites are located on the
dendrites of the receiving neuron.
5. After crossing the synaptic cleft, the neurotransmitters bind to
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. This inhibits or
promotes stimulation of the postsynaptic neuron.

The Reflex Arc

The reflex arc is the nerve pathway involved in the transmission of a
sensory impulse to a motor neuron. The reflex arc requires a sensory neuron
on one side (afferent) and a motor neuron on the other (efferent). Sensory
neurons are neurons that transmit sensory information such as sight or
sound. Muscle neurons, also called motoneurons, are located in the spinal
cord. Their fibers control effector organs, such as muscles and glands.
A stimulus triggers a sensory impulse which then passes through the dorsal
root to the spinal cord. Two synaptic transmissions occur at the same time.
One impulse travels along the sensory neuron to the brain and another
transmits it directly, via a relay neuron, to a motor neuron. The muscle
neuron in turn transmits the impulse to a muscle or a gland, producing an
immediate action or movement. A reflex is an action or movement that is
not controlled consciously.

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The Central Nervous System (CNS)

The CNS controls most of the functions of the body and the mind and
comprises the brain and the spinal cord.

The Brain
The brain includes the cerebrum (the forebrain), cerebellum (the
hindbrain), brain stem, diencephalon (the thalamus and hypothalamus), the
reticular activating system, and the limbic system.

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Brain Structure and Function

1. The Cerebrum

The cerebrum, or forebrain, is the principal part of the brain which is

located in the front skull area. It contains the nerve center responsible for
controlling sensory and motor activities and intelligence. The cerebrum
(with the assistance of the cerebellum) controls all of the body’s voluntary
actions and movements.

Outer and Inner Layer

The cerebrum’s outer layer is called the cerebral cortex. It is composed of
folded grey matter (unmyelinated nerve fibers), that play an essential role in
consciousness. The inner layer of the cerebrum is composed of white matter
(myelinated nerve fibers) that contain basal ganglia. Basal ganglia are a
group of structures that are involved in coordination and movement.

Cerebral Hemispheres
The cerebrum is made up of two cerebral hemispheres: the right and left
hemisphere. The right hemisphere controls and processes impulses from
the left side of the body and the left hemisphere controls and processes
those received from the right side of the body. Communication between
corresponding centers in each hemisphere is transmitted through a broad
band of nerve fibers, called corpus callosum, which join the two
hemispheres.
The cerebral hemispheres are each divided into four lobes: the frontal,
temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.
 2. Cerebellum

The cerebellum is the second largest region of the brain. the cerebellum
controls balance, coordinates muscle movement, and helps maintain muscle
tone. The cerebellum is also divided into a left and a right hemisphere and
also contains an outer cortex of grey matter and an inner core composed of
white matter.

3. Brainstem

The brainstem lies below the cerebrum and continues downward to form the
spinal cord. It performs many basic functions, which includes the regulation
of heart rate, sleeping, breathing and eating. It also provides the pathway
for nerve fibers between the lower and higher neural centers and supplies
the majority of motor and sensory nerves to the neck and the face (via
cranial nerves). Out of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves, ten originate from
the brainstem.

The brainstem comprises the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
midbrain:
The Medulla Oblongata forms the lowest part of the
brainstem; it is the continuation of the spinal cord within the
skull. It controls autonomic (involuntary) functions such as
vomiting, coughing, and hiccups. It also helps regulate heart
and blood vessel function, breathing, digestion, sneezing, and
swallowing.
The Pons (which sit above the medulla) serve as a message
station between several parts of the brain – notably, the pons
help relay messages from the cerebrum and the cerebellum.
The pons also help regulate and mediate sleep, respirations,
swallowing, hearing, equilibrium, and taste.
 The Midbrain controls many important functions such as eye
movement, pupillary reflexes and other functions relating to the
visual and auditory systems. Some portions of the midbrain are
also involved in the control of body movement.

4. Diencephalon

The diencephalon, located between the cerebrum and the midbrain, is

composed of the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
The Thalamus relays most sensory information (apart from
those relating to the sense of smell) to the cerebral cortex. The
thalamus acts as a center for sensory interpretation, including
pain perception.
The Hypothalamus lies below the thalamus and controls body
temperature, thirst, hunger, as well as other sleep and emotional
 activity.

1. The Limbic System

The limbic system is the system of nerves and networks inside the brain that
controls basic emotions (such as pleasure and fear) and drives (such as
hunger and sexual arousal).

2. The Reticular Activating System (RAS)

The RAS is a diffuse network of nerve pathways that arouse and alert the
cerebral cortex. The RAS is connected to the cerebrum, the cerebellum and
the spinal cord and plays a central role in mediating consciousness.

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The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is the cord of nerve fibers and tissue that is connected to the
brain and which lies in the vertebral canal. It connects almost all body parts
to the brain, with which it forms the central nervous system. Spinal nerves,
which carry autonomic, motor, and sensory signals, arise from the cord.

The cross section of the spinal cord below shows an H-shaped mass of gray
matter, which is divided into ‘horns’. Horns are mainly made up of neuron
cell bodies.
The cell bodies located in the two posterior (dorsal) horns
primarily relay sensations and information.
The two anterior (ventral) horns contain motor neurons and
are thus involved in voluntary or reflex motor activity.

The horns are surrounded by white matter which consists of myelinated

nerve fibers (axons) which are grouped into ‘columns.’ All axons in one
column perform the same general function.
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Sensory Pathways and Motor Pathways

Sensory impulses travel via afferent neural pathways to the sensory cortex
located in the parietal lobe of the brain. It is in this lobe that the sensory
impulses are interpreted. There are two afferent neural pathways:
The Ganglia: Ganglia are relay stations composed of a
number of nerve cell bodies located on the dorsal roots of the
spinal nerves. Sensations including pain, pressure, touch, and
vibration enter the spinal cord via the ganglia.
The Dorsal Horn: Sensations including pain and temperature
enter the spinal cord via the dorsal horn.

Motor impulses travel via efferent neural pathways from the brain to the
muscle. Motor impulses are triggered in the motor cortex of the brain’s
frontal lobe and travel to the lower motor neurons via the upper motor
neurons. These upper motor neurons form two main systems: the pyramidal
system and the extrapyramidal system.
The Pyramidal System (Corticospinal Tract): is responsible
for fine movements of the skeletal muscles. Impulses in this
system originate in the motor cortex, from where they travel
through the internal capsule to the medulla, and down the
spinal cord.
The Extrapyramidal System (Extracorticospinal Tract): is
responsible for gross motor skills and movements. Impulses in
this system originate from the frontal lobes of the cerebrum,
from where they travel through the pons, and down the spinal
cord to the anterior horn. At the anterior horn, the impulses are
relayed to the lower motor neurons, which then transmit these
impulses to the muscles.

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Structures That Protect the CNS

Meninges – which is composed of three membranes: dura mater, arachnoid

membrane and pia mater – lines the vertebral canal and the skull. Meninges,
together with cerebrospinal fluid, the skull and the vertebrae, protect the
skull and the spinal cord from infection and shock.
Dura mater is a tough and fibrous tissue that consists of two
layers: the endosteal dura and the meningeal dura. The
endosteal dura forms the periosteum of the bone (skull) and the
meningeal dura is a thick membrane that protects the brain
tissue. Subdural spaces are the spaces found between the dura
mater and the arachnoid membrane.
Arachnoid membrane is a thin and delicate membrane that
lies between the dura mater and the pia mater. Subarachnoid
spaces are found between the arachnoid membrane and the pia
mater.
Pia mater, the innermost membrane that envelops the brain
and the spinal cord, is a delicate and continuous layer of
connective tissue.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a colorless body fluid which is found within

the subarachnoid spaces, the ventricles, and the central canal of the spinal
cord. CSF is composed of organic materials such as protein, glucose and
electrolytes. CSF provides immunological protection to the brain and also
serves as a ‘buffer’ for the brain’s cortex, thereby protecting its tissue from
blows.

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 The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system comprises the cranial nerves, spinal nerves,
and the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

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Cranial Nerves:

There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves that transmit motor or sensory
impulses between the brain or brainstem and the head and neck. 10 out of
12 cranial nerve pairs exit from the brainstem. The two remaining pairs, the
olfactory and optic nerves, exit from the forebrain. Each pair is dedicated to
a particular function.

Cranial Nerves:
Olfactory (CN I) – Sensory: Smell
Optic (CN II) – Sensory: Vision
Trigeminal (CN V) – Sensory: provides sensations to the skin
of the face; – Motor: controls the muscles of mastication
(chewing)
Facial (CN VII) – Sensory: taste receptors; – Motor: facial
muscle movement
Acoustic (CN VIII) – Sensory: hearing and sense of balance
Glossopharyngeal (CN IX) – Motor: swallowing; - Sensory:
oral sensation and taste
Vagus (CN X) – Motor: controlling heart rate and food
digestion; - Sensory: sensations of the heart, lungs, bronchi, or
GI tract
Spinal Accessory (CN XI) – Motor: head rotation and
shoulder movement
Hypoglossal (CN XII) – Motor: tongue movement

Eye movement is coordinated by cranial nerves III, IV and VI:

Oculomotor (CN III) – Motor: upper eyelid elevation,
pupillary constriction, extraocular eye movement (superior,
medial, and inferior lateral)
Trochlear (CN IV) – Motor: extraocular eye movement
(superior oblique)
Abducens (CN VI) – Motor: extraocular eye movement
(lateral)

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Spinal Nerves:

There are 31 pairs of nerves that emerge from the spinal cord. Each contains
thousands of efferent (motor) fibers and afferent (sensory) fibers. These
fibers carry messages to and from different body regions called
dermatomes. The cervical nerves are designated C1 to C8. The thoracic
nerves are classified as T1 to T12, the lumbar nerves are designated L1 to
L5 and the sacral nerves are classified as S1 to S5.
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Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) supplies nerves to all internal organs.
The ANS has to main subdivisions: the sympathetic (thoracolumbar)
nervous system and the parasympathetic (craniosacral) nervous system.
These two systems counterbalance each other, allowing the body to run
smoothly.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Preganglionic neurons (sympathetic nerves) exit the spinal cord and then
enter the ganglia. The ganglia transmits the impulse to the postganglionic
neurons which reach the organs and glands, triggering physiologic
responses which include:
Contraction of the sphincter
High blood pressure
Increased blood flow to skeletal muscles
Increased heart rate and contractility
Increased reparatory rate
Increased sweat gland secretion
Reduced pancreatic secretion
Relaxation of the ciliary muscle and pupillary dilation
Relaxation of the smooth muscle in the GI tract, bronchioles,
and urinary tract
Vasoconstriction

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Nerve fibers of the parasympathetic nervous system arise from the CNS.
After leaving the CNS, the long preganglionic fiber of each
parasympathetic nerve travels to a ganglion near a particular gland or organ.
Short parasympathetic fibers create a more specific response in one gland or
organ, which may include any of the following:
Constriction of the bronchial smooth muscle
Constriction of the pupil
Increased bladder muscle tone and urinary system sphincter
relaxation
Increased GI tract tone and peristalsis (with sphincter
relaxation)
Increased salivary, lacrimal, and pancreatic secretions
Reduced heart rate and contractility
Vasodilation of external genitalia

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 Special Sense Organs

Sense organs are distributed over the entire body and it is sensory
stimulation which enables the body to interact with the environment. There
are five sense organs – the eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin – which contain
general or special receptors that send messages to the brain. General
receptors that are present in the skin, muscles, joints and visceral organs,
are present throughout the body. Special receptors include light receptors
(photoreceptors), which are found in the eyes; mechanoreceptors, which
are found in the ears; and chemical receptors (chemoreceptors), which are
found in the mouth and the nose.

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The Eyes

The eye is the organ that gives us the sense of sight. Eye function is
controlled by the extraocular and intraocular eye structures:

Extraocular Eye Structure

Extraocular eye structures include the extraocular muscles, eyelids, lacrimal
apparatus, and conjunctivae. These structures protect and support the
eyeball.

Extraocular Muscles: The extraocular muscles control the

motion of each eye and hold the eyeballs in place.
Extraocular muscles have mutually antagonistic actions,
which means that as one muscles contracts, another (the
antagonist muscle) relaxes.

Eyelids: The eyelids, also referred to as the palpebrae, are

the upper and lower folds of skin that cover the anterior
portion of the eye (the exposed portion of the eyeball). The
eyelids contain three different types of glands:
The meibomian glands are special sebaceous
glands that secrete sebum which keeps the eyes
lubricated.
Glands of Zeis are unilobal sebaceous glands
which are connected to the follicle of the eyelashes
and that service the eyelash.
Moll’s glands are ordinary sweat glands that are
found on the margin of the eyelid and which cover
the eyes completely when closed.

Lacrimal Apparatus: The lacrimal apparatus comprises the

lacrimal glands, lacrimal sac, punctum (termed puncta
 lacrimalia), and nasolacrimal duct. The lacrimal apparatus
creates and absorbs tears that protect and lubricate the
cornea and the conjunctivae. Furthermore, tears also
contain an enzyme called lysozyme which protects the eye
from bacterial invasion.

Conjunctivae: The conjunctivae are mucous membranes

that protect the eye from microbes that may otherwise
enter the eye. They also help lubricate the eye and
contribute to immune surveillance. The bulbar (ocular)
conjunctivae cover the anterior portion of the sclera and
the palpebral conjunctivae cover the inner surface of the
eyelid.

Intraocular Eye Structure

Intraocular eye structures are directly concerned with vision. The
intraocular eye structures are further divided into an anterior and a posterior
segment.

The anterior segment includes the sclera, cornea, pupil, anterior chamber,
aqueous humor, lens, ciliary body, and posterior chamber.

Sclera: The sclera is the white outer layer of the eyeball which
is continuous with the cornea. It maintains the size and form of
the eyeball.
Cornea: The cornea is the smooth and transparent layer which
forms the front of the eye. The cornea is kept moist by tears
and is highly sensitive to touch.
Iris: The iris is a circular muscular ring that surrounds the pupil
of the eye. Eye color is depended on the amount of pigment
contained in the endothelial layer of the iris.
Pupil: The pupil is the opening of the iris.
 Anterior Chamber: The anterior chamber is the cavity inside
the eye that lies in front of the cornea’s innermost surface and
behind the iris.
Aqueous humor: The anterior chamber is filled with aqueous
humor, a clear and watery fluid.
Lens: The lens is a transparent structure in the eye situated
directly behind the iris at the pupillary opening. The lens,
which is composed of transparent fibers called the lens capsule,
helps refract and focus light on the retina.
Ciliary Body: The ciliary body connects the iris to the choroid.
It consists of three muscles which control the shape of the lens.
Alongside the muscles of the iris, the ciliary body helps
regulate light that is focused onto the retina.
Posterior Chamber: The posterior chamber is the narrow
space located behind the iris and in front of the lens. Like the
anterior chamber, the posterior chamber is also filled with
aqueous humor.

The posterior segment includes the vitreous humor, posterior sclera,

choroid, and the retina.
Vitreous humor: The vitreous humor is the thick transparent
tissue of the eyeball that fills the space behind the lens.
Posterior sclera: The posterior sclera is the white and fibrous
layer that covers the posterior segment of the eyeball.
Choroid: The choroid is a pigmented vascular layer which
contains small veins and arteries. The choroid lies between the
retina and the posterior sclera.
Retina: The retina is the innermost layer of the eyeball. The
retina is sensitive to light, receives visual stimuli, and triggers
nerve impulses that are sent to the brain.
The retina contains the optic dish, physiologic cup, macula, rods and cones,
fovea centralis, and four sets of retinal blood vessels.

Optic Disk: The optic disk is the raised oval area in the retina
which connects the retina to the optic nerve.
Physiologic Cup: This is a funnel-shaped, light-colored
depression within the optic disk. The central retinal blood
vessels pass through the physiologic cup.
Rods and Cones: The rods and cones are the visual receptors
(the photoreceptor neurons) of the retina.
Macula: This is the region surrounding the fovea of the eye. A
light depression in the center of the macula is called fovea
centralis. The macula is the area of highest visual acuity.
Fovea Centralis: The fovea centralis is the small depression in
the retina of the eye. Composed of closely packed cones, the
 fovea centralis is the main receptor for vision and color and
constitutes the point at which visual acuity is greatest.

Basic Vision Pathways

The intraocular eye structures are involved in perceiving and forming

images that are then sent to the brain for interpretation. To interpret images,
the brain relies on structures which are found along the vision pathway. The
vision pathway includes the retina, the optic nerves and the optic chasm.

Image formation occurs when eye structures (aqueous humor, cornea, lens,
and vitreous humor) refract light rays from an object, focusing it on the
fovea centralis. Vision is generated by photoreceptors (cones and rods) in
the retina. The visual information is transformed into impulses by the cones
and rods and this impulse leaves the retina by way of the optic nerves. The
optic nerves connect the eyeballs directly to the brain and send impulses to
the brain for interpretation. Injury to one of the optic nerves can cause
blindness in the respective eye.
The impulse travels from the optic nerves through the optic chiasm and
into the optic section of the cerebral cortex. In the optic chiasm, which is a
structure found in the forebrain, fibers from the left and right optic nerves
cross over each other. Injury to the lesion in the optic chiasm can cause
partial blindness. After the optic chiasm, information from the right visual
field is sent to the left side of the brain and information from the left visual
field is sent to the right side of the brain.

Some fibers from the temporal portions remain uncrossed. These uncrossed
fibers form the optic tract. The optic tract, which is an extension of the
optic nerve, is the pathway between the optic chiasm and the brain. There
are two optic tracts: the left optic tract and the right optic tract.
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The Ears

The ears are the organs of hearing and balance. The ear is divided into three
main sections: external, middle, and inner ear.

The External (Outer) Ear

The external ear consists of the pinna (auricle) and the external auditory
canal.

