Department of Distance and Continuing Education

University of Delhi
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FUNDAMENTALS OF
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
(Department of Psychology)
Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology

Editors
Prof. N.K. Chadha
Dr. Shailja Rana

Content Writers
Ms. Dharaa Gupta, Dr. Halley Singh Thokchom,
Ms. Vidyut Singh, Ms. Shalini Chaudhary

Academic Coordinator
Mr. Deekshant Awasthi

© Department of Distance and Continuing Education

ISBN: .........................
Ist edition: 2023
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]

Published by:
Department of Distance and Continuing Education under
the aegis of Campus of Open Learning/School of Open Learning,
University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

Printed by:
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 Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology

INDEX

Lesson 1: Introduction .................................................................................... 1-37

1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.2.1 Basic nature of cognition
1.3 Four main approaches in the studying of cognition
1.4 Cognitive Revolution
1.4.1 Philosophical inputs to cognitive psychology
1.3.2 Psychological inputs to cognitive psychology
1.3.3 Age of Computer and Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
1.3.4 Seminal Works in Cognitive Psychology
1.5 Methodologies and Scope
1.5.1 Experiments
1.5.2 Self-Reports, Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation
1.5.3 Computational Models
1.5.4 Studies with Patients
1.5.5 Brain Scanning (Neuroimaging)
1.6 Fundamental Ideas and Key Themes
1.6.1 Bottom-up processing and top-down processing
1.6.2 Chunking
1.6.3 Ecological Validity
1.6.4 Innate ability
1.6.5 Modularity
1.6.6 Rehearsal
1.6.7 Schemas
1.6.8 Semantics
1.7 Practical Implication of Cognitive Psychology
1.8 Culture and Cognition
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1.9 Summary
1.10 Glossary
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 Reference
1.13 Suggested readings

Lesson 2: Attention and Perception .............................................................. 38-67

2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 The Perception-Attention Relationship
2.4 Neural Mechanisms of Attention and Perception
2.5 Types of Attention
2.5.1 Selective Attention: Focusing on Relevant Stimuli
2.5.2 Divided Attention: Allocating Resources to Multiple Tasks
2.5.3 Sustained Attention: Maintaining Focus over Time
2.6 Attentional Control
2.6.1 Top-Down Processing: Voluntary Control and Prior Knowledge
2.6.2 Bottom-Up Processing: Stimulus-Driven Capture of Attention
2.7 Perception
2.8 Perceptual Organization: Gestalt Principles and the Role of Context
2.9 Object Recognition and Viewpoint Invariance
2.9.1 Perceptual Constancy
2.9.2 Types of Perceptual Constancy
2.10 Perceptual Constancy
2.11 Theories Explaining Perceptual Constancy
2.12 Perceptual Illusions
2.13 Definition and Types of Perceptual Illusions
2.14 Mechanisms and Explanations of Perceptual Illusions
2.15 Neural Mechanisms and Neural Adaptation
2.16 Summary
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2.17 Glossary
2.18 Answers to In-text Questions
2.19 Self-Assessment Questions
2.20 References
2.21 Suggested Readings

Lesson 3: Problem Solving and Creativity ................................................... 68-88

3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Aspects of problem solving
3.4 Theories of problem solving
3.5 Stages of Problem Solving
3.6 Strategies of Problem Solving
3.7 Factors Affecting Problem Solving
3.8 Creativity
3.9 Theories of Creativity
3.10 Creativity and Intelligence
3.11 Fostering Creativity
3.12 Summary
3.13 Glossary
3.14 Self-Assessment Questions
3.15 References
3.16 Suggested Readings

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 Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology

Unit 1
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Ms. Dharaa Gupta
Clinical Psychologist
All India Institute of Medical Sciences
New Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.2.1 Basic Nature of Cognition
1.3 Four Main Approaches in Studying of Cognition
1.4 Cognitive Revolution
1.4.1 Philosophical inputs to cognitive psychology
1.4.2 Psychological inputs to cognitive psychology
1.4.3 Age of Computer and Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
1.4.4 Seminal Works in Cognitive Psychology
1.5 Methodologies and Scope
1.5.1 Experiments
1.5.2 Self-Reports, Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation
1.5.3 Computational Models
1.5.4 Studies with Patients
1.5.5 Brain Scanning (Neuroimaging)
1.6 Fundamental Ideas and Key Themes
1.6.1 Bottom-up processing and top-down processing
1.6.2 Chunking
1.6.3 Ecological Validity
1.6.4 Innate ability
1.6.5 Modularity
1.6.6 Rehearsal
1.6.7 Schemas
1.6.8 Semantics
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1.7 Practical Implication of Cognitive Psychology

