74 ◆ D IODES AND A PPLICATIONS

Typical Characteristics

Forward Current Derating Curve Forward Characteristics

1.6 20

1N4001 - 1N4007 1.4 10

FORWARD CURRENT (A)

FORWARD CURRENT (A)

1.2 4
2
1
Features 1
0.8 SINGLE PHASE
HALF WAVE 0.4
• Low forward voltage drop. 0.6 60HZ
0.2
RESISTIVE OR
• High surge current capability. 0.4 INDUCTIVE LOAD
.375" 9.0 mm LEAD
0.1 T J = 25ⴗC
Pulse Width = 300␮S
LENGTHS 0.04
0.2 2% Duty Cycle
0.02
DO-41 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0.01
COLOR BAND DENOTES CATHODE
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (ⴗC) 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
FORWARD VOLTAGE (V)

General Purpose Rectifiers

Non-Repetitive Surge Current Reverse Characteristics
30 1000
Absolute Maximum Ratings*

FORWARD SURGE CURRENT (A) pk

TA = 25°C unless otherwise noted

REVERSE CURRENT (␮A)

24 100
Symbol Parameter Value Units TJ = 150ⴗC

4001 4002 4003 4004 4005 4006 4007 18 10

VRRM Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage 50 100 200 400 600 800 1000 V
TJ = 100ⴗC
IF(AV) Average Rectified Forward Current, 12 1
1.0 A
.375 " lead length @ T A = 75° C
IFSM Non-repetitive Peak Forward Surge
Current 30 A 6 0.1 T J = 25ⴗC
8.3 ms Single Half-Sine-Wave
Tstg Storage Temperature Range -55 to +175 °C 0 0.01
1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
TJ Operating Junction Temperature -55 to +175 °C NUMBER OF CYCLES AT 60Hz RATED PEAK REVERSE VOLTAGE (%)
*These ratings are limiting values above which the serviceability of any semiconductor device may be impaired.

Thermal Characteristics
Symbol Parameter Value Units
PD Power Dissipation 3.0 W
RθJA Thermal Resistance, Junction to Ambient 50 °C/W

Electrical Characteristics TA = 25°C unless otherwise noted

Symbol Parameter Device Units

4001 4002 4003 4004 4005 4006 4007
VF Forward Voltage @ 1.0 A 1.1 V
Irr Maximum Full Load Reverse Current, Full 30 μA
Cycle T A = 75°C
IR Reverse Current @ rated VR TA = 25°C 5.0 μA
TA = 100°C 500 μA
CT Total Capacitance 15 pF
V R = 4.0 V, f = 1.0 MHz

䊱 FIGURE 2–71
Copyright Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation. Used by permission.

Thermal Characteristics All devices have a limit on the amount of heat that they can
tolerate without failing in some way.
PD Average power dissipation is the amount of power that the diode can dissipate
under any condition. A diode should never be operated at maximum power, except for
brief periods, to assure reliability and longer life.
RuJA Thermal resistance from the diode junction to the surrounding air. This indicates
the ability of the device material to resist the flow of heat and specifies the number of
degrees difference between the junction and the surrounding air for each watt trans-
ferred from the junction to the air.
Electrical Characteristics The electrical characteristics are specified under certain con-
ditions and are the same for each type of diode. These values are typical and can be more
or less for a given diode. Some datasheets provide a minimum and a maximum value in ad-
dition to a typical value for a parameter.
VF The forward voltage drop across the diode when there is 1 A of forward current. To
determine the forward voltage for other values of forward current, you must examine
the forward characteristics graph.
Irr Maximum full load reverse current averaged over a full ac cycle at 75°C.
IR The reverse current at the rated reverse voltage (VRRM). Values are specified at two
different ambient temperatures.
 T HE D IODE D ATASHEET ◆ 75

CT This is the total diode capacitance including the junction capacitance in reverse
bias at a frequency of 1 MHz. Most of the time this parameter is not important in low-
frequency applications, such as power supply rectifiers.

Graphical Characteristics
The Forward Current Derating Curve This curve on the datasheet in Figure 2–71
shows maximum forward diode current IF(AV) in amps versus the ambient temperature. Up
to about 75°C, the diode can handle a maximum of 1 A. Above 75°C, the diode cannot
handle 1 A, so the maximum current must be derated as shown by the curve. For example,
if a diode is operating in an ambient temperature of 120°C, it can handle only a maximum
of 0.4 A, as shown in Figure 2–72.