The Pinna (Auricle): The pinna is the external part of the ear
in humans. It acts as a funnel to capture sound.
The External Auditory Canal: The external auditory canal is
the narrow chamber which connects the pinna to the tympanic
membrane. It is also responsible for transmitting sound to the
tympanic membrane and the eardrum.

The Middle Ear

The middle ear, also called the tympanic cavity, is an air-filled space with
structures. Structures in the middle ear include the tympanic membrane,
Eustachian tube, oval window, round window, and small bones. The
tympanic cavity is lined with mucosa, it is bound by the tympanic
membrane on the distal end and by the oval window and round window on
the medial end.
Tympanic membrane: The tympanic membrane, which in
humans forms the eardrum, is composed of layers of fibrous
tissue, skin, and a mucous membrane. The tympanic membrane
vibrates in response to sound and transmits these sound
vibrations to the inner ear.
Eustachian (Auditory) Tube: The Eustachian tube, also called
the auditory tube, extends from the middle ear to the
 nasopharynx (the upper part of the pharynx that connects with
the nasal cavity). The function of the auditory tube is to
equalize the pressure on either side of the tympanic membrane.
This prevents rupture while at the same time allowing the ear
bones to vibrate.
(Auditory) Ossicles: The ossicles are the small bones found in
the middle ear that conduct vibrations from the tympanum to
the oval window. The ossicles are the smallest bones found in
the human body. The middle ear contains three ossicles: the
malleus (hammer) transmits vibrations form the eardrum to
the incus, the incus (anvil) transmits vibrations from the
malleus to the stapes, and the stapes (stirrup) transmit
vibrations from the incus to the inner ear. The function of the
ossicles is to amplify sound vibrations.
Oval Window: The oval window (fenestra ovalis) is the small
hole opening in the wall between the middle ear and the inner
ear. The stapes (ossicles) are found inside the oval window.
Round Window: The round window (fenestra cochleae) is
also a small hole opening in the same wall. The round window
is surrounded by the secondary tympanic membrane. The oval
and round windows transmit vibrations to the inner ear.

The Inner Ear

The inner ear is a complex structure found in the temporal bone. The bony
labyrinth, also called osseous labyrinth or otic capsule, is the bony outer
wall of the inner ear that consists of the vestibule, the cochlea, and
semicircular canals. Within the bony labyrinth is another structure called the
membranous labyrinth. The membranous labyrinth is filled with a fluid
called endolymph. The inner ear is filled with a fluid called perilymph –
perilymph is the fluid between the bony labyrinth and the membranous
labyrinth. Inside the inner ear, receptor nerve endings are stimulated by
vibrations.
 Vestibule: The vestibule, located behind the cochlea and before
the semicircular canals, is the central part of the bony labyrinth.
The vestibule is the entrance to the inner hear and houses two
membrane sacs – the saccule and the utricle, which are
suspended in perilymph. The vestibular system plays a crucial
role in maintaining balance.
Cochlea: The cochlea is the bony spiral cavity of the inner ear
which lies in the anterior part of the vestibule. Inside the
cochlea is the cochlear duct which contains the organ of Corti
– the organ responsible for hearing. The organ of Corti is the
receptor organ for hearing which produces and transmits nerve
impulses to the eighth cranial nerve (CN VIII).
Semicircular canals: The semicircular canals comprise three
fluid-filled bony channels which lie in the posterior part of the
vestibule. The semicircular canals are situated at right angles to
one another, with each individual canal orientated in one of
three planes: anterior, lateral and posterior. The semicircular
ducts, which are filled with endolymph and lined with
microscopic hairs (cilia), traverse the canals and connect with
the utricle. The utricle is a small otolith organ involved in
sensing movement and gravity. At the end of each canal lies the
crista ampullaris. The cristae ampullaris is a sensory organ
that contains hair and support cells and which is responsible for
sensing angular acceleration and deceleration.

Basic Hearing Pathways

Sounds waves can travel through the ear by air conduction or bone
conduction. In air conduction, hearing occurs through sound waves in the
air near the ear. These waves travel to the inner ear through the external and
middle ear. In bone conduction, hearing occurs through vibrations which
travel through bone and into the inner ear.

In both pathways, vibrations received from the air or bone stimulate nerve
impulses in the inner ear. The hearing (auditory) nerves carry these
vibrations to the brain where nerve cells transmit these electrical signals to
the auditory area of the cerebral cortex. Sound interpretation occurs in the
cerebral cortex.

The hearing process, as illustrated by the diagram below, occurs as follows:

1. Sound enters through the outer ear,
2. The ossicles of the middle ear amplify the sound vibrations,
3. The organ of Corti organizes these sounds by frequency, and
then produces and transmits nerve impulses,
4. Hearing nerves transmit the impulses form the cochlea to the
brainstem,
5. The signals then travel through the brain where they are are
interpreted,
6. The impulse is received and recognized by the auditory cortex
which processes the sound.

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The Mouth

The majority of receptors for taste nerve fibers in the mouth are found on
the tongue and on the roof of the mouth (CN VII and CN IX). These
receptors, which are stimulated by chemicals, are also called taste buds.
Taste buds provide four senses of taste: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. Other
flavors are generated from a combination of stimulated taste buds and
stimulated olfactory receptors.

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The Nose

The nose is the sense organ for smell. Receptors for fibers of the olfactory
nerve (CN I) are found in the mucosal epithelium which lines the upper
portion of the nasal cavity. The olfactory nerves transmit impulses from the
smell receptors to the brain. Smell receptors, also called olfactory
receptors, are composed of highly sensitive hair cells that are stimulated by
odorant (scent) molecules.

The olfactory system includes the following structures:

1. Olfactory Bulb: The olfactory bulb is a brain structure
involved in olfaction, that is, the sense of smell.
2. Mitral Cells: Mitral cells are neurons located in the olfactory
bulb which receive impulses from the axons of olfactory
receptor neurons.
3. Bone.
4. Epithelium: Olfactory epithelium is epithelial tissue that
contains receptors for olfactory nerve fibers.
5. Glomerulus: The glomerulus is a cluster of nerve endings
located in the olfactory bulb.
6. Olfactory Receptor Neurons: Olfactory receptor neurons,
also called olfactory sensory neurons, are responsible for odor
detection.

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 Section 7: The Integumentary System

The integumentary system is the largest body system that comprises the
skin (integument – the outer protective layer) and its appendages (hair,
nails, and particular glands).

The Functions of the Integumentary System

Protective layer for inner body structures.
Sensory perception.
The regulation of body temperature.
The excretion of particular body fluids.

By migration and shedding, the skin supports the integrity of the body
surface. By increasing the intensity of normal cell replacement mechanisms,
the skin is able to repair surface wounds. The top layer of the skin is called
the epidermis, which provides the first barrier of protection for the body
against harmful chemicals and pathogen invasions.

Within the epidermis are specialized cells called Langerhans cells (LC).
These increase the immune response from the body by assisting
lymphocytes process antigens that enter the skin.

Melanocytes
Melanocytes, a type of skin cell, provide protection for the skin by
producing melanin (brown pigment). This helps with the filtering of
ultraviolet (UV) light, which can stimulate the production of melanin.
Sensory Perception
Specific areas of the skin called dermatomes receive sensations from
sensory nerve fibers, which are located in the nerve roots along the spine. A
variety of sensations are transmitted by the nerve fibers to the skin,
including temperature, touch, pain, pressure, and itching. Autonomic nerve
fibers transport impulses to the smooth muscles in the skin’s blood vessels,
to muscles sitting around the hair roots, and to the sweat glands.

Temperature Regulation in the Body

The body’s temperature (thermoregulation) is controlled by:
Abundant nerves.
Blood vessels.
Eccrine (sweat) glands.

All of these are located within the dermis, which is the inner or lower layer
of the skin.

When the temperature of the body falls, as a result of the skin being
exposed to cold, the blood vessels constrict, which decreases blood flow
and conserves body heat. When the temperature of the body increases, the
small arteries within the skin dilate, which increases blood flow and reduces
body heat.

The Skin’s Excretion Function

Sweat, which contains water, electrolytes, lactic acid, and urea, is excreted
by the sweat glands. The skin excretes body wastes through more than two
million pores. Along with eliminating body waste, the skin also stops fluids
from escaping the body. This assists the body in preventing dehydration,
which is caused by a loss of fluids. The skin also maintains the content and
amount of sweat.

The skin also serves a function of preventing unwanted fluids in the exterior
environment from entering the body.

The Layers of Skin

The epidermis and dermis are the two main layers of the skin, which lie
above a layer called the hypodermis.

Epidermis

The epidermis is the external layer of the skin, which ranges in thickness
from below 0.1 mm on the eyelids, to over 1 mm on the palms of the hand
and the soles of the feet. The epidermis allows light to pass through it, i.e. it
is translucent.

The epidermis is made up of stratified, avascular, and squamous epithelial

tissue. It is split up into five different layers:
Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer): this is the outermost layer,
which is made up of closely arranged cellular membrane and
keratin layers.
Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer): this prevents water
penetration or loss.
Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer): this forms keratin.
Stratum Spinosum (Spiny Layer): also assists in forming
keratin, and contains ribonucleic acid.
The Stratum Basale (Basal Layer): this is the innermost
layer, which generates new cells that replace keratinized cells
or cells that have been shed or worn away.

Rete Pegs
There are no blood vessels in the epidermis, however the epidermis does
contains fingerlike structures called rete pegs. Food, oxygen, and vitamins
travel to the epidermis through the rete pegs, which are made up of a
network of very small blood vessels that project down to the dermis layer.

Dermis

The second layer of the skin is called the dermis, which is an elastic system
containing and supporting blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessels, and the
epidermal appendages.
The majority of the dermis consists of an extracellular material called
matrix, which contains the following:
Collagen: this is a protein that is produced by the fibroblasts
that provide strength and resilience to the dermis.
Elastic Fibers: these make the skin flexible by binding the
collagen.

The dermis is made up two layers:

Papillary Dermis, the uppermost layer of the dermis, has
fingerlike projections called papillae, which attach the dermis
with the epidermis. These also help with the gripping abilities
of fingers and toes.
Reticular Dermis, the lower layer of the dermis, lies between
the epidermis and the subcutaneous tissue. It consists of
collagen fibers, providing the skin with strength, elasticity, and
structure.

Subcutaneous Tissue
The subcutaneous tissue is the third layer of fat that lies below the dermis. It
is made up of larger blood vessels and nerves, along with adipose cells
filled with fat. The subcutaneous layer of fat lies on top of the muscles and
bones, serving the function of energy storage, insulation, and shock
absorption.

Epidermal Appendages

There are a number of epidermal appendages throughout the skin: the nails,
hair, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.

Hair
Hair is made up of keratin and a root. Each hair lies in a sheath lined with
epithelium that is called a hair follicle. Each root is indented by a hair
papilla, a structure at the base of the hair follicle, which is an arrangement
of blood vessels and cluster tissues.

Nails
The nails are located on the distal surface of each finger and toe. They are
made up of a specialized type of keratin. The nail plate is positioned on the
nail bed and surrounded by the cuticles (nail folds). The nail matrix extends
approx. 0.5 cm below the nail fold and forms the nail plate.

Sebaceous Glands

Sebaceous glands, which are part of the hair follicle, are on all parts of the
skin, apart from the palms and soles. They produce sebum, which is a
mixture of keratin, cellulose debris, and fat. When combined with sweat,
sebum is an oily and moist acidic film that is partially antifungal and
antibacterial. This exits through the hair follicle and provides protection for
the surface of the skin.

Sweat Glands
Sweat glands are made up of two types of glands:
Eccrine Glands: these are found throughout the body and they
produce watery and odorless fluid. This fluid has a
concentration of sodium that is equivalent to that of plasma. A
duct from the coiled secretory portion extends through the
dermis and epidermis, which opens at the surface of the skin.
Fluid from the eccrine glands is mostly secreted as a response
to emotional stress.
Apocrine Glands: these are found mainly in the underarm
(axillary) and groin (anogenital) areas. In comparison to eccrine
glands, their coiled secretory portion lies deeper in the dermis.
The apocrine glands produce body odor as bacteria decomposes
and do not have a known biological function.

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 Section 8: The Endocrine System

The endocrine system comprises three main components: glands

(specialized organs or clusters of cells), hormones (chemical substances
which are secreted by glands), and receptors (protein molecules that bind
to other molecules in order to stimulate physiologic changes).

The glands found in the endocrine system include:

Adrenal glands
Gonads (testis or ovary)
Pancreas
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thymus
Thyroid and parathyroid glands

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The Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland, which is also called the hypophysis or master gland,
lies in the sella turcica, a depression in the sphenoid bone that is found at
the base of the skull. Messages are carried from the hypothalamus through
the infundibulum (a funnel-shaped cavity) to the pituitary gland. The pea-
sized pituitary gland comprises two regions: the anterior pituitary and the
posterior pituitary.

The anterior pituitary, also called adenohypophysis, is the anterior lobe

that together with the posterior lobe, makes up the pituitary gland. The
anterior pituitary is the larger of the two and produces at least six hormones:
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), sometimes called
Corticotropin – stimulates the production and release of cortisol
from the adrenal gland.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) – promotes the formation
of sperm and ova.
Growth hormone (GH), sometimes called Somatotropin (STH)
– stimulates cell growth.
Luteinizing hormone (LH), sometimes called Lutropin –
triggers ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum in
females.
Prolactin (PRL) – stimulates milk production after childbirth.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), sometimes called
Thyrotropin – stimulates and regulates the production of
thyroid hormones.

The posterior pituitary is the back portion of the pituitary which secretes
the following hormones:
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), sometimes called Vasopressin –
increases reabsorption of water by the kidney, and
Oxytocin – increases uterine contractions.
The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland

Secretions by the anterior and posterior pituitary are controlled by the

hypothalamus. As displayed in the diagram below, hypothalamic neurons
manufacture inhibitory and stimulatory hormones. These hormones travel
down to the anterior pituitary where they cause the release or inhibition of
pituitary hormones, including ACTH, TSH, GH, FSH, LH, and PRL.

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The Thyroid Gland

Thyroid hormones are essential for the functioning of every cell in the body.
The thyroid gland is the gland which stores and produces hormones that
help regulate blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, and the rate of
metabolism.

The thyroid is located directly below the larynx and has two lateral lobes
which are joined by a narrow piece of tissue called the isthmus.

The two lobes function together to produce the following hormones:

Triiodothyronine (T3),
Thyroxine (T4), and
Calcitonin.

Collectively, T3 hormones and T4 hormones are referred to as thyroid

hormones. Thyroid hormones, which regulate the rate of metabolism by
speeding up cellular respiration, are the principal metabolic hormone of the
human body.

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The Parathyroid Glands

The parathyroid glands, which are located on the posterior surface of the
thyroid, are the smallest endocrine glands in the body. The parathyroid
glands produce parathyroid hormones (PTH) which help regulate the
body’s calcium levels. PTH increases the movement of phosphate ions from
the blood to the urine for excretion and also regulates the rate at which
magnesium and calcium ions are lost via urine.

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Adrenal Glands

The two adrenal glands of the body are located above the kidney. The
adrenal glands are composed of two portions which function as separate
endocrine glands: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.

Adrenal Cortex: The adrenal cortex is the outer portion of the adrenal
gland. It contains three cell layers:
The zona glomerulosa is the most superficial layer of the
adrenal cortex, located directly below the renal capsule. It
produces mineralocorticoids that help maintain fluid balance in
the body by increasing sodium reabsorption.
The zona fasciculata is the middle layer of the adrenal cortex.
It produces glucocorticoids (which help regulate stress
resistance and metabolism), cortisone, corticosterone, as well
as little amounts of androgen and estrogen (sex hormones).
The zona reticularis is the innermost layer of the adrenal
cortex which lies superficial to the adrenal medulla. It produces
glucocorticoids and various sex hormones.

Adrenal Medulla: The adrenal medulla is the inner portion of the adrenal
gland which is part of the sympathetic nervous system. The adrenal medulla
secretes two hormones: epinephrine and norepinephrine (catecholamines),
which are flight/fight hormones that play an important part in the autonomic
nervous system.
Tissue cross section continued below:

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The Pancreas

The pancreas is a large gland located behind the stomach and which extends
to the spleen. The pancreas performs exocrine functions (secreting digestive
enzymes into the small intestine or gut) and endocrine functions (secreting
hormones into the bloodstream). Pancreatic exocrine functions are
controlled by acinar cells, which make up most of the pancreas.

The endocrine cells of the pancreas are called islets of Langerhans. Islet
cells are found in pancreatic tissue alongside acinar cells and exocrine cells.
Islet cells contain alpha, beta, and delta cells which produce important
hormones:
Alpha cells produce glucagon – a peptide hormone that helps
raise blood glucose levels by promoting the breakdown of
glycogen to glucose in the liver.
Beta cells produce insulin – a peptide hormone that helps
regulate and lower blood glucose levels by stimulating the
conversion of glucose to glycogen.
Delta cells produce somatostatin – also known as growth
hormone, somatostatin inhibits the release of certain hormones
including corticotropin and GH.

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The Thymus

The thymus, which is located below the sternum (the breastbone), contains
lymphatic tissue and secretes several hormones. The thymus is vital to the
development of T cells which play a major role in the immune system.
Besides T cells, the thymus also produces thymosin and thymopoietin.

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The Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is a small gland located behind the third ventricle of the
brain. It produces the hormone melatonin which is involved in regulating
sleep-wake cycles, body temperature, circadian rhythms, reproduction, and
cardiovascular function.

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The Gonads

The gonads are the organs that produce gametes, namely the testes and the
ovaries.

The ovaries are oval-shaped glands that produce ova (eggs),

estrogen and progesterone. These hormones have several
functions which include regulating the menstrual cycle,
maintaining the uterus for pregnancy, and promoting the
development of female secondary sex characteristics. The
ovaries also help to prepare mammary glands for lactation.