1.8 Culture and Cognition
1.9 Summary
1.10 Glossary
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.13 References
1.14 Suggested readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 To understand what is cognition and various approaches
 To understand the theoretical orientation and background in Cognitive Processes leading
to cognitive revolution
 Learn about ways in which cognitive psychology relevant to everyday experience
 Learn about research methods used in cognitive psychology
 Key themes and concepts involved in the cognitive psychology

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Cognition is the mental process of acquiring, processing, storing, and using information. It
encompasses various mental activities such as thinking, perceiving, remembering, problem-
solving, decision-making, and language comprehension. Process of cognition is what allows
us to make sense of the world, understand concepts, and engage in complex mental tasks.
Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on studying and understanding
these cognitive processes. It aims to unravel how the mind works, how we process
information, and how our thoughts influence our behavior. Cognitive psychologists use
scientific methods and experiments to investigate mental processes, memory, attention,
perception, learning, and problem-solving.
1.2.1 Basic nature of Cognition
The basic nature of cognition refers to the fundamental processes and mechanisms through
which the human mind acquires, processes, stores, and uses information. Cognition
encompasses a wide range of mental activities that underlie our ability to think, understand,
and interact with the world around us. Some key aspects of the basic nature of cognition
include:

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Perception: The process of interpreting sensory information from the environment to make
sense of the world. Perception allows us to recognize objects, people, and events based on
visual, auditory, tactile, and other sensory inputs.
Attention: The ability to focus mental resources on specific information or stimuli while
filtering out irrelevant or distracting input. Attention allows us to concentrate on important
details and control our awareness.
Memory: The ability to encode, store, and retrieve information over time. Memory plays a
crucial role in learning and retaining knowledge and experiences.
Language: The system of communication that involves the use of words, grammar, and
syntax to convey meaning. Language is essential for expressing thoughts, sharing
information, and understanding others.
Problem-Solving: The cognitive process of finding solutions to challenges or obstacles by
using reasoning, planning, and decision-making skills.
Decision Making: The cognitive process of selecting a course of action among several
alternatives based on perceived outcomes and preferences.
Learning: The process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, or behaviors through experiences,
observation, and instruction.
Cognitive Development: The study of how cognitive abilities and processes change and
develop over the lifespan, from infancy to old age.
Mental Imagery: The ability to mentally represent and manipulate visual, auditory, or other
sensory information in the absence of external stimuli.
Reasoning: The process of drawing logical conclusions and making inferences based on
available information.
Let’s understand the importance and role of our cognition through an example. Imagine you
are about to cross a busy street. The process of crossing the street involves various cognitive
steps:
Perception: You use your senses to observe the traffic, pedestrian signals, and road conditions
to determine if it's safe to cross.
Attention: You pay attention to the traffic lights and look for oncoming cars, focusing on the
relevant visual and auditory cues.

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Memory: You remember the rules of crossing the street safely, such as looking both ways and
waiting for the pedestrian signal to turn green.
Decision-Making: Based on your observations and the traffic signals, you decide whether it's
the right time to cross or if you should wait.
Planning: You plan your route across the street, identifying the best path to avoid oncoming
vehicles.
Motor Skills: You use your motor skills to walk, stop, and make any necessary adjustments
while crossing the street.
Cognitive Flexibility: If the traffic changes suddenly, you may need to adapt your plan and
decisions accordingly.
Risk Assessment: Throughout the process, you assess the potential risks and make
adjustments to ensure your safety.
Emotional Response: Your emotions may play a role, such as feeling anxious if the traffic is
heavy or relieved when you successfully cross.
This example highlights how cognition is involved in everyday activities that require
decision-making, attention, perception, and motor skills. Crossing the street safely involves a
series of cognitive processes that help you navigate the environment and make choices to
protect yourself from potential hazards.

1.3 FOUR MAIN APPROACHES IN THE STUDYING OF

COGNITION
1. Cognitive psychology approach: this approach involves using behavioural evidence to
enhance our understanding of human cognition. Since behavioural data are also of great
importance within cognitive neuroscience and cognitive neuropsychology, cognitive
psychology’s influence is enormous.
2. Cognitive neuropsychology: this approach involves studying brain-damaged patients to
understand it’s impact on patterns of cognitive performance and normal human
cognition. It was originally closely linked to cognitive psychology but has recently also
become linked to cognitive neuroscience.
3. Cognitive neuroscience: this approach studies brain activity using evidence from
behaviour to understand human cognition.

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4. Computational cognitive science: this approach involves developing computational

models to further our understanding of human cognition; such models increasingly
incorporate knowledge of behaviour and the brain. A computational model takes the
form of an algorithm,
Note, however, there has been a substantial increase in research combining two (or even
more) of these approaches. Comparisons of different approaches. The major approaches are
increasingly used in combination. Each approach has its own strengths and limitations, which
makes it useful to use converging operations. When two approaches produce the same
findings, this is stronger evidence than can be obtained from a single approach on its own. If
two approaches produce different findings, this indicates further research is needed to clarify
what is happening.