Forward Current Derating Curve 䊴 F IGU R E 2 – 7 2

1.6

1.4
FORWARD CURRENT (A)

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (ⴗC)

Forward Characteristics Curve Another graph from the datasheet shows instantaneous
forward current as a function of instantaneous forward voltage. As indicated, data for this
curve is derived by applying 300 ms pulses with a duty cycle of 2%. Notice that this graph
is for TJ = 25°C. For example, a forward current of 1 A corresponds to a forward voltage
of about 0.93 V, as shown in Figure 2–73.

Forward Characteristics 䊴 F IGU R E 2 – 7 3

20
10
FORWARD CURRENT (A)

4
2
1

0.4
0.2
0.1 T J = 25ⴗC
Pulse Width = 300␮S
0.04 2% Duty Cycle
0.02
0.01
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
FORWARD VOLTAGE (V)
0.93 V

Nonrepetitive Surge Current This graph from the datasheet shows IFSM as a function
of the number of cycles at 60 Hz. For a one-time surge, the diode can withstand 30 A.
However, if the surges are repeated at a frequency of 60 Hz, the maximum surge current
decreases. For example, if the surge is repeated 7 times, the maximum current is 18 A, as
shown in Figure 2–74.
76 ◆ D IODES AND A PPLICATIONS

䊳 FIGURE 2–74 Non-Repetitive Surge Current

30

FORWARD SURGE CURRENT (A) pk

24

18

12

0
1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 100
NUMBER OF CYCLES AT 60Hz
7

Reverse Characteristics This graph from the datasheet shows how the reverse current
varies with the reverse voltage for three different junction temperatures. The horizontal
axis is the percentage of maximum reverse voltage, VRRM. For example, at 25°C, a 1N4001
has a reverse current of approximately 0.04 mA at 20% of its maximum VRRM or 10 V. If
the VRRM is increased to 90%, the reverse current increases to approximately 0.11 mA, as
shown in Figure 2–75.

䊳 FIGURE 2–75 Reverse Characteristics

1000
REVERSE CURRENT (␮A)

100 TJ = 150ⴗC

10

TJ = 100ⴗC
1

0.11
0.1 T J = 25ⴗC
0.04

0.01
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
RATED PEAK REVERSE VOLTAGE (%)
90

SECTION 2–9 1. Determine the peak repetitive reverse voltage for each of the following diodes:
CHECKUP 1N4002, 1N4003, 1N4004, 1N4005, 1N4006.
2. If the forward current is 800 mA and the forward voltage is 0.75 V in a 1N4005, is the
power rating exceeded?
3. What is IF(AV) for a 1N4001 at an ambient temperature of 100°C?
4. What is IFSM for a 1N4003 if the surge is repeated 40 times at 60 Hz?

2–10 T ROUBLESHOOTING
This section provides a general overview and application of an approach to troubleshoot-
ing. Specific troubleshooting examples of the power supply and diode circuits are
covered.
 T ROUBLESHOOTING ◆ 77

After completing this section, you should be able to

❏ Troubleshoot diodes and power supply circuits
❏ Test a diode with a DMM
◆ Use the diode test position ◆ Determine if the diode is good or bad
◆ Use the Ohms function to check a diode
❏ Troubleshoot a dc power supply by analysis, planning, and measurement
◆ Use the half-splitting method
❏ Perform fault analysis
◆ Isolate fault to a single component

Chapter 18: Basic Programming Concepts for Automated Testing

Selected sections from Chapter 18 may be introduced as part of this troubleshooting
coverage or, optionally, the entire Chapter 18 may be covered later or not at all.

Testing a Diode
A multimeter can be used as a fast and simple way to check a diode out of the circuit. A
good diode will show an extremely high resistance (ideally an open) with reverse bias and
a very low resistance with forward bias. A defective open diode will show an extremely
high resistance (or open) for both forward and reverse bias. A defective shorted or resistive
diode will show zero or a low resistance for both forward and reverse bias. An open diode
is the most common type of failure.

The DMM Diode Test Position Many digital multimeters (DMMs) have a diode test
function that provides a convenient way to test a diode. A typical DMM, as shown in
Figure 2–76, has a small diode symbol to mark the position of the function switch. When
set to diode test, the meter provides an internal voltage sufficient to forward-bias and
reverse-bias a diode. This internal voltage may vary among different makes of DMM, but
2.5 V to 3.5 V is a typical range of values. The meter provides a voltage reading or other
indication to show the condition of the diode under test.

When the Diode Is Working In Figure 2–76(a), the red (positive) lead of the meter is
connected to the anode and the black (negative) lead is connected to the cathode to forward-
bias the diode. If the diode is good, you will get a reading of between approximately 0.5 V
and 0.9 V, with 0.7 V being typical for forward bias.
In Figure 2–76(b), the diode is turned around for reverse bias as shown. If the diode is
working properly, you will typically get a reading of “OL”. Some DMMs may display the
internal voltage for a reverse-bias condition.