The testes produce spermatozoa (male reproductive cells) and

testosterone (male sex hormones). Testosterone maintains male
sex characteristics and stimulates sex drive.

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Hormones

Hormones are regulatory substances, small chemical messengers, that travel

through the bloodstream triggering and regulating tissue or organ activity.
Hormones are classified according to their molecular structure as amines,
polypeptides, or steroids.

Amines: Amines are organic compounds derived from tyrosine, which is an

amino acid that is a constituent of most proteins. The following hormones
are amines:
T3 and T4 (thyroid hormones), and
Dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine (catecholamines).

Polypeptides: Polypeptides are protein compounds composed of amino

acids connected by peptide bonds. The following hormones are
polypeptides:
GH, TSH, FSH, LH, and ACTH (anterior pituitary hormones),
ADH and oxytocin (posterior pituitary hormones),
PTH (parathyroid hormone), and
Insulin and glucagon (pancreatic hormones).

Steroids: Steroids, which are derived from cholesterol, contain four rings of
carbon atoms. The following hormones are steroids:
Aldosterone and cortisol (adrenocortical hormones which are
secreted by the adrenal cortex), and
Estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone (sex hormones
secreted by the gonads).

Hormone Transport
Hormones are transported throughout the body by the bloodstream. When
they reach their target organ, polypeptides and some amines will bind to
the membrane on the receptor site. Some smaller steroids and thyroid
hormones which are lipid-soluble will diffuse through the cell membrane
and bind to intracellular receptors. Once bound to a receptor, each hormone
will produce specific physiologic changes. A hormone will only act on a
cell that has receptors which are specific to the hormone.

Hormone Release
There are four basic mechanisms which allow the body to control the
release of hormones: the pituitary-target gland axis, the hypothalamic-
pituitary-target gland axis, chemical regulation, and nervous system
regulation.

Pituitary-Target Gland Axis: The pituitary gland secretes trophic

hormones which are releasing or inhibiting hormones. These releasing
hormones and inhibiting hormones target other endocrine glands where they
regulate hormone release. These hormones include:
Corticotropin – regulates the release of adrenocortical
hormones.
TSH – regulates the release of T3 and T4.
LH – regulates the release of gonadal hormones.

The pituitary gland receives feedback about the target glands through
monitoring the levels of hormones produced by these glands. Depending on
the feedback received, the pituitary gland responds by:
Increasing the trophic hormones which stimulate the target
glands to increase their production of the target hormone.
Reducing the trophic hormones which in turn decreases target
gland stimulation and thus the levels of the target hormone.
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Target Gland Axis: The hypothalamus also
produces trophic hormones that target the anterior pituitary gland. It
therefore regulates anterior pituitary hormones which in turn regulate target
gland hormones.

Chemical Regulation: Specific chemicals trigger hormone secretion.

Within the body, hormone secretion occurs in response to chemical signals
which are received from several regulatory systems.

The Nervous System: The nervous system also regulates hormone

secretion. Nervous system stimuli for example, such as pain, can trigger
ADH levels. And stress for example, which results in a sympathetic
stimulation, can trigger corticotropin release.

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 Section 9: The Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart, blood vessels, and the
lymphatic system. The system serves the responsibility of providing oxygen
and nutrients to the cells of the body. On top of this, it eliminates metabolic
waste and transports hormones within the body.

The Heart

The heart is made up of two distinct pumps. The right side of the heart
pumps oxygenated blood to the lungs, and the left side of the heart pumps
and provides blood to the rest of the body.
The heart is located below the sternum in the cavity between the lungs (the
mediastinum) – between the second and sixth rib.
The heart is positioned obliquely in most people - its right side below and
nearly in front of the left side. Because of the angle it sits at, the top (base)
of the heart is at its top right, and the pointed end (apex) is at its bottom left.
The point of maximal impulse is at the apex. The heart sounds loudest at
this point.

The Structure of the Heart

A membrane called the pericardium surrounds the heart. The heart has a
wall that comprises the myocardium, epicardium, and the endocardium.
Inside the heart there are four chambers: two ventricles, two atria, and four
valves: two semilunar valves and two atrioventricular valves).

The Pericardium
The pericardium is a double-walled fibroserous sac that encloses the heart
and the roots of the vessels that bring blood to and from the heart. It is made
up of both fibrous and serous pericardium. The fibrous pericardium, which
is made up of tough and white fibrous tissue, covers the heart, providing it
with protection. The serous pericardium is the smooth inner portion that has
two layers: the parietal layer and the visceral layer.

Sitting between the fibrous pericardium and serous pericardium is the

pericardial cavity. Contained in the pericardial cavity is pericardial fluid,
which plays the role of lubricating the surfaces and allowing the heart to
move freely throughout contraction.

The Wall of the Heart

The wall of the heart is made up of three separate layers:

The Epicardium: the outer layer, which consists of squamous

epithelial cells that overlay the connective tissue.
The Myocardium: the middle layer, which makes up the
majority of the wall of the heart. It contains striated muscle
fibers that can produce heart contractions.
The Endocardium: the inner layer, which is made up of
endothelial tissue, blood vessels, and smooth muscle.

Inside the Heart

Inside the heart there are four chambers: two ventricles, two atria, and four
valves: two semilunar valves and two atrioventricular valves. There is a
system of blood vessels that carry blood in and out of the heart.

The Chambers
The interatrial septum separates the atria. The atria receive the blood that is
returning to the heart, and they supply blood to the ventricles.

The Right Atrium: The right atrium receives blood from both the superior
and inferior venae cavae.

The Left Atrium: The left atrium is smaller than the right atrium, but has
walls that are thicker. It receives blood from both of the pulmonary veins.

The Ventricles
The interventricular septum separates the right and left ventricles, which
make up the lower chambers of the heart. They are made up of developed
musculature and receive blood from the atria.

The Right Ventricle: responsible for pumping blood to the lungs.

The Left Ventricle: larger in size than the right ventricle, it pumps blood
throughout all other vessels in the body.

The Valves
The valves let blood flow forwards through the heart and stop the
backwards flow of blood. The valves open and close as a result of changes
in pressure that are caused by ventricular contraction and the ejection of
blood. The atria are separated from the ventricles by the two atrioventricular
valves.

The Right Atrioventricular Valve (Tricuspid Valve): stops backwards

blood flow from the right ventricle to the right atrium.

The Left Atrioventricular Valve (Mitral Valve): stops backwards blood

flow from the left ventricle to the right atrium.

The Two Semilunar Valves: the pulmonic valve prevents backwards blood
flow from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle. The aortic valve
prevents backwards blood flow from the aorta to the left ventricle.

Conduction System
The conduction system in the heart causes contractions that transport blood
throughout the body. Fibers produce electrical impulses in the heart’s cells
that cause contractions of the heart. Below is a diagram of the cardiac
conduction system displaying the different elements of the system.

The heart’s conduction system contains pacemaker cells that have the
following three features:
Automaticity: generating automatic electrical impulses.
Conductivity: passing impulses to the next cell.
Contractility: shortening the heart’s fibers when it is receiving
impulses.

The Sinoatrial (SA) Node

This is the normal pacemaker of the heart that generates impulses between
60 to 100 times per minute. The SA node creates an impulse that spreads
through both the right and left atria. The result of this is atrial contraction.
The Atrioventricular (AV) Node
The AV node is located in the lower portion of the right atrium’s septal wall,
and slows down the impulse conduction between the atria and the
ventricles. This is a resistor node that allows for a time delay, which allows
blood to be transferred from the atria to the ventricles.

Impulses travel from the AV node to the bundle of His, which are modified
muscle fibers. Following this, they then branch of to the right and left
bundle branches, and lastly travel to the Purkinje fibers.

There are two safety mechanisms that the conduction system has. Firstly, if
there is a failure to fire an impulse from the SA, the AV node will generate
an impulse between 40 and 60 times per minute (the firing rate). Secondly,
if both the SA and AV node fail to fire, the ventricles are able to generate an
impulse that is between 20 and 40 times per minute.

Cardiac Cycle

The period between the start of one heartbeat to the start of the next
heartbeat is called the cardiac cycle. In order to provide the correct cardiac
output, electrical and mechanical events must take place in the correct
sequence and to the correct degree. The cardiac cycle is made up of two
phases:

Systole:
In the beginning of the cardiac cycle (the systole), the ventricles contract.
The increase in blood pressure in the ventricles makes the atrioventricular
valves close, and the semilunar valves open. The ventricular blood pressure
rises as the ventricles contract, and this happens until the pressure is greater
than the pulmonary artery and aorta pressure. Following this, there is the
opening of the semilunar valves, and blood is ejected by the ventricles into
the pulmonary artery and aorta.

Diastole:
Once the ventricles are empty and become relaxed, the ventricle pressure
decreases below the pressure in the aorta and the pulmonary artery. This is
the beginning of the diastole, in which the semilunar valves close to prevent
the backwards flowing of blood into the ventricles. There is the opening of
the mitral and tricuspid valves, and this allows blood to flow from the atria
into the ventricles. The atria contract and deliver the remaining blood to the
ventricles when the ventricles become full. The heart enters systole and the
cardiac cycle is restarted.

Cardiac Output

The stroke volume is the volume of blood that is ejected from each
heartbeat. The cardiac output is the volume of blood that the heart pumps
over a minute. The cardiac output is calculated by multiplying the heart rate
by the stroke volume. The stroke volume is dependent on preload, afterload,
and contractility.

Preload: this is when the muscle fibers in the ventricles are stretched. The
more the ventricles stretch, the more vigorously they will contract during
systole.

Contractility: this is the myocardium’s ability to contract normally. The

preload influences this ability.
Afterload: this is the pressure in the wall of the left ventricle that is
produced to deal with the elevated pressure in the aorta, in order to get
blood out of the heart.

Blood Flow

Whilst travelling through the vascular system, blood makes its way through
five different types of blood vessel: arteries, arterioles, capillaries,
venules, and veins. Each vessel differs in relation to the function it serves in
the cardiovascular system, and the pressure that is made by the blood
volume at a number of points within the system.

Arteries have thick and muscular walls that support blood flowing quickly
under high pressures. Arterioles have walls that are thinner than those of
arteries – they control blood flow to the capillaries by constricting and
dilating. The walls of the capillaries are made up of one layer of endothelial
cells. Blood from the capillaries is gathered by the venules. The walls of the
venules are thinner than the arterioles walls. Veins have walls that are
thinner than those of the arteries, however they have a diameter that is
larger.

The below illustration displays the major arteries and veins in the human
body.

Circulation

There are three means of circulation that transport blood around the body.

Pulmonary Circulation:
Blood picks up oxygen from the lungs and releases carbon dioxide.
1. Blood that is not oxygenated moves from the right ventricle
into the pulmonary arteries.
2. The blood travels through arteries and arterioles that are
progressively smaller into the capillaries of the lungs.
3. Once the blood reaches the alveoli, it exchanges carbon dioxide
with oxygen.
4. Blood that is oxygenated returns through venules and veins
into the pulmonary veins. The blood is then carried back into
the left atrium.

Systemic Circulation: The left ventricle pumps blood that carries oxygen
and nutrients to cells throughout the body. It also transports waste products
that need to be excreted.

The aorta branches out into vessels that provide for certain body organs and
areas. The left common carotid artery provides blood to the brain. The left
subclavian artery provides blood to the arms. The innominate artery
provides blood to the upper chest. As it moves through the abdomen and
thorax, the aorta provides blood to the organs of the genitourinary and GI
systems, lower chest, abdominals, and spinal column. The aorta splits into
iliac arteries and then femoral arteries.

Perfusion
The number of vessels increase significantly as the arteries divide into
smaller units. This increases the tissue area that blood flows to, which is
called the area of perfusion.

Dilation
Sphincters control the blood that flows into the tissues. The sphincters
dilate, which allows more blood flow when required – or they close to
prevent blood flow to other areas – or they constrict to cause an increase in
blood pressure.

Low Pressure Area

The capillary bed provides blood to the largest number of cells, and the
capillary pressure is very low which permits nutrient, oxygen, and carbon
dioxide exchange with body cells. The blood flows from the capillaries into
the venules, and then into the veins.

Backflow Prevention
The backflow of blood is prevented by valves in the veins. Any pooled
blood in valve segments is transported towards the heart as a result of
pressure from the moving blood volume flow. The veins form two branches:
the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava – these transport blood
back to the right atrium.

Coronary Circulation:

The heart depends upon the coronary arteries for its fresh supply of
oxygenated blood. It also relies on the cardiac veins to remove the blood
that has been depleted of oxygen.

Blood is ejected from the left ventricle into the aorta during systole. Blood
moves out of the heart and through the coronary arteries during diastole.
This nourishes the heart.

The right coronary artery provides blood to the right atrium, some to the left
atrium, the majority of the right ventricle, and the lower part of the left
ventricle.
The left coronary artery provides blood to the left atrium, the majority of
the left ventricle, and the majority of the interventricular septum.

The arterial system of blood vessels provides oxygenated blood to the heart.
It also provides blood to the venous system that removes blood that has
been depleted of oxygen. Below is an illustration of the coronary circulation
system.

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 Section 10: The Hematologic System

The hematologic system is made up of both blood and bone marrow. Blood
has the responsibility of delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues,
removing wastes, and transporting gasses, immune cells, blood cells, and
hormones around the body.

Hematopoiesis: this is a process through which the hematologic system

manufactures new blood cells.

There are multipotential stem cells within the bone marrow, which include
five different cell types that are named unipotential stem cells. The four
types of unipotential stem cells are as follows:
Erythrocyte
Granulocyte
Agranulocyte
Platelet

Below is an illustration of the process – from the birth of unipotential stem

cells, to when they reach full formation:
The Components of Blood

Blood is made up of a number of formed elements/blood cells; these are

held in a fluid that is called the plasma.

1. Red Blood Cells (RBCs or Erythrocytes)

Red blood cells are responsible for the transportation of both oxygen and
carbon dioxide in and out of the tissues of the body. Hemoglobin, which is
a substance that carries oxygen and gives blood its red color, is found
within red blood cells.

The average life span of red blood cells is 120 days. When red blood cells
are released into circulation by bone marrow, they are in an immature form
called reticulocytes. This immature form generally takes one day to mature
into red blood cells. The spleen functions by removing old red blood cells
from circulation.

The volume of reticulocytes that is released into circulation is generally

equal to the volume of old red blood cells that has been removed. When
there is a depletion of red blood cells, there is an increase in the production
of reticulocytes by the bone marrow. This maintains the normal red blood
cell count.

2. White Blood Cells

White blood cells, also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are involved in the
defense and immune systems of the body. There are five types of white
blood cells:

Granulocytes
Granulocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils – which are
polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Each type of cell has different
characteristics and is activated by different stimuli.

Neutrophils make up 50 to 70 percent of white blood cells that are in

circulation. These are phagocytic cells that ingest and digest materials at
infection sites. They pass through capillary walls to arrive at injury sites
(diapedesis).

Eosinophils make up 0.3 to 7 percent of white blood cells in circulation.

Like neutrophils, they also leave the bloodstream via diapedesis. They are
released as a response to allergic reactions, and function by ingesting
antigen-antibody complexes in loose connective tissue.
Basophils generally make up less than two percent of white blood cells in
circulation. They have very little to no ability to ingest foreign or harmful
materials (phagocytic ability). They secrete histamine that allows fluids to
easily pass from the capillaries into the tissues of the body.

Agranulocytes
Agranulocytes, such as monocytes and lymphocytes, have nuclei without
lobes and do not have specific cytoplasmic granules.

Monocytes are the largest white blood cells that make up 1 to 9 percent of
white blood cells in circulation. They enter body tissues via diapedesis and
mature into tissue macrophages outside of the bloodstream. Macrophages
are able to travel through the body in response to inflammation, and they
are part of the reticuloendothelial system that provides the body with
defense against infection and the disposal of cell breakdown material.
Macrophages are contained in structures such as the liver, lymph nodes, and
spleen to provide defense against the invasion of organisms – these are
structures that filter significant amounts of body fluid. They are phagocytes
that ingest depleted neutrophils (cellular debris), microorganisms, and
necrotic tissue (dead tissue). A key function of macrophages is to stimulate
the healing of wounds.

Lymphocytes are the smallest white blood cells that make up 20 to 43

percent of white blood cells in circulation. They arise from stem cells
within bone marrow. The three types of lymphocytes are:
T lymphocytes: these attack an infected cell directly.
B lymphocytes: these function in the production of antibodies
against antigens.
Natural killer cells: these provide surveillance for the immune
system and resistance to infection.
Comparing Granulocytes and Agranulocytes
Granulocytes, including neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils are the first
to step up to defend against invading organisms. Following this,
agranulocytes, including monocytes and lymphocytes, generally move
around freely on ‘surveillance’ when there is inflammation. They will
infiltrate further into the structures with large amounts of fluid to provide
defense against invading organisms.

3. Platelets
Platelets are colorless, small disks that are cytoplasmic fragments, which
arise from megakaryocytes. These are cells in the bone marrow. They have
a life span of about ten days and have three main functions:
Stimulating the contraction of blood vessels that have been
damaged. This minimizes the loss of blood.
The formation of hemostatic plugs within blood cells that have
been injured.
Providing the materials that speed up the coagulation of blood.

Blood Clotting (Hemostasis)

Hemostasis or blood clotting is a process in which platelets, plasmas, and
coagulation factors cooperate to control bleeding. When there is a rupture of
a blood vessel, there is a reduction in the caliber of blood vessels (local
vasoconstriction) at the site of the injury, along with a clumping of platelets.
This provides the initial prevention of hemorrhage. The enzyme
thromboplastin is then released by the damaged cells and this activates the
coagulation system’s extrinsic pathway.