1.4 COGNITIVE REVOLUTION

The decade of the 1950s is generally recognized as the beginning of the cognitive
revolution—a shift in psychology from the behaviorist’s focus on stimulus–response
relationships to an approach whose main thrust was to understand the operation of the mind.
the paradigm shift from behaviorism to the cognitive approach provided a new way to look at
behavior.
Let’s take a look over significant contributions that led to this revolution in the field of
psychology.
1.4.1 Philosophical inputs to cognitive psychology
Just like other disciplines, field of cognitive psychology has benefited greatly from classic
philosophical contributions. Philosophy has influenced many of the fundamental concepts
and core theories of cognitive psychology. Hence it is important for us to know about it as
well.
In the early philosophical discussions, it can be noticed the interest in the topic of how
humans think and the content of thoughts itself. Speculations were made about memory and
thought processes just like speculations were made about other fascinating topics during that
time. These philosophical discussions were mainly made through the method of
introspection, intro= inward or within, and -spect= to look, so basically in-depth analysis or
examination of inner ideas and experiences was done.
The classic thinkers who have had major contribution in shaping today’s psychology field are
Greek Philosophers like Plato (ca. 428–348 B.C.) and his student Aristotle (384–322 B.C.).
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Then came René Descartes (1596–1650), the British empiricist John Locke (1632–1704) and
David Hume (1711-1776) among others. Let’s go over some important philosophical
positions that deal with the origins of knowledge and the nature of human cognition-
Nativism, and Rationalism, Empiricism. While they share some similarities, they differ in
their core beliefs about the sources of knowledge.
Nativism holds the idea that we come into the world with a great deal of innate knowledge.It
posits that certain ideas, principles, or cognitive structures are present in the human mind
from birth or early in development, prior to any sensory experience. These innate ideas are
seen as universal and shared by all human beings, regardless of culture or environment. Swiss
philosopher and developmental psychologist, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) ideas laid
the groundwork for nativist perspectives on human development and cognition. In his work
"Émile, or On Education" (published in 1762), Rousseau proposed the concept of "natural
man," which posited that humans are born with innate goodness and a natural disposition to
learn and develop.
Notable figures like Noam Chomsky, who developed the theory of Universal Grammar and
proposed that humans are born with an innate capacity for language, have built upon
Rousseau's foundational ideas.
Rationalism holds the idea that reason and logic are the primary sources of knowledge.
Rationalists believe that knowledge gained through reasoning is more reliable and certain
than knowledge derived from sensory experience. One of the impactful rationalist
philosophers was René Descartes, who famously stated, "I think, therefore I am." Rationalism
has made important contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in shaping the
understanding of human cognition, decision-making, and problem-solving. Rationalism's
emphasis on deductive reasoning and logical thinking aligns with the cognitive approach's
interest in understanding how humans process information and make decisions.
Human Information Processing Models: Rationalist principles have been integrated into
models of human information processing. These models explain how individuals encode,
store, retrieve, and manipulate information using cognitive processes that are consistent with
rationalist concepts of logical reasoning which we will study in later chapters.
Empiricism holds the idea that primary source of knowledge is our experience and through
our sensory inputs. And to establish or derive the truth or right kind of knowledge, the only
way is through observation and experimentation. Empiricists such as John Locke(1632-
1704), David Hume (1711-1776), Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). Their work has laid the
foundation for empirical research and the scientific study of psychology. In his influential
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work "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1689), Locke argued that the mind at
birth is a "tabula rasa," or blank slate, and all knowledge is derived from sensory experience.
In his work "A Treatise of Human Nature" (1739), he explored the limitations of human
knowledge and questioned the concept of causality. Often considered the "father of
experimental psychology," Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany, in 1879.
1.4.2 Psychological Inputs to Cognitive Psychology
Structuralism was one of the earliest schools of thought in psychology, it laid some important
groundwork for the development of the cognitive approach. Structuralism aimed to break
down complex mental experiences into their constituent parts and understand how these
elements combine to form conscious experience through the method known as introspection.
The major proponents of structuralism in psychology were Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)and
Edward B. Titchener(1867-1927). Wundt is often referred to as the "father of experimental
psychology." He founded the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in
Germany in 1879, marking the beginning of modern psychology as a scientific discipline.
Wundt's work focused on studying the structure of consciousness through introspection. He
believed that psychology should be a science that investigates conscious experiences
systematically and objectively.
His influential book "Principles of Physiological Psychology" (1874) laid out his theories and
methodologies, emphasizing the use of introspection to analyse the basic elements of
consciousness and their combinations.
Titchener was a British psychologist who became a prominent advocate and promoter of
Wundt's ideas in the United States. He was a student of Wundt and played a significant role
in introducing structuralism to American psychology.
Titchener established the first psychology laboratory in the United States at Cornell
University and promoted Wundtian ideas through his teaching and research.
He refined Wundt's ideas and developed a more systematic and rigorous method of
introspection known as "experimental introspection." Titchener's introspective technique
focused on describing the elements of experience in a standardized and controlled way
To illustrate how a structuralist would study the mind let's consider a practical example of
how a structuralist might break down the perception of a simple visual object, such as a red
apple:

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1. Stimulus Selection: The structuralist chooses a red apple as the visual stimulus to be
observed.
2. Introspection: Trained observers are asked to introspectively report their conscious
experiences while looking at the red apple. They describe their mental experiences as
they visually perceive the apple.
3. Analysis of Conscious Experience: Observers report the following elements of their
conscious experience:
Color: The observers report seeing the color red, describing its hue and intensity.
Shape: They describe the apple's shape as round or oval, with a stem protruding from
the top.
Texture: Some observers may notice the smoothness or roughness of the apple's skin.
Size: They perceive the apple as being a certain size, which they may compare to
familiar objects for reference.
4. Organization of Elements: The structuralist examines how the different elements of
color, shape, texture, and size are combined and organized to form the unified
perception of a red apple. They might explore how the brain integrates these sensory
inputs to create a coherent and recognizable representation of the apple.
5. Generalization: By collecting data from multiple observers, the structuralist can identify
common patterns in the perception of red apples. They might find that most observers
consistently report perceiving the apple's red color and round shape, indicating some
degree of consistency in the perceptual experience.
Overall, a structuralist studying the mind's perception of a visual object would use
introspection as the primary method to break down the perceptual experience into basic
elements and analyze how these elements are organized and combined to form the conscious
perception of the object. While introspection has limitations and is not widely used in
contemporary psychology, it played a significant role in the early development of the field
and the study of mental processes.
Functionalism
Functionalism, like structuralism, was another early school of thought in psychology. While
structuralism focused on analyzing the basic elements of consciousness, functionalism shifted
the emphasis to the study of the mind's functions and the purpose of mental processes.
Functionalists sought to understand how the mind works and how mental processes help us to
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adapt and function in the given environment. In simple terms, the main question was to
understand what people do and why they do it.
Contributions of Functionalism to the Study of Mind in Cognitive Psychology:
1. Emphasis on Mental Processes: Functionalism laid the groundwork for studying mental
processes, just like cognitive psychology does. Functionalists believed that the mind is
not a static entity but a dynamic system that serves various functions to adapt to the
environment and facilitate survival.
2. Focus on Adaptation: Functionalists emphasized the importance of understanding how
mental processes enable individuals to adapt and function effectively in their
surroundings.
3. Purposeful Behavior: Functionalism sought to explain behavior in terms of its purpose
and function.
4. Application of Evolutionary Principles: Functionalism, particularly through the work of
William James, incorporated evolutionary principles to explain the origins and
development of mental processes.
5. Understanding Consciousness: Functionalism acknowledged the significance of
consciousness as a continuous and evolving stream of mental activities.
Some of the key proponents of functionalism include:
William James (1842-1910): W. James is often considered the father of American
psychology and a major proponent of functionalism. His book "The Principles of
Psychology" (1890) is one of the most influential works in the history of psychology.
functionalism's emphasis on understanding the functions and purposes of mental processes,
as well as its recognition of the adaptive nature of cognition, has helped pave the way for
cognitive psychology's investigation of complex cognitive functions, problem-solving
strategies, memory systems, language processing, and decision-making. He introduced the
concept of the "stream of consciousness" to describe the continuous and ever-changing flow
of thoughts and experiences.
John Dewey (1859-1952): J. Dewey was a philosopher, psychologist, and educational
reformer who embraced functionalist principles in his work. Dewey emphasized the practical
and adaptive aspects of mental processes and viewed the mind as an instrument for problem-
solving and achieving goals.