When the Diode Is Defective When a diode has failed open, you get an out-of-range
“OL” indication for both the forward-bias and the reverse-bias conditions, as illustrated in
Figure 2–76(c). If a diode is shorted, the meter reads 0 V in both forward- and reverse-bias
tests, as indicated in part (d).

Checking a Diode with the OHMs Function DMMs that do not have a diode test po-
sition can be used to check a diode by setting the function switch on an OHMs range. For
a forward-bias check of a good diode, you will get a resistance reading that can vary de-
pending on the meter’s internal battery. Many meters do not have sufficient voltage on the
OHMs setting to fully forward-bias a diode and you may get a reading of from several hun-
dred to several thousand ohms. For the reverse-bias check of a good diode, you will get an
78 ◆ D IODES AND A PPLICATIONS

OFF VH
Hz

VH

mV H

Cathode Anode Anode Cathode

⍀
PRESS (a) Forward-bias test (b) Reverse-bias test
A RANGE
AUTORANGE 1 s
TOUCH/HOLD 1 s
10 A V⍀

! 1000 V ...
750 V ~ COM
40 mA

FUSED
V

K A K A
OPEN SHORTED

A K A K
(c) Forward- and reverse-bias tests (d) Forward- and reverse-bias tests for
for an open diode give the same a shorted diode give the same 0 V
indication. reading.

䊱 FIGURE 2–76
Testing a diode out-of-circuit with a DMM.

out-of-range indication such as “OL” on most DMMs because the reverse resistance is too
high for the meter to measure.
Even though you may not get accurate forward- and reverse-resistance readings on a
DMM, the relative readings indicate that a diode is functioning properly, and that is usually all
you need to know. The out-of-range indication shows that the reverse resistance is extremely
high, as you expect. The reading of a few hundred to a few thousand ohms for forward bias is
relatively small compared to the reverse resistance, indicating that the diode is working prop-
erly. The actual resistance of a forward-biased diode is typically much less than 100 Æ .

Troubleshooting a Power Supply

Troubleshooting is the application of logical thinking combined with a thorough knowl-
edge of circuit or system operation to identify and correct a malfunction. A systematic ap-
When working with low-voltage proach to troubleshooting consists of three steps: analysis, planning, and measuring.
power supplies, be careful not to A defective circuit or system is one with a known good input but with no output or an
come in contact with the 120 V incorrect output. For example, in Figure 2–77(a), a properly functioning dc power supply
ac line. Severe shock or worse is represented by a single block with a known input voltage and a correct output voltage. A
could result. To verify input defective dc power supply is represented in part (b) as a block with an input voltage and an
voltage to a rectifier, it is always incorrect output voltage.
better to check at the transformer
secondary instead of trying to Analysis The first step in troubleshooting a defective circuit or system is to analyze the
measure the line voltage directly. problem, which includes identifying the symptom and eliminating as many causes as pos-
If it becomes necessary to sible. In the case of the power supply example illustrated in Figure 2–77(b), the symptom
measure the line voltage, use a is that the output voltage is not a constant regulated dc voltage. This symptom does not tell
multimeter and be careful. you much about what the specific cause may be. In other situations, however, a particular
symptom may point to a given area where a fault is most likely.
 T ROUBLESHOOTING ◆ 79

0V 0V

120 V ac DC power supply 120 V ac DC power supply

Output Output

(a) The correct dc output voltage is measured with oscilloscope. (b) An incorrect voltage is measured at the output with oscilloscope.

䊱 FIGURE 2–77
Block representations of functioning and nonfunctioning power supplies.