For a stable clot to form, a complex clotting mechanism is required, this is

called the intrinsic pathway. A protein (factor XII) activates the clotting
mechanism. It arises from plasma and tissue and it is one of the 12
substances needed for coagulation. The final stage of the clotting
mechanism is a fibrin clot – this is a insoluble protein that is found at the
location of the injury.

Both platelets and plasma provide materials that work alongside

coagulation factors. These serve as precursor compounds in the coagulation
(clotting) of the blood.

12 Coagulation Factors
The coagulation factors work in a ‘chain-reaction’ process whereby one
factor activates the next factor. They are ordered in roman numerals as
follows:

Factor I – Fibrinogen: this is a glycoprotein that is

synthesized in the liver and converted into fibrin during the
coagulation cascade.
Factor II - Prothrombin: this is a protein that is produced in
the liver and during coagulation it is converted to thrombin.
Factor III – Thromboplastin (Tissue Factor): this is needed
to activate the extrinsic pathway and it is released from tissue
that has been damaged.
Factor IV – Calcium Ions: these are necessary throughout the
whole clotting process.
Factor V – Proaccelerin (Labile factor): this is a protein that
is produced in the liver. It functions throughout the common
pathway phase of the clotting system.
Factor VII – Proconvertin (Stable Factor): this is a protein
that is produced in the liver. It is activated by factor III within
the extrinsic system.
Factor VIII - Antihemophilic Factor: this is a protein that is
produced in the liver and is needed during the intrinsic stage of
the clotting system.
 Factor IX – Plasma Thromboplastin: this is a protein
produced in the liver. It is needed during the intrinsic stage of
the coagulation system.
Factor X – Stuart Factor: this is a protein produced in the
liver and it is needed in the coagulation system’s common
pathway.
Factor XI – Plasma Thromboplastin Antecedent: this is a
protein that is produced in the liver and is needed during the
intrinsic stage of the coagulation system.
Factor XII – Hageman Factor: this is needed in the intrinsic
pathway.
Factor XIII – Fibrin Stabilizing: this is a protein that is
needed to provide stabilization for the fibrin strands within the
common pathway phase of the clotting system.

There are three interconnected processes that happen when a blood vessel is
injured.

Constriction and Aggregation

Following an injury, the vessels that are damaged will immediately
contract. This is called constriction, which reduces blood flow. Along with
this, collagen of the impacted cells stimulates the platelets and begins to
cluster together. This is called aggregation, which seals the injury site
temporarily.

Clotting Pathways
The change of blood from a liquid to a solid during the coagulation process
is instigated via two separate pathways:
Intrinsic Pathway: this is stimulated when plasma makes
contact with the surfaces of the affected vessels.
Extrinsic Pathway: this is stimulated when tissue factor makes
contact with one of the coagulation factors.
Blood Groups
Antigens or glycoproteins on the surface of the red blood cells determine
blood groups. The most significant blood antigens are A, B, and Rh.

ABO Groups:
The most important system for the classification of blood is the testing for
the presence of A and B antigens on red blood cells.

Type A Blood: has A antigen on its surface.

Type B Blood: has B antigen.
Type AB Blood: has A and B antigens.
Type O Blood: does not have A or B antigens.

Antibodies in plasma interact with A and B antigens. This results in the cells
combining into a mass – to put it differently, the cells agglutinate. Plasma
is unable to have antibodies to its own cell antigen, therefore blood that is
type A has A antigen and does not have A antibodies, however it does have
B antibodies.

Crossmatching
Accurate blood crossmatching is essential, particularly for blood
transfusions. When blood is being transferred from a donor to a recipient, it
must be compatible. Here are the blood groups that are compatible:
Type A Blood: is compatible with type A or O blood.
Type B Blood: is compatible with type B or O blood.
Type AB Blood: is compatible with type A, B, AB, and O
blood.
Type O Blood: is only compatible with type O blood.

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Section 11: The Lymphatic System and Immunity

The immune system of the body serves the function of providing defense
against the attack of harmful organisms and chemical toxins. Both the
organs and tissues of the immune system are named lymphoid. This is
because they are all involved with the development and distribution of
lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell. There are three main
components of the immune system:
The central lymphoid organs and tissue.
The peripheral lymphoid organs and tissue.
The accessory lymphoid organs and tissue.

The immune system and the blood are closely related. Their cells both
originate in the bone marrow, and the immune system utilizes the
bloodstream to send cells to an invasion site.

The Organs and Tissues of the Immune System

The immune system is made up of organs and tissues where the
lymphocytes are found, along with cells that circulate in the bloodstream.
The organs and tissues are central, peripheral, or accessory.
The Central Lymphoid Organs and Tissues

B cells and T cells are the two main types of lymphocytes – both the bone
marrow and thymus play a role in the development of these cells.

Bone Marrow
Within the bone marrow are stem cells, which can mature into a number of
different types of cells. These cells are referred to as multipotential, which
means they are able to take a variety of forms. Hematopoiesis is the process
in which the immune system cells and blood cells develop from stem cells.
Following their differentiation from other stem cells, a number of the cells
that will become immune system cells act as sources for lymphocytes.
Other cells of this group will progress into cells that ingest microorganisms
called phagocytes. The cells that develop into lymphocytes become more
differentiated by developing into B cells that develop in the bone marrow,
or T Cells that develop in the thymus.

B cells and T cells are spread throughout the lymphoid organs, particularly
in the lymph nodes and the spleen. The B and T lymphocytes have
specialized receptors, which respond to certain shapes of antigen
molecules. The receptor in B cells is immunoglobulin, also named an
antibody. These attack invading pathogens and instruct other cells to attack
on their behalf.

The Thymus

In babies and infants, the thymus is a mass of lymphoid tissue that is

positioned over the heart’s base in the mediastinum. Following birth, the
thymus assists in the formation of T cells. However, after this, the thymus
does not play any role in providing immunity for the body. It develops up
until the age of puberty and then starts to degenerate until there is just a
small residual left.

A process called ‘T-cell education’ occurs in the thymus. The cells are
‘taught’ to identify self cells, which are cells from the same body, and to
differentiate these from nonself cells. There are a number of T cells and
each serve a specific function:
Memory T cells
T4 cells, or helper cells.
T8 cells, or regulatory cells.
 Cytotoxic T cells, or natural killer cells.

The Peripheral Lymphoid Organs and Tissues

The lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, and spleen make up the peripheral
structures of the immune system.

Lymph Nodes
The lymph nodes are oval-shaped formations that are found in a network of
lymph channels. The lymph nodes are most prevalent in the neck, head,
axillae, pelvis, abdomen, and groin. They assist in the removal and
destroying of antigens, which move around in the blood and lymph. A
fibrous capsule encloses each lymph node, and connective tissue extends
from this into the node, dividing it into the following three sections:
The Superficial Cortex: this contains follicles that are made
up of mostly B cells.
The Deep Cortex and Interfollicular: this consists of
predominantly T cells.
The Medulla: this consists of a number of plasma cells, which
secrete immunoglobulins.

Lymphatic Vessels
The lymphatic vessels are a system of thin-walled drainage channels that
connect lymphatic tissues. The afferent lymphatic vessels serve the
function of carrying lymph fluid into lymph nodes. The lymph gradually
travels though the node and is collected by the efferent lymphatic vessels.

Spleen
The spleen is an oval, dark red structure, which is the largest lymphatic
organ. It is positioned below the diaphragm in the upper left portion of
abdomen. Connective tissue, which comes from the fibrous capsule around
the spleen, spans into the interior of the spleen. The interior of the spleen is
called the splenic pulp, which contains white and red pulp. White pulp is
made up of lymphocytes that surround branches of the splenic artery. Red
pulp is made up of a system of blood-filled sinusoids, which are reinforced
by mononuclear phagocytes and reticular fibers, as well as lymphocytes,
monocytes, and plasma cells.

Functions of the Spleen:

Breaking down and engulfing depleted red blood cells with
phagocytes, which causes the release of hemoglobin.
Filtering and removing bacteria, along with other foreign
substances that enter the bloodstream.
Interacting with lymphocytes to produce an immune system
response.
Storing blood and 20 – 30% platelets.

The Accessory Lymphoid Organs and Tissues

The accessory lymphoid organs and tissues are made up of the tonsils,
adenoids, appendix, and Peyer’s patches. They remove foreign substances
in a similar way to that of the lymph nodes. These lymphoid organs and
tissues are found in areas where microbial prevalence is more likely. Such
areas are the tonsils and adenoids (nasopharynx), and the appendix and
Peyer’s patches in the abdomen.

The Immune System Function

The body’s ability to defend against invading organisms and toxins is

referred to as immunity. The primary purpose of this defense is to prevent
damage to the tissues and organs, by identifying and eliminating antigens
(bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites).

There are three main approaches the immune system takes to perform its
functions effectively: protective surface phenomena, general host
defenses, and specific immune responses.

Protective Surface Phenomena

The entry of harmful organisms is prevented by physical, mechanical, and
chemical barriers. The first line of defense is provided by mucous
membranes and intact and healing skin. Low pH and skin desquamation
further prevent bacterial build up. Seromucous surfaces are defended with
antibacterial substances such as the enzyme lysozyme. This is found in
saliva, tears, and nasal secretions.

Within the respiratory system, nasal hairs and turbulent airflow filter out
foreign substances. Immunoglobulin within nasal secretion deters the
adherence of microbes, and the mucous layer provides further protection.

Within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, bacteria are removed by saliva,

peristalsis, swallowing, and defecation. On top of this, the gastric secretions
that are low pH are bactericidal, meaning they kill bacteria. This makes the
stomach essentially free from all living bacteria. The rest of the GI system
is protected by colonization resistance, whereby bacteria that is already
present stops other microorganisms from settling.

Within the urinary system, low urine pH, urine flow, and immunoglobulin
work in unison to prevent the colonization of bacteria. In men, prostatic
fluid also serves the function of killing bacteria.
General Host Defenses
In order to recognize and remove invading antigens, the immune system
produces nonspecific cellular responses when an antigen enters the skin or
mucous membrane. The inflammatory response is the first nonspecific
response for an antigen. This process includes vascular and cellular
changes, which involves the release of chemicals such as heparin, kinin,
and histamine. These changes get rid of microorganisms, dead tissue, and
toxins.

An example of the inflammatory response is illustrated below:

Specific Immune Responses

All foreign substances that enter the body give rise to the same general host
defenses. However, some microorganisms or molecules in particular can
stimulate specific immune responses which can include specialized immune
cells. The specific responses are classed as either humoral immunity or cell-
mediated immunity, and they are produced by B cells and T cells.

Humoral Immunity
In the humoral immunity response, an antigen causes B cells to split up and
change into plasma cells. The plasma cells secrete antigen-specific
immunoglobulins into the bloodstream. There are five types of
immunoglobulins:
IgA, gM, and IgG: these provide protection against viral and
bacteria attacks.
IgD: this serves as a B cell antigen receptor.
IgE: this produces an allergic response.

Immunoglobulins have a Y-shaped molecular structure. The top of the fork

of the Y attaches to a particular antigen, and the lower stem of the Y allows
immunoglobulin to combine with other structures within the immune
system. Immunoglobulins work in a number of ways, depending upon the
antigen:
Immunoglobulins called antitoxins link with toxins that
bacteria produce, thereby disabling certain bacteria.
They are able to coat or opsonize bacteria, thereby making
them available for removal by phagocytosis.
They can link to antigens, which causes complement enzymes
to be produced and circulated by the immune system.

The Sequence of Response

Following an exposure to an antigen, there is a time lag that takes place

during which little to no antibody is detected. Throughout this period, the B
cell identifies the antigen, along with the sequence of division and
differentiation. Following this, the formation of antibodies begins.

The First Response: the primary antibody response takes place 4 – 10

days after the exposure of the antigen. The levels of immunoglobulin rise
and then rapidly dissipate. There is the formation of IgM antibodies.

The Second Response: a repeated exposure to the antigen produces a

secondary antibody response. Memory B cells create antibodies, mostly
IgG, that achieve their peak levels in 1 – 2 days. These levels remain at this
level for a number of months and then gradually fall.

Antigen-Antibody Complexes: an antigen-antibody complex forms after

the antibody reacts to the antigen, and this has a number of functions.
Firstly, the antigen is processed by a macrophage and is presented to
antigen-specific B cells. The antibody then stimulates the complement
system, which destroys the antigen via enzymatic cascade.
Complement System: this is activated by antigen-antibody reactions or a
tissue injury. It joins humoral and cell-mediated immunity, along with
attracting phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages to the site of the antigen.
The complement system is made up of around 25 enzymes that supplement
the work of antibodies by helping with destroying bacteria cells or aiding
phagocytosis.

Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis is a defense mechanism conducted by macrophages and
neutrophils, which removes antigens and microorganisms that invade the
skin. Here is the step-by-step process of how macrophages achieve
phagocytosis:

1. Chemotaxis: The chemotactic factors attract macrophages

to the site of the antigen.
2. Opsonization: Immunoglobulin G (the antibody) or
complement fragment coats the microorganism, which
enhances macrophage attaching to the antigen. This is now
called an opsinogen.
3. Ingestion: the membrane of the macrophage is extended
around the opsonized microorganism, which engulfs it
within a phagosome (vacuole).
4. Digestion: the phagosome joins with the lysosomes as it
moves away from the cell edge. This forms a
phagolysosome (a cytoplasmic body), within which the
destruction of antigen occurs.
5. Release: Following digestion, the digestive debris is
expelled, which includes lysosomes, complement
components, prostaglandins, and interferon.
The Complement Cascade
A ripple motion is set into effect after a complement substance is being
triggered as a result of an antibody being joined with an antigen. The
activation of each component results in the acting on the next component in
the sequence. This series of controlled steps is called the complement
cascade. The cascade creates the membrane attack complex, in which fluid
and molecules flow in and out. Following this, the target cell expands and
bursts. The complement cascade also creates the inflammatory response, the
attraction of neutrophils, and the coating of target cells.

Cell-Mediated Immunity
Cell-mediated immunity provides protection for the body against, bacterial,
viral, and fungal infections. It does this by disabling the antigen and by
giving resistance against both transplanted cells and tumor cells. During this
response, the antigen is processed by a macrophage and then given to T
cells. Some of the T cells kill the antigen, and others produce lymphokines
that stimulate macrophages that kill the antigen.

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 Section 12: The Respiratory System

The respiratory system is responsible for exchanging oxygen and carbon

dioxide in the lungs and body tissues. Along with this, it assists in the
regulation of the acid-base balance in the body. The respiratory system is
made up of a respiratory zone and a conducting zone.

Respiratory Zone: Made up of the bronchioles, alveoli, alveolar ducts – it

performs the exchange of gas.
Conducting Zone: Made up of the continuous passageway (nose, pharynx,
trachea, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles). This
transports air into and out of the lungs.

The respiratory system is made up of the upper respiratory tract, the lower
respiratory tract, and the thoracic cavity.

The Upper Respiratory Tract

The upper respiratory tract is made up of the nostrils and nasal passages,
mouth, oropharynx, nasopharynx, laryngopharynx, and larynx. They
function by filtering, warming, and humidifying air that is inspired. Along
with this, they detect both taste and smell.

Nasal Passages and Nostrils

Air comes into the body through the nostrils, and during this the vibrissae
(small hairs) function by filtering out dust and foreign material. Following
this, the air then enters into the two nasal passages that are separated by the
septum. The anterior walls of the nasal passages are formed by cartilage,
and the posterior walls are formed by conchae/turbinates.

Air is warmed and humidified by the conchae prior to entering the

nasopharynx. A layer of mucus catches foreign particles, which are carried
to the pharynx by the cilia. These foreign particles will then be swallowed.
The Sinuses and Nasopharynx
There are four paranasal sinuses that are positioned in the frontal, maxillary,
and sphenoid bones. Air travels from the nasal cavity and enters into the
nasopharynx via the choanae. The choanae are constantly open. The
nasopharynx is positioned above the throat and behind the nose.

Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx, Larynx

The posterior wall of the mouth is called the oropharynx, which links the
nasopharynx and the laryngopharynx. The laryngopharynx reaches to the
larynx and the esophagus.

The vocal cords are located in the larynx, and it links the pharynx with the
trachea. The walls of the larynx are formed by muscles and cartilage.

The Lower Respiratory Tract

The lower respiratory tract is made up of the trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
Lining the lower tract is a mucous membrane, which has hairlike cilia that
continuously clean the tract and transport foreign matter to be swallowed.

Trachea and Bronchi

The trachea spans from the cricoid cartilage to the carina and it is protected
by cartilage rings.

The bronchi start at the carina. The right bronchus provides air to the right
lung, and the left bronchus provides air to the left lung. The secondary
bronchi enter the lungs and the pleural cavities and the hilum, which is a slit
of the lung’s surface.

Each lobar bronchus moves into a lobe in each of the lungs. Each of the
lobar bronchi divides into a tertiary bronchi. These are segmental bronchi
that carry on to branch out into smaller bronchi, and eventually branch into
bronchioles. When the bronchi are large, they are made up of cartilage,
epithelium, and smooth muscle. As they get smaller they lose the
cartilage/smooth muscle and are solely made up of epithelial cells.
Respiratory Bronchioles
The acinus and terminal bronchioles are in each bronchiole. The acinus is
the main gas exchange respiratory unit, and the terminal bronchioles branch
into smaller respiratory bronchioles within the acinus. The respiratory
bronchioles connect directly in the alveoli.

The respiratory unit is made up of the respiratory bronchiole, alveolar sac,

alveolar ducts, and alveoli. Within the alveoli, oxygen that is inhaled is
diffused into the blood, and carbon dioxide is infused into the air from the
blood. This is called gas exchange.