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Harvey Carr (1873-1954): Carr was an American psychologist who contributed to the
development of functionalism. Carr emphasized the role of learning and adaptation in
shaping behavior and mental processes. His work focused on animal behavior and the
adaptive functions of behavior in various species.
Associationism
Functionalists were curious about the process of learning but did not provide a detailed
explanation of how it occurs. However, a different group known as associationists took on the
task of examining the mechanisms behind learning.
Associationism is a psychological theory that proposes that learning and cognition are based
on the association of mental elements or ideas. It played a significant role in the development
of cognitive psychology by contributing to the understanding of how mental processes,
memory, and knowledge formation occur. The key principles of associationism and its role in
cognitive psychology include:
Association of Ideas: Associationists, such as John Locke and David Hume, proposed that
complex ideas and knowledge are formed through the association of simple sensory
experiences or ideas. They suggested that when two or more experiences or ideas are
repeatedly experienced together or in close succession, they become linked in the mind.
Laws of Association: Associationists identified several laws of association that describe how
ideas become associated in the mind. These laws include:
a. Contiguity: Ideas that are experienced close together in time and space are more likely
to be associated.
b. Similarity: Similar ideas are more likely to be associated with each other.
c. Contrast: Ideas that are opposite or contrasting may also become associated.
Role in Memory: Associationism helped to explain how memory functions. According to this
theory, memory is the result of the activation of associated ideas. When one idea is recalled,
it triggers the retrieval of related ideas through the network of associations. Associationism
has inspired a wide range of classic research studies in psychology, particularly in the areas
of memory, learning, and language.
Here are some classic research studies that exemplify the principles of associationism:
1. Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve (1885):

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 Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted groundbreaking research on memory and

forgetting. Rather than using Wundt’s method of analytic introspection,
Ebbinghaus used a quantitative method for measuring memory. Using himself as
the participant, he repeated lists of 13 nonsense syllables such as DAX, QEH,
LUH, and ZIF to himself one at a time at a constant rate. He used nonsense
syllables so that his memory would not be influenced by the meaning of a
particular word.
 Ebbinghaus found that forgetting follows a systematic pattern, known as the
forgetting curve. He observed that the rate of forgetting is initially rapid but levels
off over time. This research demonstrated how associations between items in
memory decay over time and highlighted the role of repetition in strengthening
memory associations.
2. Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning (1897):
 Ivan Pavlov's research on classical conditioning with dogs is one of the most
famous examples of associationist principles in action.
 Pavlov discovered that dogs could be conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus
(a bell) with a reflexive response (salivating to food). Over time, the dogs learned
to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even in the absence of food. This
research demonstrated how associations between stimuli and responses can be
formed through repeated pairings.
3. Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect (1898):
 Edward Thorndike conducted research on learning and problem-solving with cats
in puzzle boxes.
 He observed that cats in puzzle boxes learned to escape more quickly and
efficiently with repeated trials. Thorndike formulated the Law of Effect, which
states that behaviors that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be
repeated, while behaviors leading to unsatisfying outcomes are less likely to be
repeated. This research highlighted the role of reinforcement in shaping
associative learning.
4. B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning (1938):
 B.F. Skinner's research expanded on associationist principles, particularly with his
work on operant conditioning.

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 Skinner studied how animals (and later humans) learned through the consequences
of their actions. He demonstrated how reinforcement and punishment could shape
behavior through associative learning.
5. Benjamin Whorf's Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (1956):
 Benjamin Whorf's research focused on the influence of language on thought and
cognition.
 He proposed that the structure and vocabulary of a language influence how its
speakers perceive and think about the world. Whorf's work exemplified how
associations between language and conceptual categories can shape cognition.
Behaviourism
Behaviourism represented a significant shift in the focus of psychological inquiry, moving
away from the study of mental processes and introspection (as in structuralism and
functionalism) and emphasizing observable behavior as the primary subject of study. Several
key factors contributed to the development and rise of behaviourism:
1. Dissatisfaction with Structuralism and Functionalism: By the early 20th century, both
structuralism and functionalism faced criticism and limitations. Critics argued that
introspection, the primary method used in these approaches, was subjective and
lacked scientific rigor. There was a growing demand for more objective and
systematic methods in psychology.
2. Influence of Animal Studies: Behavioral studies with animals, particularly the work of
Ivan Pavlov and his research on classical conditioning with dogs, had a profound
impact on psychology. Pavlov's findings demonstrated the importance of objective
observation and experimental control in studying behavior, and they inspired
psychologists to explore behavior in a more rigorous and scientific manner.
3. John B. Watson's "Behaviorist Manifesto" (1913):
 John B. Watson is considered the father of behaviourism. In 1913, he published an
influential paper titled "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It," which is often
referred to as the "Behaviorist Manifesto."
 In this paper, Watson argued that psychology should only concern itself with
observable behavior, rejecting the study of unobservable mental processes as
unscientific and speculative.