The first thing you should do in analyzing the problem is to try to eliminate any obvious
causes. In general, you should start by making sure the power cord is plugged into an ac-
tive outlet and that the fuse is not blown. In the case of a battery-powered system, make
sure the battery is good. Something as simple as this is sometimes the cause of a problem.
However, in this case, there must be power because there is an output voltage.
Beyond the power check, use your senses to detect obvious defects, such as a burned re-
sistor, broken wire, loose connection, or an open fuse. Since some failures are temperature
dependent, you can sometimes find an overheated component by touch. However, be very
cautious in a live circuit to avoid possible burn or shock. For intermittent failures, the cir-
cuit may work properly for awhile and then fail due to heat buildup. As a rule, you should
always do a sensory check as part of the analysis phase before proceeding.
Planning In this phase, you must consider how you will attack the problem. There are
three possible approaches to troubleshooting most circuits or systems.
1. Start at the input (the transformer secondary in the case of a dc power supply)
where there is a known input voltage and work toward the output until you get an
incorrect measurement. When you find no voltage or an incorrect voltage, you have
narrowed the problem to the part of the circuit between the last test point where the
voltage was good and the present test point. In all troubleshooting approaches, you
must know what the voltage is supposed to be at each point in order to recognize an
incorrect measurement when you see it.
2. Start at the output of a circuit and work toward the input. Check for voltage at each
test point until you get a correct measurement. At this point, you have isolated the
problem to the part of the circuit between the last test point and the current test
point where the voltage is correct.
3. Use the half-splitting method and start in the middle of the circuit. If this measure-
ment shows a correct voltage, you know that the circuit is working properly from
the input to that test point. This means that the fault is between the current test
point and the output point, so begin tracing the voltage from that point toward the
output. If the measurement in the middle of the circuit shows no voltage or an in-
correct voltage, you know that the fault is between the input and that test point.
Therefore, begin tracing the voltage from the test point toward the input.
For illustration, let’s say that you decide to apply the half-splitting method using an
oscilloscope.
Measurement The half-splitting method is illustrated in Figure 2–78 with the measure-
ments indicating a particular fault (open filter capacitor in this case). At test point 2 (TP2)
you observe a full-wave rectified voltage that indicates that the transformer and rectifier
80 ◆ D IODES AND A PPLICATIONS

Step 1 Step 2

Correct (if filter Incorrect

capacitor is open)

TP1
Capacitor-
120 V ac Transformer Full-wave Voltage
input
(fused) rectifier TP2 TP3 regulator TP4
filter

䊱 FIGURE 2–78
Example of the half-splitting approach. An open filter capacitor is indicated.

are working properly. This measurement also indicates that the filter capacitor is open,
which is verified by the full-wave voltage at TP3. If the filter were working properly, you
would measure a dc voltage at both TP2 and TP3. If the filter capacitor were shorted, you
would observe no voltage at all of the test points because the fuse would most likely be
blown. A short anywhere in the system is very difficult to isolate because, if the system is
properly fused, the fuse will blow immediately when a short to ground develops.
For the case illustrated in Figure 2–78, the half-splitting method took two measure-
ments to isolate the fault to the open filter capacitor. If you had started from the trans-
former output, it would have taken three measurements; and if you had started at the final
output, it would have also taken three measurements, as illustrated in Figure 2–79.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Correct Correct (if filter Incorrect

capacitor is open)

Capacitor-
Transformer Full-wave Voltage
120 V ac TP1 input
(fused) rectifier regulator
TP2 filter TP3 TP4

(a) Measurements starting at the transformer output

Step 3 Step 2 Step 1

Correct (if filter Incorrect Incorrect

capacitor is open)

TP1
Capacitor-
120 V ac Transformer Full-wave Voltage
input
(fused) rectifier TP2 TP3 regulator TP4
filter
(b) Measurements starting at the regulator output

䊱 FIGURE 2–79
In this particular case, the two other approaches require more oscilloscope measurements than the
half-splitting approach in Figure 2–78.
 T ROUBLESHOOTING ◆ 81

Fault Analysis
In some cases, after isolating a fault to a particular circuit, it may be necessary to isolate
the problem to a single component in the circuit. In this event, you have to apply logical
thinking and your knowledge of the symptoms caused by certain component failures.
Some typical component failures and the symptoms they produce are now discussed.

Effect of an Open Diode in a Half-Wave Rectifier A half-wave filtered rectifier with

an open diode is shown in Figure 2–80. The resulting symptom is zero output voltage as
indicated. This is obvious because the open diode breaks the current path from the trans-
former secondary winding to the filter and load resistor and there is no load current.

䊴 F IGU R E 2 – 8 0

0V The effect of an open diode in a

half-wave rectifier is an output of 0 V.

OPEN

Rsurge
120 V ac
C RL
Transformer Rectifier Filter

Other faults that will cause the same symptom in this circuit are an open transformer
winding, an open fuse, or no input voltage.
Effect of an Open Diode in a Full-Wave Rectifier A full-wave center-tapped filtered
rectifier is shown in Figure 2–81. If either of the two diodes is open, the output voltage will
have twice the normal ripple voltage at 60 Hz rather than at 120 Hz, as indicated.

120 Hz ripple An open diode

indicates proper causes half-wave
full-wave rectification
operation. and increased
ripple at 60 Hz.