The bronchioles turn into alveolar ducts, which then become alveolar sacs.
The walls of the alveolar are comprised of two types of cells:
Type I Cells: this is where the gas exchange takes place. They
are thin and flat cells.
 Type II Cells: these are cells that secrete a substance called
surfactant. This aids the process of gas exchange by lowering
the tension on the surface.

The Lungs

The lungs are cone-shaped and are positioned in the right and left pleural
cavities. They wrap around the heart and are secured by root and pulmonary
ligaments. The right lung is larger than the left – it contains three lobes and
is responsible for 55 percent of the gas exchange. The left lung is made up
of two lobes. The concave bases of both lungs sit on top of the diaphragm.

The Pleura and the Pleural Cavities

The pleura is the membrane that entirely surrounds the lung, and it is made
up of a parietal layer and a visceral layer.
Visceral Pleura: this wraps around the whole surface of the
lung and the areas in between the lobes.
 Parietal Pleura: this provides lining for the chest wall’s inner
surface and the diaphragm’s upper surface.

The pleural cavity is the small area in between the visceral and parietal
layers, and it contains a thin layer of serous fluid. The serous fluid serves
two main functions:
Lubrication of the pleural surfaces. As the lungs expand and
contract, this lubrication allows them to slide smoothly against
each other.
It produces a connection between the layers, causing the lungs
to move along with the chest wall whilst breathing.

The Thoracic Cavity

The thoracic cavity is the area that is surrounded by the following:

Diaphragm
Scalene muscles
Fasciae of the neck
Ribs
Intercostal muscles
Vertebrae
Ligaments
Sternum

The Mediastinum
The mediastinum is the space between the lungs, which contains the:
Heart and pericardium
Thoracic aorta
Pulmonary artery and veins
Azygos veins and venae cavae
Lymph nodes, thymus, and vessels
 Vagus, cardiac, and phrenic nerves.
Trachea, esophagus, and thoracic duct

The Thoracic Cage

The thoracic cage is made up of bone and cartilage, and it provides support
and protection for the lungs. This allows the lungs to expand and contract.

The Posterior Thoracic Cage: The posterior thoracic cage is

made up by the vertebral column and the 12 pairs of ribs.
The Anterior Thoracic Cage: The anterior thoracic cage is
made up of the sternum, manubrium, ribs, and xiphoid process.
It provides protection for the mediastinal organs that are
located in between the pleural cavities.

The Ribs

Ribs 1 to 7: these ribs are attached directly to the sternum.

Ribs 8 to 10: these ribs are attached to the cartilage of the previous ribs.
The remaining pairs of ribs: these ribs float freely and are not attached to
the anterior thoracic cage.

Inspiration and Expiration

The breathing process includes two actions: an active process called

inspiration and a passive process called expiration. The actions are
dependent upon the respiratory muscle function, along with the differences
in pressure in the lungs.
The external intercostal muscles assist the diaphragm during respiration.
The diaphragm is the main muscle of respiration, and it lengthens the chest
cavity. The external intercostal muscles contract and this expands the
anteroposterior diameter. These actions produce a decrease in intrapleural
pressure, which causes inspiration to occur.

The expiration happens as a result of an intrapleural pressure increase, and

this occurs due to the diaphragm rising and the intercostal muscles relaxing.

The respiration muscles assist the chest cavity to expand and then contract.
Air movement is produced by the differences in pressure between the lungs
and atmospheric air. The diagram below illustrates the different muscles
that work to produce inspiration and expiration.

Forced Inspiration
The accessory muscles of respiration contribute when the body requires an
increased amount of oxygenation. An example of this is during exercise or a
disease state that requires forced inspiration and active expiration.

The following occurs during forced inspiration:

The upper chest’s pectoral muscles raise the chest, which
increases the anteroposterior diameter.
The sternum is raised by the sternocleidomastoid muscles in
the neck.
The upper chest is elevated and expanded by the scalene
muscles.
The thoracic cage is raised by the posterior trapezius muscles in
the upper back.

Active Expiration
Throughout active expiration, the chest’s transverse diameter is shortened
by the intercostal muscles. Along with this, the lower chest is pulled down
by the abdominal rectus muscles, which depresses the lower ribs.

Internal Respiration and External Respiration

Effective external respiration happens as a result of gas exchange in the
lungs. Internal respiration is gas exchange that takes place in the tissues by
diffusion. External respiration takes place through the following processes:
Ventilation: gas delivery in and out of the pulmonary airways.
Pulmonary perfusion: blood flowing through the right side of
the heart, then through the pulmonary circulation, and into the
heart’s left side.
Diffusion: the movement of gas via a semipermeable
membrane, from an area with higher concentration to an area
with lower concentration.

Ventilation
Ventilation is the delivery of oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out of the
pulmonary airways. The effectiveness of breathing can be compromised by
issues with the nervous, pulmonary, and musculoskeletal systems.

The Mechanics of Ventilation

Breathing is a result of the differences in atmospheric pressures and
intrapulmonary pressures. Here is a summary of the mechanisms
throughout the process:

1. The intrapulmonary pressure is equal to the atmospheric

pressure before inspiration - at approx. 760 mm Hg.
Intrapleural pressure lies at approx. 756 mm Hg.
 2. Air is pulled into the lungs by the intrapulmonary atmospheric
pressure gradient, until both of the pressures equalize.
3. Throughout inspiration, there is a contraction of the diaphragm
and external intercostal muscles. This enlarges the thorax both
vertically and horizontally, which causes the intrapleural
pressure to decrease and the lungs to expand and fill the
thoracic cavity.
4. Throughout regular expiration, the diaphragm gradually relaxes
and the lungs and thorax return to their normal size and
position. Throughout forced expiration, the contraction of the
internal intercostal and abdominal muscles creates a reduction
in thoracic volume. The compression of the lungs and thorax
raises the intrapulmonary pressure to be greater than the
atmospheric pressure.

The Influence of the Nervous System

The process of involuntary breathing occurs due to stimulation that comes

from the respiratory center in the medulla and pons in the brain. Carbon
dioxide plays the main role in influencing breathing. The levels of carbon
dioxide in the blood are monitored by the central chemical receptors in the
medulla. When there is an increase in the level of carbon dioxide, there is
an increase in the rate and depth of breathing to remove the excess carbon
dioxide.

The level of oxygen in the blood is monitored by the peripheral chemical

receptors in the aorta and carotid arteries. When there is a decrease in the
level of oxygen, there is an increase in the respiratory rate and depth, which
elevates the levels of oxygen in the blood.

Pulmonary Influence
The distribution of airflow can be affected by a number of factors:
 The airflow pattern.
The functional reserve capacity’s volume and location.
The magnitude of intrapulmonary resistance.
Lung disease.

When the airflow is disrupted, the distribution of airflow will go down the
path that has the least resistance.

Airflow Patterns

There are different patterns of airflows that affect the amount of airway
resistance.

Laminar Flow

This is a linear pattern that happens at a low flow rate and gives a minimal
amount of resistance. This type of flow occurs mostly in the peripheral
airways of the bronchial tree.
Turbulent Flow

The turbulent flow pattern generates friction and elevates resistance. This
flow is found in the trachea and large central bronchi. The turbulent flow
may also occur in the smaller airways when they become constricted.

Transitional Flow

Transitional flow is a combined pattern, which occurs commonly in the

larger airways at low flow rates, particularly where the airways meet or
branch out.
Factors That Affect Airflow
Airflow can be affected by musculoskeletal and intrapulmonary factors that
affect breathing. An example of this is in the condition called emphysema,
which creates forced breathing. This activates the accessory muscles of
respiration that require a greater amount of oxygen to function. The result
of this is a decrease in ventilation efficiency and an increase in workload.

Respiratory muscle fatigue can also be caused by other alterations in

airflow. These include changes in compliance, in which there is an
interference with the expansion of the lungs or thorax, and changes in
resistance, in which there is interference with the airflow in the
tracheobronchial tree. Both of these alterations can cause a reduction in
tidal volume and alveolar ventilation.

Pulmonary Perfusion
Blood flow from the right side of the heart into the left side of the heart is
known as pulmonary perfusion. The perfusion assists the external
respiration. Alveolar gas exchange is made possible by normal pulmonary
blood flow, however there are factors that can interfere with the
transportation of gas to the alveoli. Examples of these factors are: a low
cardiac output (less than 5 L/minute) and insufficient hemoglobin.

Ventilation-Perfusion Match
The transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide can be positively affected
by oxygen. Gravity results in a greater amount of unoxygenated blood
travelling to the lower and middle lobes of the lung than to the upper lobes
of the lung. This provides the explanation for why there are differences in
ventilation and perfusion in different parts of the lungs. The areas in which
perfusion and ventilation are alike are said to have ventilation-perfusion
match. These areas have the most efficient gas exchange.
Diffusion
In the process of diffusion, both oxygen and carbon dioxide move between
the alveoli and capillaries. This entails movement from an area that has a
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Oxygen moves
through the alveolar and capillary membranes, and then dissolves in the
plasmas, finally passing the red blood cell membrane. The movement of
carbon dioxide is exactly the opposite.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide generally move through these layers easily.
Oxygen travels into the bloodstream from the alveoli and it is taken up by
hemoglobin in the red blood cells. The oxygen in the bloodstream displaces
carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide from the red blood cells then diffuses from
the red blood cells, ending up in the alveoli.

The majority of oxygen that binds with hemoglobin forms oxyhemoglobin,

but a small amount is dissolved in the plasma. The amount of oxygen that is
dissolved in the plasma is measured using the partial pressure of oxygen in
arterial blood (PaO2).

Gas Exchange

The exchange of gas takes place very quickly in the millions of thin-
membrane alveoli located in the respiratory units. Within the air sacs, the
oxygen that is inhaled is diffused into the blood, and carbon dioxide is
diffused out of the blood and exhaled into the air. The blood then travels
around the body, circulating to deliver oxygen and pick up carbon dioxide.
The final stage is the blood returning to the lungs to be re-oxygenated.
OceanofPDF.com
 Section 13: The Gastrointestinal System

The gastrointestinal (GI) system is made up of two main components: the

GI tract (alimentary canal) and the accessory GI organs.

The GI tract has two primary functions:

Digestion: this is the process of breaking down food into
simple chemicals that can be moved throughout the body when
they are absorbed into the bloodstream.
Elimination: this is the excretion of waste products through
stool.

Alimentary Canal
The alimentary canal starts in the mouth and extends to the anus. It is a
muscular tube that is hollow. Within the alimentary canal are the pharynx,
esophagus, small intestine, stomach, and large intestine.

The complete GI system is made up of the alimentary canal, along with the
accessory organs. The accessory organs are the liver, biliary duct system,
and the pancreas.
The Mouth
The mouth, also called the oral cavity or buccal cavity, is surrounded by the
lips, roof of the mouth (palate), cheeks, tongue, and teeth. The mouth is
connected with the three main pairs of salivary glands (submandibular,
parotid, and sublingual) by ducts. The salivary glands produce saliva that
moistens food whilst chewing, and the mouth stimulates the breakdown of
food.

Pharynx
The pharynx is a cavity that spans from the base of the skull to the
esophagus. By taking food and pushing it toward the esophagus, the
pharynx assists in the swallowing process. When food arrives in the
pharynx, there is a flap of connective tissue that is called the epiglottis that
prevents aspiration by closing over the trachea.
Esophagus
The esophagus, a muscular tube, spans from the pharynx and through the
mediastinum into the stomach. The passage of food from the pharynx into
the esophagus is triggered by swallowing. In order for food to enter the
esophagus, the cricopharyngeal sphincter must be relaxed. Liquids and
solids are propelled into the esophagus and stomach by peristalsis.

Stomach
The stomach is a structure in the upper left portion of the abdominal cavity,
which is just beneath the abdominal cavity. It has a pouch-like collapsible
structure, and its upper border is attached to lower section of the esophagus.
The greater curvature is the stomach’s lateral surface, and the lesser
curvature is the stomach’s medial surface. The size of the stomach can
change as a result of distention.

The stomach is made up of four main areas:

The Cardia: this is positioned in the area where the stomach
and esophagus meet.
The Fundus: this is an enlarged area to the left and above the
stomach’s esophageal opening.
The Body: this is the middle area of the stomach.
The Pylorus: this is the lower area of the stomach, which is
positioned close to where the stomach and the duodenum meet.

The stomach serves a number of functions:

The area where food is stored temporarily.
The area where digestion begins.
The breakdown of food into chyme, a semifluid substance.
The moving of gastric contents to the small intestine.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is a tube that has a length of approx. 6 meters (20
inches). It has three main sections/divisions:
The Duodenum: the division that is shortest.
The Jejunum: the middle portion.
The Ileum: the division that is the longest.

The intestinal walls are equipped with factors that increase the absorptive
surface area:
Plicae Circulares: these are circular folds of the intestinal
mucosa/mucous membrane lining.
Villi: these are finger-like projections located on the mucosa.
Microvilli: these are micro cytoplasmic projects on the
epithelial cells.

There are another three structures in the small intestine:

The Intestinal Crypts: these are glands located in grooves that
separate the villi.
The Peyer’s Patches: these are gatherings of lymphatic tissue
located within the submucosa.
The Brunner’s Glands: these secrete mucus.

The Functions of the Small Intestine

To complete the digestion of food.
To absorb molecules of food through its wall into the
circulatory system and to deliver the food molecules to the cells
of the body.
To secrete hormones that assist in the moderation of bile
secretion, pancreatic fluid, and intestinal fluid.

Large Intestine
The large intestine spans from the valve near the ileum of the small
intestine (ileocecal valve) to the anus. It is made up of distinct segments:
The Cecum: a saclike structure, the cecum makes up the first
few inches of the intestine.
The Ascending Colon: this elevates on the right posterior
abdominal wall. At the hepatic flexure it turns under the liver.
The Transverse Colon: this is positioned over the small
intestine, and it passes across the abdomen horizontally,
underneath the liver, stomach, and spleen. It turns downward at
the colic flexure.
The Descending Colon: this begins near the spleen and it
spans down the left side of the abdomen and into the pelvic
cavity.
The Sigmoid Colon: this descends down through the pelvic
cavity and becomes the rectum.
The Rectum: this represents the final few inches of the
intestine and it ends at the anus. The anus is the large intestine’s
external opening for expulsion of waste products.

The large intestine serves the functions of mucus secretion, water

absorption, and the elimination of digestive wastes.

The Wall Structures of the GI

A number of layers make up the wall of the GI tract: the mucosa,

submucosa, visceral peritoneum, and the tunica muscularis.

Mucosa
The mucosa is made up of epithelial and surface cells, along with loose
connective tissue. Villi secrete gastric and protective juices, and absorb
nutrients.

Submucosa
The submucosa surrounds the mucosa and is made up of loose connective
tissue, lymphatic and blood vessels, and the submucosal plexus (a nerve
network).

Tunica Muscularis

The tunica muscularis surrounds the submucosa and is made up of skeletal

muscle in the pharynx, mouth and upper esophagus. In other areas of the
tract, the tunica muscularis consists of muscle fibers (longitudinal and
circular smooth).

The lumen length is shortened by fibers and the lumen diameter is

decreased by circular fibers. At some points in the tract, sphincters are
formed by the circular fibers that thicken.

The GI tract also has an outer covering that is called the visceral
peritoneum, which covers the majority of the abdominal organs. It is
positioned next to the parietal peritoneum, a layer that lines the abdominal
cavity. In the esophagus and rectum, the visceral peritoneum is called the
tunica adventitia. In other areas in the GI tract, it is called the tunica
serosa. Around the blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves and the visceral
peritoneum become a double-layered fold. To prevent twisting, it attaches to
the jejunum and ileum with the abdominal wall.

Parasympathetic Stimulation
Gut and sphincter tone is increased by parasympathetic stimulation of the
vagus nerve and sacral spinal nerves. Along with this, parasympathetic
stimulation increases the strength, frequency, and velocity of contractions in
smooth muscle. It also increases secretory and motor activities.

Sympathetic Stimulation
Sympathetic stimulation causes a reduction in peristalsis and constrains GI
activity.

Accessory Digestive Organs

The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are all accessory digestive organs that
provide hormones, enzymes, and bile – these are all essential for digestion.

The Liver
The liver is the largest gland in the body that weighs around 3 lbs. It is
highly vascular and is surrounded by a fibrous capsule, located in the
abdomen’s upper right quadrant. The lesser omentum surrounds most of the
liver and it anchors it to the stomach’s lesser curvature. Passing through the
lesser omentum is the hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, common bile duct,
and the hepatic veins.

The liver is made up of four lobes:

The left lobe
The right lobe
The caudate lobe, which is behind the right lobe.
The quadrate lobe, which is behind the left lobe.

The Function of the Liver

The lobule is the functional unit of the liver. It is made up of a plate of
hepatic cells (hepatocytes), which circle around a central vein and spread
outwards. The liver’s capillary system is made up of sinusoids, which
separate the hepatocyte plates from each other. Lining the sinusoids are
reticuloendothelial macrophages (Kupffer cells), which remove bacteria
and toxins in the blood that have entered through the intestinal capillaries.

The sinusoids provide transport for oxygenated blood, carrying them from
the hepatic artery to the portal vein. Blood that is unoxygenated exits
through the central vein, and then flows to the inferior vena cava via the
hepatic veins.
Below is an illustration of the liver lobules:

The Ducts
The ducts are a transport system that move bile through the GI tract. Bile is
a liquid that has a green-like color – it is made up of water, cholesterol,
phospholipids, and bile salts. Common hepatic ducts are formed as a result
of bile ducts merging into the right and left hepatic ducts. The common
hepatic duct meets the cystic duct from the gallbladder, which forms the
common bile ducts, leading to the duodenum.