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 Watson's call for a scientific and objective approach to studying behavior laid the
foundation for the behaviourist movement.
4. The Principle of Stimulus-Response: Behaviourism adopted the principle of stimulus-
response (S-R) to explain how behavior is influenced by external stimuli. According
to this principle, behavior is a direct response to environmental stimuli, and learning
occurs through the association of stimuli and responses.
5. Rise of Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner, a leading behaviorist, expanded on the
principles of classical conditioning and introduced operant conditioning. Skinner's
work demonstrated how behavior can be shaped and modified through reinforcement
and punishment.
6. Influence of Technology and Methodology: Advances in technology, such as the use
of operant chambers (Skinner boxes), allowed behaviorists to study behavior in a
controlled and objective manner. The use of animal subjects and controlled
environments facilitated systematic experimentation.
7. Practical Applications: Behaviorism's emphasis on observable behavior and the
principles of learning had practical applications in areas such as education, therapy
(behavior therapy), and animal training.
The key proponents of behaviorism, while contributing to the development of the school of
thought, were driven by various motives and perspectives, not all of which were shared in
common. Each founder had unique experiences, interests, and goals that shaped their
approach to behaviorism. Watson's emphasis on objectivity and experimental methods,
Pavlov's exploration of conditioned reflexes, Thorndike's work on instrumental learning, and
Skinner's development of operant conditioning all contributed to the development of
behaviorism, but their individual motivations and perspectives set them apart. Additionally,
over time, behaviourism itself underwent further refinement and evolution, incorporating new
theories and research methods.
Few of the criticisms that are important to highlight were:
1. Disregard of internal mental processes- One of the main criticisms of behaviorism is its
exclusive focus on observable behavior, neglecting internal mental processes
2. Ignoring Individual Differences: Behaviorism often treated all individuals as uniform in
their learning and behavior. It failed to consider the role of individual differences,
genetic factors, and inherent cognitive capabilities that can influence how people
respond to environmental stimuli and learn.
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3. Overemphasis on Environmental Determinism: Behaviorism heavily emphasized the

influence of the environment on behavior, often overlooking the potential role of
inherent dispositions, personality traits, and cognitive factors in shaping behavior.
4. Limited Applicability to Complex Behaviors: While behaviorism successfully
explained simple behaviors that could be easily observed and manipulated, it struggled
to account for more complex cognitive processes and behaviors, such as language
acquisition, problem-solving, and creative thinking.
5. Ethical Concerns: Some applications of behaviorism, particularly in behavior
modification and conditioning techniques, have been criticized for their ethical
implications, as they may involve manipulation and control of individuals' behavior
without their informed consent.
Gestalt
Gestalt psychology emerged in the early 20th century in Germany as a reaction against
structuralism and behaviorism. The term "Gestalt" comes from the German word for "form"
or "configuration," reflecting the focus on studying the organization of perceptual
experiences as meaningful wholes.
 Gestalt psychologists, such as Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka,
emphasized that human perception is not simply the sum of individual sensory elements
but is influenced by the way these elements are organized into meaningful patterns or
configurations.
 The principles of Gestalt psychology include the laws of organization, such as
"proximity," "similarity," "closure," and "good continuation," which describe how the
mind naturally organizes sensory information into coherent and structured perceptions.
 Gestalt psychologists also emphasized the role of insight and problem-solving,
highlighting how individuals perceive and solve problems by restructuring their
understanding of a situation.
 Gestalt psychologists also emphasized the importance of the perception of stimulus
patterning to our conscious experience. A tune played in one key on one sort of
instrument remains the same tune when played in another key or on a different
instrument. Since the notes, or the sounds making up the notes, have changed in each
case, there must be more to the tune than can be found by an analysis into simple
auditory sensations. The tune is in the perceived relationships between the notes, their
patterning.
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While Gestalt psychology had a significant impact on the study of perception and problem-
solving, it did not delve deeply into cognitive processes or propose a comprehensive theory
of mental representation.
Structuralism Functionalism Behaviourism Gestalt
Goal of To understand the To study the -To study -To understand
psychology structure of the processes of observable psychological
mind and its mind rather than behavior phenomena as
perceptions by its contents -Any hypotheses organized,
analyzing those about internal structured wholes
perceptions into thoughts and -The whole
their constituent ways of thinking differs from the
components are nothing more sum of its parts
than speculation
-We cannot say
anything
meaningful about
cognition
Method Introspection – introspection, Animal experiment,
looking inward at observation, experiments, observation
pieces of experiment conditioning
information experiments
passing through
consciousness
Proponents Wilhelm Wundt, William James- John Watson, Max Wertheimer,
Edward Titchener Principles of B.F. Skinner Wolfgang Köhler
Psychology
(1890)
Table 1: Comparison of various psychological schools of thought.
1.4.3 Age of Computer and Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
The emergence of cognitive psychology as a distinct and influential subfield of psychology
can be attributed to a combination of all the above mentionedhistorical, theoretical, and
methodological factors. The cognitive revolution, which occurred in the mid-20th century,
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marked a significant shift in the field's focus from behaviorism to the study of mental
processes and cognition. Let’s understand some key factors that contributed to the emergence
of cognitive psychology:
1. Criticisms of Behaviorism Tolman’s Cognitive Map:: Although behaviorism
dominated American psychology for many decades, some researchers were not toeing
the strict behaviorist line. One of these researchers was Edward Chace Tolman.
Tolman, who from 1918 to 1954 was at the University of Calif California at Berkeley,
called himself a behaviorist because his focus was on measuring behavior. But in
reality, he was one of the early cognitive psychologists, because he used behavior to
infer mental processes. He carried out studies in which rats learned tto run through a
maze to a goal box containing food. When Tolman blocked o. the path the rats had
learned to use, they rapidly learned to follow other paths leading in the right general
direction. Tolman concluded the rats had acquired an internal cognitive map
indicating the maze’s approximate layout.
2. Advent of Digital computers and Influence of Information Processing Approach: The
first digital computers, developed in the late 1940s, were huge machines that took up
entire buildings, but in 1954 IBM introdu
introduced
ced a computer that was available to the
general public. With this the famous analogy between the mind and computers came
into being known as the information processing analogy which played a significant
role in shaping the development of cognitive psychol
psychology.
ogy. Let’s try to understand it in
a very simple sense through this diagram:

Fig.1: Mind-computer analogy

Input (Sensory) Information
Information:: In the analogy, the input stage represents the sensory
information that the mind receives from the external envi
environment.
ronment. In the case of a computer,
this is similar to the data or signals received from input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, or
microphone.
Processing (Mind):: The processing stage represents the mental processes that occur within
the mind. These processes
sses involve the manipulation, storage, and retrieval of information.
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Just like a computer's central processing unit (CPU) processes data, the mind processes
sensory information to make sense of it, form perceptions, memories, thoughts, and emotions.
Output Information: The output stage represents the results or responses generated by the
mind in response to the processed information. This could be behavior, actions, decisions, or
verbal responses. In the case of a computer, this is akin to the output data or signals sent to
display screens, speakers, or other output devices.
It's important to note that while the information processing analogy has been useful in
advancing cognitive psychology, it is a simplified representation. The human mind is
immensely complex. Nonetheless, it provided a foundational framework for understanding
cognitive functions such as memory, attention, problem-solving, and decision-making.
3. Chomsky's Critique of Language Acquisition: Noam Chomsky's critique of
behaviorist theories of language acquisition was influential in sparking the cognitive
revolution. Chomsky argued that the ability to acquire language was not solely the
result of environmental conditioning, as behaviorism suggested. Instead, he proposed
an innate language capacity and universal grammar, igniting interest in understanding
the cognitive mechanisms underlying language processing. Chomsky's theory
proposes that all languages share a universal grammar, a set of underlying
grammatical principles common to all human languages. This universal grammar
guides language learning, allowing children to generalize linguistic rules from the
specific examples they encounter.
4. Rediscovery of Mental Processes: Psychologists, dissatisfied with behaviorism's
limitations, renewed their interest in studying mental processes and cognitive
functions. Research into memory, attention, perception, and problem-solving gained
momentum, and there was a growing recognition of the importance of these mental
processes in shaping behavior.
5. Cognitive Neuroscience: The integration of cognitive psychology with neuroscience,
particularly in the study of brain function and cognitive processes, further
strengthened the cognitive revolution. Cognitive neuroscience combines cognitive
research with brain imaging and neuroscientific techniques, providing a deeper
understanding of the neural basis of cognition.
6. Methodological Advances: Advances in research methodologies, including
experimental techniques, computational modeling, and cognitive tasks, facilitated the
study of mental processes and cognitive functions in a more systematic and scientific
manner.

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Collectively, these factors led to the emergence of cognitive psychology as a field that
focuses on understanding the complexities of human cognition, thought processes, and the
relationship between the mind and behavior. Cognitive psychology has since become a
fundamental area of research within psychology, influencing diverse fields such as education,
clinical psychology, neuroscience, and human-computer interaction.
1.4.4 Seminal Works in Cognitive Psychology
Seminal works in cognitive psychology refer to influential and groundbreaking research
studies, papers, or books that have significantly contributed to the development and
establishment of cognitive psychology as a distinct and influential subfield within
psychology. These works have laid the foundation for understanding human cognition,
mental processes, and the study of the mind. They have had a lasting impact on the field and
continue to shape cognitive research and theory today.
1. "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two" is a classic paper by George A.
Miller (1956) that explores the limitations of human short-term memory capacity. In
this paper, Miller proposed that the average person can hold approximately seven items
(give or take two) in their short-term memory. This concept became known as Miller's
Law and had a significant impact on the study of memory and information processing.
2. "Cognitive Psychology" book written by Ulric Neisser, published in 1967, is a seminal
and influential book that is considered one of the foundational works in the field of
cognitive psychology. Neisser’s textbook, which coined the term cognitive psychology
and emphasized the information-processing approach to studying the mind, provided an
overview of the emerging field of cognitive psychology and its focus on the study of
mental processes, information processing, and cognition.
3. "Verbal Behavior" by B.F. Skinner (1957): In this book, B.F. Skinner presented his
behaviorist account of language and verbal behavior. While his views on language
acquisition faced criticism, his work stimulated debates and discussions about the role
of behaviorism in understanding language and cognition.
4. "The Nature of Thought" by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon (1972): Newell and
Simon's book is a seminal work in cognitive science and artificial intelligence. The
authors introduced the concept of "information processing psychology" and proposed
the influential "General Problem Solver" (GPS) model. It was one of the earliest
attempts to create an artificial intelligence program capable of solving a wide range of
problems using human-like cognitive processes.