V/DIV
mV/DIV

Note: This
D1 scope channel
is ac coupled.
F

Rsurge
120 V D2 RL
Transformer C
60 Hz
Filter
Rectifier

䊱 FIGURE 2–81
The effect of an open diode in a center-tapped rectifier is half-wave rectification and twice the ripple
voltage at 60 Hz.
82 ◆ D IODES AND A PPLICATIONS

Another fault that will cause the same symptom is an open in the transformer secondary
winding.
The reason for the increased ripple at 60 Hz rather than at 120 Hz is as follows. If
one of the diodes in Figure 2–81 is open, there is current through RL only during one
half-cycle of the input voltage. During the other half-cycle of the input, the open path
caused by the open diode prevents current through RL. The result is half-wave rectifica-
tion, as shown in Figure 2–81, which produces the larger ripple voltage with a fre-
quency of 60 Hz.
An open diode in a full-wave bridge rectifier will produce the same symptom as in the
center-tapped circuit, as shown in Figure 2–82. The open diode prevents current through
RL during half of the input voltage cycle. The result is half-wave rectification, which pro-
duces double the ripple voltage at 60 Hz.

120 Hz ripple Open diode

indicates proper causes half-wave
full-wave rectification
operation. and increased
ripple at 60 Hz.

V/DIV
mV/DIV

F D3 D1

Rsurge
120 V RL
D2 D4 C
60 Hz
Filter
Rectifier

䊱 FIGURE 2–82
Effect of an open diode in a bridge rectifier.

Effects of a Faulty Filter Capacitor Three types of defects of a filter capacitor are illus-
trated in Figure 2–83.

◆ Open If the filter capacitor for a full-wave rectifier opens, the output is a full-wave
rectified voltage.
◆ Shorted If the filter capacitor shorts, the output is 0 V. A shorted capacitor should
cause the fuse to blow open. If not properly fused, a shorted capacitor may cause
some or all of the diodes in the rectifier to burn open due to excessive current. In any
event, the output is 0 V.
◆ Leaky A leaky filter capacitor is equivalent to a capacitor with a parallel leakage
resistance. The effect of the leakage resistance is to reduce the time constant and
allow the capacitor to discharge more rapidly than normal. This results in an increase
in the ripple voltage on the output. This fault is rare.

Effects of a Faulty Transformer An open primary or secondary winding of a power

supply transformer results in an output of 0 V, as mentioned before.
 T ROUBLESHOOTING ◆ 83

Normal filter capacitor 䊴 F IGU R E 2 – 8 3

(top waveform).
Leaky filter capacitor Effects of a faulty filter capacitor.
Open filter Shorted filter
capacitor capacitor (bottom waveform)

0V

V/DIV V/DIV mV/DIV

Transformer Full-wave
(fused) rectifier
Rsurge
120 V Faulty
RL
60 Hz C
Filter

EXAMPLE 2–14 You are troubleshooting the power supply shown in the block diagram of Figure 2–84.
You have found in the analysis phase that there is no output voltage from the regulator,
as indicated. Also, you have found that the unit is plugged into the outlet and have ver-
ified the input to the transformer with a DMM. You decide to use the half-splitting
method using the scope. What is the problem?

TP1 TP2 TP3 TP4

Transformer Full-wave Capacitor- Voltage
120 V ac
(fused) rectifier input filter regulator

0V 0V

Step 2 Step 1

+ – – +
DMM Rectifier DMM

Rsurge
C
Filter

Steps 4 & 5 Diode test Step 3 Check for a shorted

capacitor

䊱 FIGURE 2–84

Solution The step-by-step measurement procedure is illustrated in the figure and described as
follows.
Step 1: There is no voltage at test point 2 (TP2). This indicates that the fault is
between the input to the transformer and the output of the rectifier. Most
84 ◆ D IODES AND A PPLICATIONS

likely, the problem is in the transformer or in the rectifier, but there may be a
short from the filter input to ground.
Step 2: The voltage at test point 1 (TP1) is correct, indicating that the transformer
is working. So, the problem must be in the rectifier or a shorted filter
input.
Step 3: With the power turned off, use a DMM to check for a short from the filter
input to ground. Assume that the DMM indicates no short. The fault is now
isolated to the rectifier.
Step 4: Apply fault analysis to the rectifier circuit. Determine the component failure
in the rectifier that will produce a 0 V input. If only one of the diodes in the
rectifier is open, there should be a half-wave rectified output voltage, so this is
not the problem. In order to have a 0 V output, there must be an open in the
rectifier circuit.
Step 5: With the power off, use the DMM in the diode test mode to check each diode.
Replace the defective diodes, turn the power on, and check for proper opera-
tion. Assume this corrects the problem.

Related Problem Suppose you had found a short in Step 3, what would have been the logical next
step?