The Key Functions of the Liver

Assisting the metabolism of carbohydrates.
Detoxifying endogenous and exogenous toxins within plasma.
Synthesizing plasma proteins, vitamin A, and nonessential
amino acids.
Providing storage for vitamin K, vitamin D, vitamin B12, and
iron.
Removing ammonia from body fluids and converting it into
urea, which can be excreted through urine.
Regulating levels of blood glucose.
Secreting bile.

The Key Functions of Bile

Breaking down (emulsifying) fat.

Stimulating the intestinal absorption of cholesterol, fatty acids,
and other lipids.

About 80% of bile salts are recycled into bile by the liver. These are
combined with bile pigments and cholesterol, and this alkaline bile is
continuously secreted by the liver. The production of bile may be increased
as a result of stimulation from the vagus nerve, increased blood flow in the
liver, the presence of the hormone secretin, and fat in the intestine.

The Gallbladder
The gallbladder is an organ that is joined to the liver’s ventral surface by the
cystic duct, and it is covered with visceral peritoneum. Bile produced by the
liver is stored and concentrated by the gallbladder. The gallbladder also
releases bile into the common bile duct so it can be transported to the
duodenum.

GI Hormones
The GI structures secrete four hormones when stimulated, and each
hormone plays a different role in the process of digestion. Below is a
summary for each hormone:

Pancreas
The pancreas is an organ that has a fairly flat shape and it is located behind
the stomach. The head and the neck of the pancreas span into the curve of
the duodenum and the tail of the pancreas is positioned against the spleen.
The pancreas serves both exocrine and endocrine functions.

Exocrine Function: the exocrine function of the pancreas

includes scattered cells that secrete over 1,000 ml of digestive
 enzymes each day. Lobes of the clusters (acini) and lobules of
the cells that produce enzymes release secretions into the ducts
that merge into the pancreatic duct.
Endocrine Function: the endocrine function is served by the
islets of Langerhans. These are positioned between the acinar
cells.

An Illustration of the Biliary Tract

The combination of the gallbladder and the pancreas make up the biliary
tract:

Islet Cells
The two types of islet cells are alpha and beta. These two types of cells are
housed by over 1 million islets.
 Beta Cells: promote carbohydrate metabolism by secreting
insulin.
Alpha Cells: stimulate glycogenolysis in the liver by secreting
glucagon.

The release of both of these hormones are stimulated by blood glucose

levels, and they flow directly into the bloodstream.

Pancreatic Duct
The pancreatic duct spans the entire length of the pancreas and it joins the
bile duct from the gallbladder, prior to entering the duodenum. The rate and
volume of pancreatic secretion is controlled by the release of the hormones
secretin and cholecystokinin.

Digestion

The digestion process begins in the oral cavity, where chewing

(mastication), salivation (the start of digestion), and swallowing
(deglutition) happens. The hypopharyngeal sphincter and the upper
esophagus relax when a person swallows. This allows food to enter the
esophagus.

In the esophagus, peristalsis is activated by the glossopharyngeal nerve.

This transports food down into the stomach. As the food travels through the
esophagus, mucus is secreted by the glands in the esophageal mucosal layer.
This provides lubrication for the bolus, along with protection for the
mucosal membrane, which can result from food that has not been chewed
completely.

The Cephalic Phase of Digestion

The cephalic phase of digestion begins as the food bolus travels towards the
stomach. The stomach secretes hydrochloric acid and pepsin, which are
digestive juices.

The Gastric Phase of Digestion

The stomach wall stretches as food enters it through the cardiac sphincter.
This is the gastric phase of digestion, in which the stomach releases gastrin.

Gastrin:
Gastrin activates the motor functions of the stomach, along with the
secretion of gastric juice from the gastric glands. These digestive secretions
are very acidic and are made up of mostly pepsin, hydrochloric acid,
intrinsic factor, and proteolytic enzymes (proteases).

The Swallowing Process

Prior to peristalsis, the swallowing process must be initiated by the neutral
pattern. The process is summarized as follows:
Swallowing receptor areas are stimulated by food that is
pushed to the back of the mouth. The receptor areas surround
the pharyngeal opening.
Impulses are then transmitted to the brain by the receptor areas
via sensory areas of the trigeminal and glossopharyngeal
nerves.
The swallowing center of the brain then transmits motor
impulses to the esophagus via the trigeminal, glossopharyngeal,
vagus, and hypoglossal nerves. This triggers swallowing.

The Intestinal Phase of Digestion

Generally, a small amount of food absorption occurs in the stomach. Food
is churned into small particles and mixed with gastric juices. This forms a
substance called chyme. Following this, peristaltic waves transport the
chyme into the antrum. This backs up against the pyloric sphincter prior to
getting released into the duodenum. This stimulates the intestinal phase of
digestion.

The Mechanisms of Gastric Secretion

The body of the stomach is positioned between the lower
esophageal/cardiac sphincter and the pyloric sphincter. The fundus, body,
and antrum lie between these sphincters. To assist the stomach in carrying
out its tasks, these areas have a number of rich mucosal cells.

2 to 3 liters of gastric juice is secreted daily by the cardiac glands, gastric

glands, and the pyloric glands.
Thin mucus is secreted by the cardiac gland and the pyloric
gland.
Hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, mucus, and intrinsic factor are
secreted by the gastric gland.

Specialized cells provide a lining for the gastric gland, gastric pits, and for
the surface epithelium. Mucous cells located in the necks of the gastric
glands generate thin mucus. Mucous cells located in the epithelium’s
surface generate an alkaline mucus. Both of these substances provide
lubrication for food, along with protection for the stomach from corrosive
enzymes.

There are also other secretions that occur. Gastrin is produced by

argentaffin, which activates gastric secretion and motility. Pepsinogen is
produced by chief cells, breaking down proteins into polypeptides.
Hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor is secreted by large parietal cells.
Hydrochloric acid breaks down pepsinogen and prevents excess bacteria
growth. Intrinsic factor stimulates vitamin B12 absorption within the small
intestine.

The Emptying of the Stomach

The degree of stomach emptying is dependent on a number of factors,

which includes the release of gastrin, the generation of neural signals when
the wall of the stomach distends, and the enterogastric reflex. Throughout
this process, secretin and gastric-inhibiting peptide is released by the
duodenum. All of these function to reduce gastric motility.

The Role of the Small Intestine

Most of the digestion and absorption process is served by the small
intestine. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are broken down by intestinal
contractions and digestive secretions in the small intestine. This allows for
these nutrients (with water and electrolytes) to be absorbed into the
bloodstream, and then available for use by the body.

The Role of the Large Intestine

The food bolus starts its route through the large intestine where the cecum
and ileum meet with the ileocecal pouch. Following this, the food bolus
moves up the ascending colon and across the right abdominal cavity to the
lower border of the liver. It travels underneath the liver and stomach via the
transverse colon. It then travels down the left abdominal cavity to the iliac
fossa via the descending colon.

The large intestine does not produce any digestive enzymes or hormones. It
continues the process of absorption via the blood and lymph vessels in the
submucosa, where it absorbs remaining water in the colon, leaving 100 ml
unabsorbed.
The mucosa within the large intestine also generates alkaline secretions,
which lubricate the walls of the intestines as food is being pushed through.
This protects the mucosa from acidic bacterial action.

Following this, the food bolus moves through the sigmoid colon into the
abdominal cavity’s lower midline. It then moves into the rectum and
finalizes its journey at the anal canal. Through two sphincters, the anus
opens to the exterior.
The Internal Sphincter: this comprises thick and circular
smooth muscle that is under autonomic control.
The External Sphincter: this comprises skeletal muscle that
is under voluntary control.

Bacterial Action

A number of bacteria are found in the large intestine: Escherichia coli,

Clostridium perfringens, Lactobacillus bifidus, and Enterobacter
aerogenes. These collectively assist in synthesizing vitamin K, along with
breaking down cellulose into a carbohydrate that can be used by the body.
Bacteria also generate flatus, a gas that helps push stool toward the rectum.

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 Section 14: The Urinary System

The urinary system, also called the renal system, includes the following
structures: the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. The purpose of the
urinary system is to remove excess fluid, waste products, and other
substances from the body. Besides filtering substances out from the body
through producing and expelling urine, the urinary system is also
responsible for performing endocrine functions and balancing water
content, amongst other things.

Female urinary system:

Male urinary system:

OceanofPDF.com
The Kidneys

The kidneys are organs located on the dorsal side of the abdominal cavity,
and on the right and left side of the abdomen. They are responsible for
removing waste products from the blood in the form of urine, regulating the
chemical composition of blood, producing the hormone erythropoietin,
producing the enzyme renin, converting vitamin D into a more active
compound, as well as for maintaining the fluid, electrolyte and acid-base
balances.

Kidneys are highly vascular, which means that they contain a great number
of blood vessels. Blood supply to the kidneys is by way of the renal artery
which subdivides into several branches. Each kidney comprises three
regions: the renal cortex, the renal medulla, and the renal pelvis.

The Renal Cortex: The renal cortex is the outer layer of the
kidney which lies between the renal capsule and the renal
medulla. It contains blood-filtering mechanisms and is
protected by layers of fat and a fibrous capsule. Beneath the
renal cortex lies the renal medulla.
The Renal Medulla: The renal medulla is the innermost part
of the kidney which is split up into different sections called the
renal pyramids. Renal pyramids are cone-shaped tissues of the
kidney which empty into minor calyces. Two to three minor
calyces come together to form one major calyx. Renal
pyramids secrete urine. Within the urinary system, urine passes
through the calyces’ channel from the renal pyramids to the
renal pelvis.
The Renal Pelvis: The renal pelvis is the innermost layer of
the kidney. Urine is discharged into the renal pelvis before
being funneled into the ureter.
The adrenal glands sit on top of the kidneys. The adrenal glands affect the
urinary system by influencing blood pressure and by regulating the
retention of sodium and water by the kidneys.

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The Nephron

The nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney and the
site of urine formation. Nephrons perform two main functions: the secretion
and reabsorption of ions and the filtration of fluids, electrolytes, acids,
bases, and waste products into the tubular system. The process by which the
kidneys filter the blood is called glomerular filtration.

Each nephron consists of a glomerulus and a collecting tubule. The

glomerular filtrate passes through these tubules before emerging as urine.
The glomerulus (the tubular apparatus) is found inside the Bowman’s
capsule, which is a capsule-shaped membranous structure.

Each nephron is divided into three portion:

The proximal convoluted tubule is the nephron portion which
is nearest to the glomerular capsule.
The loop of Henle is the second portion.
The distal convoluted tubule is the third portion which is
farthest away from the glomerular capsule. The distal
convoluted tubule joins up with the far end of another nephron,
forming a larger collecting tubule.

The glomerulus (located inside the Bowman’s capsule), the proximal

convoluted tubules and the distal convoluted tubules are all situated in the
renal cortex. The loops of Henle are located in the renal medulla.

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The Ureters

The ureters are fibro-muscular ducts that connect the kidneys to the bladder.
Urine passes from the kidneys through the ureter and into the bladder.
Peristaltic waves (involuntary smooth muscle contractions) transport urine
along the ureters and into the urinary bladder.

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The Bladder

The bladder is a muscular organ located in the pelvis which stores urine.
The bottom of the bladder forms a trigone, a triangular region, which
contains three openings. Two of these openings connect the bladder to the
ureters and the third connects the bladder to the urethra.

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The Urethra

The urethra is the small duct by which urine passes from the bladder to the
outside of the body. The urethra connects the bladder to the urinary
meatus, that is, the external opening of the urethra. In females, the urethra
is located inside the anterior wall of the vagina. In males, the urethra passes
through the prostate gland from where it extends into the penis. The male
urethra is a passageway for both urine and semen.

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Three Processes of Urine Formation

Urine consists primarily of ammonium ions, bicarbonates, calcium,

chloride, creatinine, magnesium, phosphates, sodium, sulfates, uric acid,
urobilinogen, and water. Other substances may also enter urine, such as
leukocytes and RBCs.

Urine is formed through three steps: glomerular filtration, tubular

reabsorption, and tubular secretion.
1. Filtration: Glomerular filtration occurs as blood flows into
the glomerulus. Sodium and glucose are reabsorbed
through active transport from the proximal convoluted
tubules. Reabsorption of water is caused by osmosis.
2. Reabsorption: During tubular reabsorption, substances
from the glomerular filtrate move from the distal
convoluted tubules into the peritubular capillaries. Sodium,
glucose and potassium are reabsorbed through active
transport. Antidiuretic hormone stimulates the
reabsorption of water.
3. Secretion: During tubular secretion, substances move from
the peritubular capillaries into the tubular filtrate. The
peritubular capillaries secrete ammonia and hydrogen
which are then transported into the distal tubules by way of
active transport.

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Physiologic Mechanism of Urine Excretion

Nephrons remove waste products from the blood. The kidneys receive
blood which contains waste from the renal artery. After passing through
smaller blood vessels and the nephrons, the filtered blood is reabsorbed by
the peritubular capillaries. Peritubular capillaries are tiny blood vessels
located around the nephrons. The filtered blood then re-enters circulation
through the renal vein which then empties into the inferior vena cava.

The kidneys excrete waste products that the nephrons remove from the
blood. These waste products are combined with other waste fluids to form
urine. The urine passes through the ureters and into the urinary bladder
through a process called peristalsis. Peristalsis is the involuntary relaxation
and constriction of the muscles of the intestine and other canals.

The micturition reflex:

Once the bladder has filled with urine, parasympathetic nerves cause the
bladder to contract and the sphincter to relax. This relaxation in
combination with a voluntary stimulus (the intentional and learned process
of urination) allows urine to pass into the urethra for elimination from the
body.

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The Role of Hormones in the Urinary System

Hormones play a big role in the urinary system. The hormones affecting the
urinary system include the following: antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone,
erythropoietin, angiotensin I and angiotensin II.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): ADH helps regulate the level

of urine production by causing the kidneys to retain water. Low
levels of ADH decrease water reabsorption and can lead to
dilute urine, whereas high levels of ADH increases water
reabsorption as well as urine concentration.
Aldosterone: Aldosterone, which is secreted in the adrenal
cortex, facilitates tubular reabsorption. It does this by
regulating sodium retention and potassium secretion. When
serum potassium levels are rising for example, the adrenal
cortex will start to increase its production of aldosterone. This
facilitates sodium retention which in turn raises blood pressure.
Erythropoietin: When arterial oxygen tension is low, the
kidneys respond by secreting erythropoietin. Erythropoietin
travels to the marrow where it stimulates the production of
RBCs (also called erythrocytes). RBCs help increase the
blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity.
Angiotensin I and angiotensin II: These hormones are part of
the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system helps regulate blood pressure,
water and sodium levels in the body.
Low blood pressure and low sodium levels in the kidneys are
two main factors that cause the kidneys to secrete the enzyme
renin.
 Renin, which enters blood circulation, promotes the production
of angiotensin I which is then converted into angiotensin II as it
circulates through the lungs.
Angiotensin II is a powerful chemical which causes contraction
of the muscles that surround blood vessels.
This contraction results in the narrowing of the blood vessels
which in turn raises blood pressure.
Angiotensin II also stimulates the production of the hormone
aldosterone in the adrenal cortex.
Aldosterone helps regulate water and sodium balance in the
body by stimulating the absorption of sodium by the kidneys.
Increased water and sodium retention lowers sodium levels
which in turn lowers blood pressure.

Low blood pressure and low sodium levels stimulate the kidneys to secrete
renin, thus readjusting homeostasis.

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 Section 15: The Reproductive System

The reproductive system consists of the organs and glands in the body
responsible for reproduction. To begin with, this section will look at the
structure and function of the female reproductive system before moving on
to the male reproductive system.

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The Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system is located largely inside the pelvic cavity. It
consists of the vulva, vagina, cervix, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and the
ovaries. The vulva is the female external genitalia whereas the other
structures make up female internal genitalia.

The Vulva
The vulva consists of the vaginal opening, mons pubis, clitoris, labia
majora, labia minora, and adjacent glands.

Mons Pubis: The mons pubis is the rounded mass of fatty

connective tissue which covers the joint of the pubic bones.
Labia Majora: The labia majora are the two larger outer folds
of the vulva which consist of adipose and connective tissue.
Labia Minora: The labia minora are the two moist inner folds
of the vulva which are made up of mucosal tissue. The labia
minora contains sebaceous glands which secrete sebum – oily
matter which also acts as a bactericide. These glands are highly
responsive and swell in response to sexual stimulation.
Clitoris: The clitoris is a small organ which lies at the anterior
end of the vulva. The fold of skin surrounding the clitoris is
called prepuce.
Vestibule: The vulvar vestibule is the part of the vulva which
lies between the labia minora and the vaginal opening. In the
center of the vestibule is the vaginal orifice which may or may
not be covered by a tissue membrane called the hymen.
Bartholin’s glands: The Bartholin’s glands are found slightly
posterior and to the left and right of the vaginal opening. These
glands secrete mucus which serves as lubricant to the vagina.
Urethral meatus: The urethral meatus is the duct below the
clitoris through which urine exits the female body.
The Vagina
The vagina is the muscular tube which is located between the rectum and
the urethra. The vagina extends from the female external genitalia to the
cervix of the uterus. The wall of the vagina consists of three tissue layers:
epithelial tissue, loose connective tissue and muscle tissue. The vagina has
three main functions: to receive the penis during sexual intercourse, to
channel menstrual discharge from the uterus, and to serve as a birth canal
during childbirth.

The Cervix
The cervix is a narrow cylinder-shaped passage that connects the vagina
and the uterus. The lower cervical opening is called the external os and the
upper cervical opening is called the internal os.
The Uterus
The uterus is a muscular organ located between the bladder and the rectum.
The uterus contains three layers. The outer layer is a thin layer of epithelial
cell tissue called the serosa or perimetrium. The middle layer is a
muscular layer called the myometrium, which primarily consists of smooth
muscle cells. The inner lining of the uterus is composed of a mucous
membrane called endometrium.

The Ovaries
The ovaries, which are located on either side of the uterus, are the female
reproductive organ in which eggs (ova) are produced. The size, position,
and shape of these sex cell-producing organs vary with age.

The Fallopian tubes

The Fallopian tubes, which are the site of fertilization, are the tubes through
which ova travel from the ovaries to the uterus.
Mammary Glands
Mammary glands are milk-producing glands found inside female breasts. In
the male, mammary glands are also present but are underdeveloped. Each
breast consists of fibrous, adipose, and glandular tissue. A healthy female
breast has glandular tissue which is made up of 12 – 20 sections called
lobes. These lobes contain clustered acini, which are small saclike cavities
that secrete milk.

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Hormones and the Female Reproductive System

The female menstrual cycle is regulated by a complex interaction of

hormones which are secreted by the hypothalamus, ovaries, and pituitary
gland. The hormones involved in the menstrual cycle include estrogen,
progesterone, FSH and LH. In females, the reproductive cycle lasts
around 28 days and includes two distinct cycles: the ovarian cycle and the
uterine cycle.

The Ovarian Cycle

The ovarian cycle is responsible for producing the hormones which then go
on to control the uterine cycle.
Day 1 – 13: In response to low estrogen levels, FSH stimulates
the development of a follicle and LH. An increase in LH levels
promotes the maturation of an oocyte in one of the ovaries.
Once the follicle has reached a certain stage of development, it
starts secreting estrogen. Once the estrogen level has reached a
certain level, a negative feedback mechanism involving the
hypothalamus slows the secretion of LH and FSH.
Day 14: Once the follicle has fully developed, a spike in the
levels of LH and FSH occurs. This causes the follicle to
rupture, which releases the ovum and initiates ovulation.
During ovulation, which typically takes place on day 14, the
oocyte is released. After ovulation, the follicle from which the
oocyte was released becomes a corpus luteum. The corpus
luteum is a hormone-secreting structure which, unless
pregnancy occurs, degenerates after a few days. The corpus
luteum secretes progesterone.
Day 17: Once progesterone levels have reached a certain
threshold, usually around day 17, the hypothalamus stops the
secretion of LH. At this point, the corpus luteum begins to
degenerate.
 Day 26: Roughly on day 26, the corpus luteum has disappeared
and estrogen and progesterone levels are at their lowest.
Day 29: When the hypothalamus senses low estrogen levels, it
secretes GnRH (a gonadotropin-releasing hormone), which
stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete FSH which in
turn stimulates the development of another follicle. The
menstruation cycle starts over.

The Uterine Cycle

The function of the uterine cycle is to prepare the uterus for possible
fertilization.
Day 1 – 5 (Menstruation): The first five days of the uterine
cycle is the period of menstruation. During this period,
estrogen and progesterone levels are at their lowest. As the
levels of sex hormones drop, cells and tissues undergo autolysis
(self-destruction). As a result of this, the uterus wall breaks
down and blood vessels rupture. This causes bleeding during a
period. The menstrual flow passes through the cervix, and out
of the body through the vagina.
Day 6 – 14 (Proliferative Phase): The phase of the menstrual
cycle after menstruation is called the proliferative phase.
During this phase, estrogen production peaks. The developed
follicle secretes estrogen which stimulates the endometrium
(the lining of the uterus) to regenerate / rebuild new tissue.
Day 15 – 28 (Secretory Phase): The phase after ovulation is
called the secretory (luteal) phase. During this phase, the
corpus luteum secretes progesterone which further thickens the
endometrium and the uterus secretes a thick mucus. If
fertilization occurs, the thick endometrium and the mucus will
capture the fertilized egg and assist in its proper implantation in
the uterus. If fertilization doesn’t occur, the corpus luteum
degenerates and progesterone levels decline. This causes the
endometrium to (re-)shed its functional layer, and the cycle
starts again.
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The Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system consists of the organs and structures involved
in the production, transfer, and introduction of sperm into the female
reproductive system. It comprises the penis, scrotum, prostate gland, and
inguinal structures.

The Penis
The penis is the intromittent organ which comprises a penile shaft and a
glans penis (the tip).
The penile shaft consists of three columns of erectile tissue
which are held together by fibrous tissue. Two masses of
erectile tissue called corpora cavernosa form the bulk of the
penis. The third mass of erectile tissue which surrounds the
urethra is called corpus spongiosum.
The glans penis is the bulbous structure at the distal end of the
penile shaft. The glans penis is formed from the corpus
spongiosum and is highly sensitive to stimulation. The urethral
meatus opens through the glans penis, allowing ejaculation and
urination.
The Scrotum
The scrotum is the extra-abdominal pouch skin which contains the testicles.
It is located posterior to the penis and anterior to the anus. An internal
partitioning divides the scrotum into two chambers (sacs). Each sac
contains a testis, an epididymis and a spermatic cord.

The spermatic cord, a connective tissue sheath, consists of a bundle of

nerves, blood vessels, and lymph vessels which connect the testicles to the
abdominal cavity. The spermatic cord also contains the vas deferens, which
is the duct that transports sperm from the testicle to the urethra.

The Testes
The testes are the organs which produce male reproductive cells called
spermatozoa. The testes are covered by two layers of fibrous connective
tissue. The outer layer is called tunica vaginalis and the inner layer is
called tunica albuginea. Extensions of the tunica albuginea divide each
testis into numerous lobules, each of which contains one to four convoluted
tubes, called the tubuli seminiferi. The tubuli seminiferi, also called
seminiferous tubules, are the site of spermatogenesis – the production of
mature spermatozoa.

The Duct System

The duct system comprises the epididymis and the vas deferens. The
epididymis, located behind the testis, is a convoluted duct through which
sperm pass into the vas deferens. During ejaculation, contraction of the
smooth muscle in the epididymis occurs, which ejects spermatozoa into the
vas deferens. The epididymis is continuous with the vas deferens. The vas
deferens is the duct that transports sperm from the epididymis of each
testicle to the urethra.
Accessory Genital Ducts
Other internal organs of the male reproductive system, sometimes referred
to as accessory organs, produce most of the seminal fluids. They include the
seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and the bulbourethral glands. These
accessory organs secrete fluids that form semen.
Seminal Vesicles: The seminal vesicles are located on each
side of the male urinary bladder, at the juncture of the bladder
and the vas deferens. Seminal vesicles produce around 60% of
the fluid component of semen. The remaining 30% is produced
by the prostate gland.
Prostate Gland: The prostate gland, which lies at the base of
the bladder, is an organ which surrounds the urethra in males. It
secretes alkaline fluid called prostatic fluid that forms part of
semen and also helps control urination.
Bulbourethral Glands: Also called Cowper’s glands,
bulbourethral glands are located behind and to the side of the
urethra, near the bulb of the penis. Bulbourethral glands secrete
viscid fluid which also forms part of semen.

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Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm formation. Spermatogenesis begins

during puberty and typically continues throughout life. The quantity and
quality of the sperm however, varies with health and age. The process of
spermatogenesis is divided into four stages.

1. During the first stage, spermatogonia (germinal epithelial

cells) grow and develop into (primary) spermatocytes (sperm
cells). Both spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes contain
46 chromosomes – 44 autosomes and two sex chromosomes (X
and Y).
2. During the second stage, primary spermatocytes divide
(meiosis I), forming a secondary generation of
spermatocytes called secondary spermatocytes. Each
secondary spermatocyte contains 22 autosomes and one sex
chromosome (either X or Y).
3. During the third stage, each secondary spermatocyte
divides again (meiosis II), forming spermatids.
4. During the final stage, spermatids undergo a couple of
structural changes which transform them into spermatozoa
(sperm). Each spermatozoa consists of a head (which
contains the nucleus), a neck, midsection, and tail. The tail
contains ATP which provides the energy for the movement
and swimming of sperm – also called sperm motility.

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Hormones and the Male Reproductive System

Androgens are male sex hormones which are produced in the testes and the
adrenal glands. The main androgens include: testosterone, follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH).

Leydig cells, also called intestinal cells of Leydig, are located in the
testicles adjacent to the seminiferous tubules. Leydig cells are responsible
for producing testosterone. Testosterone, which is required for
spermatogenesis, promotes the development and maintenance of male sex
organs. Furthermore, testosterone is also responsible for secondary sex
characteristics, which include vocal cord thickness and growth of facial and
chest hair.
Two other hormones, LH and FSH, also play an important role in
testosterone production. LH stimulates testosterone production from the
Leydig cells. FSH stimulates testicular growth and also increases the
production of androgen-binding proteins which increase the concentration
of testosterone in the seminiferous tubules, thereby promoting sperm
growth.

LH and FSH are important sex hormones in both males and females. LH
and FSH trigger estrogen production in the ovaries and testosterone
production in the testes.

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 Section 16: Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base
Balance

The body is an enclosed system which is constantly exposed to a changing

external environment. These alterations in the external environment are
buffered by responses which help the body maintain its internal
environment, which is called homeostasis. Homeostasis it the tendency of
the body to seek and maintain a relatively stable equilibrium – a constant
optimal internal environment. Both homeostasis as well as the health of the
body depend on fluids, electrolytes, and acid-base balances, which allow
the body to support its normal physiologic functioning.

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Fluid Homeostasis

Body fluids are composed of water and solutes which include amino acids,
electrolytes, glucose, and other nutrients. There are four types of fluids in
the body:

1. Extracellular fluid (ECF), which includes IVF and ISF. ECF

is the fluid found in the spaces between cells. ECF accounts for
around 20% of human body weight (15% of which comes from
ICF and 5% from IVF).
2. Interstitial fluid (ISF), sometimes called tissue fluid, is the
solution that surrounds tissue cells. ISF fluid accounts for
around 15% of human body weight.
3. Intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid found inside individual
cells. ICF accounts for around 40% of a person’s body weight.
4. Intravascular fluid (IVF), also referred to as plasma, is the
extracellular fluid within blood vessels. IVF accounts for
around 5% of human body weight.

Fluids and solutes constantly move around the body. It is this movement
that allows the body to maintain homeostasis. At the cellular level, solutes
move through plasma membranes by diffusion, active transport, and
osmosis (see Section 3).

Diffusion: Diffusion is a passive transport mechanism by

which particles move from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration.
Active transport: Active transport is the process by which
solutes can move from a low concentration area to a high
concentration area. Active transport requires the assistance of a
carrier protein and energy supplied by ATP.
 Osmosis: Osmosis is the passive movement of fluids across a
plasma membrane from an area of lower solute concentration
to an area of higher solute concentration.

Water enters the body from the gastrointestinal tract, from liquids and
foods, and from oxidation. Water exits the body through perspiration (skin),
expiration (lungs), in stool and in urine. To maintain a healthy body, fluid
intake should equal fluid loss. An impairment or abnormality in the
mechanisms that regulate fluid balance can result in a fluid imbalance.

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Electrolyte Homeostasis

Electrolytes break up into ions when dissolved in water. Ions can be

positively charged (cations) or negatively charged (anions). A balance of
cations and anions typically maintains the electrical neutrality of fluids in
the body. Examples of cations include calcium, magnesium, potassium and
sodium. Examples of anions include chloride, bicarbonate, and phosphate.

Inside the body, electrolytes affect water distribution, osmolarity (the

amount of solute per unit volume), and acid-base balance. Several
mechanisms help the body regulate and maintain its electrolyte balance:

The endocrine system: The endocrine system helps to keep

sodium and potassium levels within the normal range by
producing antidiuretic hormones.
The gastrointestinal system: The gastrointestinal system helps
regulate gastric juices in the small bowl and in the stomach.
The vascular system: The heart drives the transport of
electrolytes in the bloodstream.
The kidneys: The kidneys help regulate electrolytes through its
glomeruli filter by filtering out potassium and sodium (smaller
particles) and by retaining protein (a larger particle).

The following are the mechanisms which regulate the main electrolytes
contained in body fluid:
Bicarbonate: Bicarbonate levels are regulated by the kidneys.
Calcium: Parathyroid hormones are the main regulator of
calcium. Calcium is typically ingested through the GI tract and
excreted by the kidneys.
Chloride: Chloride, which moves alongside sodium inside the
body, is regulated by the kidneys.
Magnesium: Aldosterone, which controls renal magnesium
reabsorption, is the main regulator of magnesium. Magnesium
is ingested through the GI tract and excreted in saliva, urine,
and breast milk.
Phosphate: Phosphate levels are regulated by parathyroid
hormones and by the kidneys.
Potassium: Potassium levels are regulated by aldosterone and
by the kidneys. Potassium is mostly absorbed through food and
excreted in urine.
Sodium: The kidneys and aldosterone hormones are the
primary regulators of sodium. Sodium is absorbed by the body
through food and excreted by the skin and the kidneys.

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Acid-Base Homeostasis

Acid-base homeostasis is concerned with the proper balance between acids

and bases in the body, also referred to as body pH. Whether a fluid is acidic
or basic (alkaline) is dependent on the hydrogen ion concentration (H+) of
the fluid. pH is a logarithmic measure of hydrogen ion concentration. Water
is neutral at a pH of 7.0. The ideal blood pH of the body is 7.4 and a normal
pH level ranges anywhere between 7.35 and 7.45 (slightly alkaline). Acid-
base balance is the mechanism employed by the body to keep fluids as close
to a neutral pH as possible.

The body maintains its pH level by keeping the ratio of bicarbonate

hydrogen ions (HCO3–) to carbonic acid (H2CO3) at a 20:1 ratio. The body
has two natural buffer systems which help regulate blood pH, keeping it
within the narrow optimal homeostatic range of 7.35 to 7.45:

The lungs: Respiration plays a crucial role in controlling pH.

The lungs retain and excrete carbonic acid in the form of
carbon dioxide (CO2). A decrease in blood pH stimulates
respiration. As a result of increased respiration, carbon dioxide
(CO2) in the blood levels decrease which means that less
carbonic acid and hydrogen ions remain in the bloodstream.
This ultimately leads to an increase in pH.

The kidneys: The kidneys assist in regulating pH in two ways.

Firstly, by reabsorbing sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) from the
urine and secondly, by secreting hydrogen ions into the urine.
Interruption to a buffer system, such as those caused by respiratory or
metabolic disorders, can cause an acid-base imbalance:
Acidosis is characterized by an excessively acid condition of
tissues and body fluids. Acidosis occurs when there is an
accumulation of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and a decrease of
bicarbonate hydrogen ions (HCO3–).
Alkalosis is characterized by an excessively alkaline condition
of tissues and body fluids. Alkalosis occurs when there is an
increase in bicarbonate hydrogen ions (HCO3–) and a loss of
carbonic acid (H2CO3).

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The Buffer Systems in Body Fluids

A buffer is a chemical which binds with either the base or the acid in order
to increase or decrease the solution pH. Buffers are produced by cells and
made available in the blood. Buffer systems that assist in maintaining acid-
base balance include: carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer, the phosphate
buffer, and protein buffers.

The carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system is the primary buffer

system in ECF and is responsible for around 80% of extracellular buffering.
This buffer is maintained by the body by eliminating either one of two
components: the acid (carbonic acid) or the base (hydrogen carbonate ions).
In this way, a strong acid is converted into a weak acid or a strong base is
converted into a weak base. The acid can be eliminated through increased
respiration. The base can be eliminated through the kidneys.

The phosphate buffer system works similar to the carbonic acid-

bicarbonate buffer system in that it converts a strong acid into a weak acid
or a strong base into a weak base. In the phosphate buffer system, the pH of
fluids is regulated as they pass through the kidneys.

The protein buffer system can also even out minor fluctuations in pH. In
the protein buffer system, proteins such as plasma proteins can release
excess hydrogen if needed or absorb hydrogen ions generated by the
metabolic process. In this system, pH is therefore controlled by either
releasing hydrogen ions in the presence of excess base, or by taking in
hydrogen ions in the presence of excess acid.

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 Section 17: Nutrition and Metabolism

Nutrition refers to the intake and utilization of nutrients necessary for

growth and health. Nutrients are the most basic molecules and atoms
needed for survival. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes which
occur inside the body of living organisms in order to maintain life. It is
through metabolism that the nutrients which are ingested through food are
transformed into components which can be used by the body.

Metabolism involves two processes: anabolism, also called constructive

metabolism, which is the synthesis of simple molecules into complex
molecules, and catabolism, also called destructive metabolism, which is the
breakdown of complex molecules to form simpler ones.

The body requires water and nutrients for growth and health. Most nutrients
come from digested food and include the following three main types:
carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. Besides nutrients, the body also
requires vitamins and minerals. Vitamins promote enzyme reactions and
stimulate the metabolism of nutrients whereas minerals are needed for
enzyme metabolism, amongst other things.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds which contain carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. They typically include sugars, starches, and cellulose.

Carbohydrates can be categorized as simple carbohydrates and complex

carbohydrates.
 Simple carbohydrates, which can raise blood glucose levels
rapidly, include fruits, vegetables, and dairy products.
Complex carbohydrates, which raise blood glucose levels more
slowly, include starches and fibers.

Sugars are carbohydrates and provide the primary source of energy for the
body. Sugars are categorized as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are simple sugars (e.g. glucose) which cannot

be hydrolyzed further to form a simpler sugar. Based on
whether the sugar consists of an aldehyde group or a ketone
group, it can be categorized as polyhydroxy aldehydes (a
CHO group, which contains a carbon atom linked to a hydroxyl
group) or ketones (a CO group, which contains a carbonyl
group).

Disaccharides includes any class of sugar that is synthesized

from two monosaccharides. Disaccharides are composed of two
monosaccharides minus a water molecule. Examples of
disaccharides include lactose (which comprises one glucose
molecule and one galactose molecule), maltose (which consists
of two glucose molecules) and fructose (which comprises one
glucose molecule and one fructose molecule).

Polysaccharides are likewise synthesized from

monosaccharides. A polysaccharide is composed of a polymer,
that is, a long chain of 10 or more monosaccharides bonded
together by glycoside bonds. Examples of polysaccharides are
glycogen and fiber. Fiber can’t be broken down into simpler
sugars to be used for fuel for the body, whereas glycogen can.
The body can also build glycogen from excess
monosaccharides (simple sugars) to be stored for future use in
muscle and liver tissues or as fat in adipose tissue.
Proteins
Proteins are nitrogenous organic compounds which contain large molecules
of amino acid chains. Some proteins also contain sulfur and phosphorus.
In the body, protein is primarily used for growth as well as for the repair of
body tissues, but can also be used for energy. Proteins can combine with
carbohydrates to form glycoproteins or with lipids to form lipoproteins.

Amino acids, which consist of a carboxyl group and an amino group, are
the basic structural units of proteins. They combine in a process called
condensation, which is a chemical reaction whereby the carboxyl (COOH)
group of one amino acid binds with the amino group (NH2) of another
amino acid. The condensation reaction releases a water molecule and forms
a peptide bond between the amino acids.

Lipids
Lipids are organic compounds which are insoluble in water but soluble in
organic solvents. The main lipids include fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
A fat, or triglyceride, is formed from one glycerol molecule and
three molecules of fatty acid. A fatty acid is composed of a
hydrocarbon chain and a carboxyl group. Fatty acid chains can
vary in length.
Phospholipids are similar to fats but contain one phosphate
group as part of their structure. Phospholipids are the main
lipids in cell membranes.
Steroids are formed from four rings of carbon atoms which are
attached to various side chains. Steroids contain no glycerol or
fatty acid molecules. Common steroids include cholesterol, sex
hormones, and bile salts.

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins are organic compounds, required in small quantities by the body,
which are essential for growth and nutrition. Vitamins are classified as
water-soluble or fat-soluble.
Water-soluble vitamins are carried in the body’s tissue but
cannot be stored in the body. Because of this, water-soluble
vitamins need replacing on a daily basis. They are found in
plant and animal foods and include B complex and C vitamins.
Fat-soluble vitamins are dissolved in fat before being absorbed
by the bloodstream. Fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in body
tissues and in the liver and thus need not be taken daily.
Vitamin A, D, E, and K are examples of fat-soluble vitamins.

Water-soluble vitamins

Vitamin Main Functions Major

Sources
Helps with energy Meat, fish,
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) metabolism, poultry,
circulation, digestion, whole-grain
growth, muscle tone or enriched
maintenance, and is breads,
also important for cereals,
nerve function legumes,
dried beans,
nuts and
seeds
Helps with energy Meat, fish,
Vitamin B2 metabolism, RBC poultry,
(Riboflavin) formation, and cell milk, milk
respiration. Also products,
important for normal leafy green
vision and skin health vegetables,
 and whole-
grain or
enriched
grains
Helps with energy Lean meat,
Vitamin B3 metabolism and is also poultry,
(Niacin) important for the fish, whole-
nervous system, grain or
digestive system and enriched
skin health breads and
cereals,
peanut
butter,
vegetables
(especially
mushrooms,
asparagus
and leafy
green
vegetables)
Helps with protein Meat, fish,
Vitamin B6 metabolism, antibody poultry,
(Pyridoxine) formation, hemoglobin vegetables,
formation, DNA and fruits,
RNA synthesis, and wheat germ
also contributes to CNS and whole
maintenance grains
Helps with RBC Meat,
Vitamin B12 formation, cellular poultry,
(Cyanocobalamin) metabolism, nutrient fish,
metabolism, and is seafood,
important for nerve eggs, milk
function and milk
products
 Helps with collagen Found only
Vitamin C production, RBC in fresh
(Ascorbic acid) formation, iron fruits and
absorption, healing, vegetables,
and also aids infection especially
resistance citrus fruits
and raw
dark leafy
vegetables
Helps with protein metabolism, RBC Leafy green
Folic Acid formation, cell growth and vegetables
reproduction, DNA and RNA and
formation legumes,
citrus foods,
milk
products
and whole
grains
Fat-soluble vitamins

Vitamin Main Functions Major Sources

Helps with body Meat, milk, milk products,
Vitamin A tissue repair and leafy green and yellow
maintenance, vision, vegetables
bone growth,
infection resistance,
cell membrane
metabolism, and
immune system
health
Helps with calcium Egg yolks, organ meats,
Vitamin D and phosphorus fatty fish, liver oils
(Calciferol) metabolism, heart
function and
nervous system
maintenance
Helps with cell Egg yolks, organ meats,
Vitamin E maintenance, leafy vegetables and wheat
(Tocopherol) particularly cell germ oil
membrane
stabilization and the
maintenance of a
healthy immune
system
Helps with liver Leafy green vegetables
Vitamin K synthesis of
(Menadione) prothrombin and is
also essential for
proper blood
clotting
Minerals are solid inorganic substances which are found in bones, teeth,
thyroxin, hemoglobin, and in organs. Like vitamins, minerals are needed to
support normal body functions, including enzyme metabolism, growth,
muscle contractility, osmotic pressure, membrane transfer of essential
molecules, acid-base homeostasis, and nerve impulse transmissions.
Minerals are classified as major minerals (of which the body needs large
amounts of) and trace minerals (of which the body needs small amounts
of).
Major minerals include calcium, chloride, magnesium,
phosphorus, potassium, and sodium.
Trace minerals include chromium, copper, fluorine, iodine,
iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc.
Major minerals

Mineral Main Functions Major Sources

Important for proper Milk, milk products,
Calcium blood clotting, bone and grains, nuts, legumes
tooth formation, muscle and leafy vegetables
growth and contraction,
and also helps with nerve
functioning, blood
pressure regulation and
immune system health
Helps with the Table salt, fruits and
Chloride maintenance of fluid, vegetables
electrolyte, acid-base
balance and osmotic
pressure
Needed for protein Nuts and seeds, cocoa,
Magnesium synthesis, cellular legumes and leafy
respiration, muscle green vegetables
contraction, nerve impulse
transmission and also
supports immune system
health
Helps with bone and teeth Eggs, fish, meat,
Phosphorus formation, energy poultry, milk and milk
production, cell growth products
and cell repair
Helps with muscle Fresh fruits,
Potassium contraction, proper fluid vegetables, nuts and
balance, nerve seafood
transmission, fluid
distribution, osmotic
 pressure balance and acid-
base balance
Needed for proper cellular Table salt, soy sauce,
Sodium fluid maintenance, acid- milk, cheese and
base balance, nerve processed foods
transmission and muscle
contraction

Trace minerals

Mineral Main Function Major Sources

Chromium Helps regulate blood Liver, whole grains,
glucose levels nuts and cheese
Copper Helps with hemoglobin Legumes, nuts and
formation, iron seeds, whole grains,
metabolism, and plays a organ meats and
role in respiration drinking water
Fluoride Bone and teeth Drinking water and
formation and helps seafood
prevent tooth decay
Iodine Iodine is found in Iodized salt, seafood
thyroid hormones and and foods grown in
helps with growth, iodine-rich soil
development, energy
production and
metabolism
Iron Helps with RBC Egg yolks, organ meats,
formation, growth (in fish, poultry, oysters
children), cellular and green vegetables
respiration, and also
 aids stress and disease
resistance
Manganese Helps form connective Found especially in
tissue, bones, sex plant foods
hormones, and also aids
blood clotting
Molybdenum Functions as a cofactor Leafy green vegetables,
for enzymes legumes, milk, bread
and grains
Selenium Helps with cellular Meats, seafood and
protection, immune grains
mechanisms and the
synthesis of
mitochondrial ATP
Zinc Needed for protein and Liver, meats, seafood,
DNA synthesis, burn and whole grains and
wound healing, vegetables (particularly
metabolism, mushrooms)
carbohydrate
metabolism, cell growth,
organ growth and
development

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Nutrient Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism

Nutrients are digested in the GI tract in a process called hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis is the chemical decomposition whereby a compound unites
(reacts) with a water molecule and splits into simpler compounds.

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Carbohydrate Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism

Enzymes are responsible for breaking down complex carbohydrates into

simpler compounds. In the mouth, salivary amylase starts the process of
hydrolysis (from a polysaccharide into a disaccharide). This process is then
continued in the small intestine by an enzyme called pancreatic amylase.

Different enzymes are responsible for splitting (hydrolyzing) different

disaccharides into monosaccharides. Lactase for example hydrolyzes
lactose into glucose and sucrose and sucrase hydrolyzes sucrose into
glucose and fructose.

Once the compound is broken down into a monosaccharide, it is then

absorbed by the intestinal mucosa and transported into the liver. Inside the
liver, enzymes convert galactose and fructose into glucose. Glucose is then
absorbed by the intestinal mucosa.

Glucose is the main source of energy in the human body. Carbohydrate

catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into ATP, which is achieved
through the oxidation of glucose molecules. Energy from glucose oxidation
is generated in three phases: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle (also called citric
acid cycle), and the electron transport system.

1. Glycolysis:

Glycolysis is the first step in the oxidation process of glucose, which occurs
in the cell cytoplasm. Glycolysis yields energy in the form of ATP and
acetyl CoA.
During glycolysis, the (6-carbon) glucose molecule is broken down into two
molecules (3-carbon) pyruvic acid, also called pyruvate. Pyruvate is an
organic acid which supplies cells with energy. Glycolysis also releases
energy in the form of ATP.

The pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis also release a carbon

dioxide (CO2) molecule. Inside the mitochondria, this CO2 molecule is
converted into a (2-carbon) acetyl fragment which combines with a
coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl CoA. The molecule acetyl CoA is an
important molecule in metabolism. This conversion process also produces
one NADH.

2. Krebs Cycle:

The Krebs cycle, also called the citric acid cycle, is the second phase in
glucose oxidation. In this process, acetyl CoA is oxidized by enzymes in
order to yield energy.

During the Krebs cycle, (2-carbon) acetyl fragments of acetyl CoA bind
with (4-carbon) oxaloacetic acid, forming (6-carbon) citric acid. The CoA
molecule from the acetyl CoA separates from the acetyl group in order to
bind with more acetyl molecules to form acetyl CoA. Enzymes convert
citric acid into different intermediate compounds and back into oxaloacetic
acid.

This process, which generates energy in the form of ATP, releases CO2
molecules. The Krebs cycle also releases hydrogen atoms which are then
picked up by coenzymes NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide). Each cycle results in three NADH and
one FADH2.

3. Electron Transport System:

The third phase of glucose oxidation, which also takes place inside the
mitochondria, is the electron transport system. During this phase, carrier
molecules in the inner mitochondrial membrane capture the hydrogen atoms
which are carried by NADH and FADH2. Each hydrogen atom carries one
hydrogen ion and one electron. The electrons are then passed along the
transport system, where they undergo a series of oxidation-reduction
reactions and release energy as they move through the system.

The released energy is then used to transport positively charged ions back
and forth across the membrane which separate the two parts of the
mitochondria (the intermembrane space and the matrix of the
mitochondrion). The energy generated from this movement is stored in ATP.

For this final step, oxygen is required. Oxygen attracts electrons along the
chain of carriers in the electron transport system. Because of this, the
process is called oxidative phosphorylation. After passing through the
electron transport system, the hydrogen ions bind with oxygen to produce
water.

All carbohydrates ingested by the body are converted into glucose. Any
glucose not needed for immediate energy is either converted into lipids or
stored by the body as glycogen. The liver, muscle cells and certain
hormones play a crucial role in controlling and regulating blood glucose
levels.

The liver plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels:

1. When there is too much glucose in the body, hormones will stimulate the
liver to convert glucose into lipids or glycogen.
 Lipogenesis: Glucose can be converted into lipids in a process
called lipogenesis.
Glycogenesis: Glucose can be converted into glycogen in a
process called glycogenesis.

2. If there is a shortage of glucose in the body, the liver can form glucose
through two processes:
Glycogenolysis: The liver can form glucose by breaking
glycogen into glucose through a process called glycogenolysis.
Gluconeogenesis: Alternatively, the liver can also synthesize
glucose from amino acids through a process called
gluconeogenesis.

Hormones can stimulate specific metabolic processes within the body. With
regards to blood glucose levels, insulin is the only hormone which can
significantly reduce blood glucose levels in the body. Insulin encourages
cell uptake and the use of glucose for energy, and also stimulates
lipogenesis and glycogenesis.

Like the liver, muscle cells can convert glucose into glycogen. Muscles
cells however, don’t have the enzymes needed to convert glycogen back
into glucose. During extended exercise, muscle cells break down glycogen
in a process which produces lactic acid and energy. This leads to a lactic
acid build-up in the muscles as glycogen stored in muscle cells become
depleted. The build-up of lactate is what results in the burning sensation felt
in active muscles after vigorous exercise.

Lactic acid can be used by the body in two possible ways. Some of the
accumulated lactic acid in the muscle cells is converted into pyruvic acid
which is then oxidized again by the Krebs cycle and the electron transport
system in order to generate energy. Some of the lactic acid travels to the
liver where it is converted to glycogen. The liver converts this glycogen
into glucose. The newly formed glucose then travels back through the blood
stream to the muscles where it is stored again as glycogen.

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Protein Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism

Protein digestion occurs by hydrolysis of the peptide bonds that bind

together the amino acids. The protein digestive enzyme is called protease.
After hydrolysis, the amino acids are absorbed by the intestinal mucosa
from where they are transported to the liver.

Absorbed amino acids mix with other amino acids in the amino acid pool.
The human body cannot store amino acids. Because of this, amino acids are
converted into protein, glucose, or straight into energy. This conversion
however, first necessitates transformation of the amino acid by
transamination or deamination.

Transamination: Transamination is the process by which one

amino group is exchanged for a keto group in a keto acid. This
process is facilitated by transaminase enzymes and results in
the formation of a new amino acid and a new keto acid.
Deamination: Deamination is the the process by which one
amino group is removed from an amino acid, forming one
ammonia molecule and one keto acid. Most of the ammonia is
then converted to urea and excreted from the body through
urine.

Amino Acid Metabolism

Amino acid synthesis is the process by which various amino acids are
produced from other compounds. Amino acids are classified as essential
and nonessential. Essential amino acids are amino acids which cannot be
synthesized by the body. They are essential in the sense that they must be
ingested through food. Nonessential amino acids are amino acids which are
not essential in the human diet as they can be synthesized by the body.
Essential amino acids include:
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine

Nonessential amino acids include:

Alanine
Arginine
Asparagine
Aspartic acid
Cystine
Glutamine
Glycine
Hydroxyproline
Proline
Serine
Tyrosine

Proteins are synthesized from 20 amino acids: 9 essential ones and 11

nonessential ones. All amino acids not needed for protein synthesis are
converted into glucose by the liver. Depending on their characteristics,
amino acids which are not used to form proteins are either metabolized by
the Krebs cycle and the electron transport system to generate energy or
converted into keto acids.
Glucogenic amino acids are the main carbon source for
gluconeogenesis. They can be converted into glucose through
gluconeogenesis. Glucogenic amino acids can either be
catabolized for energy or converted into glycogen or fatty acids
for energy storage.
Ketogenic amino acids can be used for lipid synthesis or
ketogenesis. Ketogenic amino acids don’t have the ability to
form glucose.
Some amino acids are both glucogenic and ketogenic.

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Lipid Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism

Lipid digestion occurs primarily in the small intestine. The lipid digestive
enzyme is called lipase. Lipase hydrolyzes the bonds between glycerol and
fatty acids in a process which restores the water molecule, and which breaks
phospholipids down into glycerol, short-chain fatty acids, long-chain fatty
acids, and monoglycerides.

Glycerol molecules diffuse directly through the mucosa and short-chain

fatty acids diffuse into the intestinal epithelial cells from where they are
transported to the liver. Long-chain fatty acids and monoglycerides dissolve
in bile salt micelles before diffusing into the intestinal epithelial cells.
Monoglycerides are further broken down into glycerol and fatty acids by
the enzyme lipase.

Lipids are stored in adipose tissue. When needed for energy, lipase
hydrolyzes each lipid molecule into one glycerol molecule and three
molecules of fatty acids. Glycerol can be converted into pyruvic acid which
then enters the Krebs cycle. The fatty acids are catabolized by beta
oxidation. Beta oxidation produces two carbon units which bind with CoA
to form acetyl CoA.

Ketogenesis

Fatty acids are broken down in a process called ketogenesis, which results
in the formation of ketone bodies. Ketone bodies are three water-soluble
molecules (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone) that are
produced by the liver from acetyl which are largely derived from fatty acid
catabolism. Ketone bodies can be used for energy by body tissues,
including muscle tissue and brain tissue.
Under conditions such as fasting, starvation, or uncontrolled diabetes, the
body produces more ketone bodies than it can use for energy. In such
conditions, the body uses fat rather than glucose as its primary energy
source. When the body breaks down fats for energy, which creates fatty
acids through beta oxidation, ketones are created. This in turn leads to an
excess of ketone bodies which disturbs the body’s acid-base balance – a
state called ketosis.

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 Section 18: Final Notes

“It’s more important to understand the imbalances in your body’s basic

systems and restore balance, rather than name the disease and match the pill
to the ill.”
- Mark Hyman MD

I would like to take this opportunity to thank you for downloading this
book. I hope you now have a solid foundation of the fundamental
structures and functions of the human body. There is of course a lot
more to the human body and I do encourage everyone to continue their
exploration, as there is always more to discover and learn.

I sincerely wish you the best of luck and the best of health. If you feel
you’ve gained some valuable knowledge from this book, I’d really love
to hear any feedback that you may have. Reviews can be left on the
Amazon book page. I look forward to hearing from you!

CLICK HERE TO LEAVE A REVIEW ON AMAZON.COM

Best wishes,

Dr. Phillip Vaughn

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