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5. "Plans and the Structure of Behavior" by Donald Broadbent (1958): In this influential
book, Donald Broadbent introduced the concept of information processing in cognitive
psychology. He proposed the "filter" model of attention, which suggested that the mind
selectively processes information, focusing on relevant stimuli and filtering out
irrelevant ones.
6. "Cognitive Development" by Jean Piaget (1972): Jean Piaget's extensive research on
cognitive development is considered a landmark in the study of how children acquire
knowledge and understanding of the world. His work emphasized the importance of
cognitive structures (schemas) in learning and problem-solving.
These seminal works have been instrumental in shaping the theoretical frameworks and
research directions in cognitive psychology. They have inspired generations of researchers to
explore the complexities of human cognition and have contributed significantly to our
understanding of cognitive processes, memory, problem-solving, language, and human
intelligence.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. The "cognitive revolution" in psychology refers to the shift from behaviorism to a

focus on:
a) Neurotransmitter interactions
b) Mental processes and information processing
c) Classical conditioning
d) Observational learning
2. Who is often credited with the formal introduction of the term "cognitive psychology"
in 1967?
a) William James b) John Watson
c) Ulric Neisser d) Ivan Pavlov
3. The development of the "information processing model" was inspired by analogies
drawn from ________.
a) Computer science and technology b) Physics and chemistry
c) Biology and genetics d) Anthropology and sociology
4. Noam Chomskyargued that humans are biologically predisposed with a(n) ________
to acquire language.
a) Language module b) Linguistic determinism
c) Behavior modification d) Cognitive schema

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1.5 METHODOLOGIES AND SCOPE

In methodologies and scope of cognitive psychology a wide range of research approaches and
areas of investigation related to human mental processes is involved. A cornerstone of the
“cognitive revolution” was that internal representations and transformations can be
scientifically studied even if only stimulus and response are directly measurable.
Although many philosophers spend hours arguing about the definition of science, one thing
that’s central is a systematic understanding of something in order to make a reliable
prediction. The scientific method commonly follows this fairly strict pattern:
1. Devise a testable hypothesis or theory that explains something. An example may be:
how do people store information in their memory? Sometimes this is called a model
(you encounter many models in this book).
2. Design an experiment or a method of observation to test the hypothesis. Create a
situation to see whether the hypothesis is true: that is, manipulate something and see
what it affects.
3. Compare the results obtained with what was predicted.
4. Correct or extend the theory based on the result found.
Following this scientific pattern, research methods such as experiments, computational
models, studies with patients, and brain scanning have played crucial roles in advancing our
understanding of how the cognitive system works. Each of these approaches offers unique
insights into different aspects of cognition, allowing psychologists to investigate and analyze
cognitive processes from various perspectives. Here's how each method has contributed to
our understanding:
1.5.1 Experiments
Controlled experiments are a hallmark of cognitive psychology. The tightly controlled
laboratory experiment is one of the most commonly used techniques for researching cognitive
psychology. The experimenters take the participants’ responses, usually in terms of measures
of response speed and their accuracy, and use statistics to work out whether the hypothesis
and cognitive psychological model is correct or not. These statistics allow researchers to see
whether the sample tested reflects the whole population of people that could’ve been tested.
Researchers design experiments to manipulate specific variables and measure the resulting
cognitive responses. By carefully controlling conditions, researchers can draw cause-and-
effect conclusions about cognitive processes. For example, experiments on memory might
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involve presenting participants with lists of words under various conditions to understand the
factors influencing memory recall.
For example experiments done to study attention, researchers use visual search tasks to
examine how attention is deployed when searching for a specific target among distractors.
They manipulate factors like target saliency and set size to explore attentional mechanisms.
1.5.2 Self-Reports, Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation:
Cognitive psychology benefits from a combination of self-reports, case studies, and
naturalistic observation. These methods complement one another, allowing researchers to
explore cognitive processes from multiple perspectives, from subjective experiences to real-
world behavior. The findings obtained through these methods contribute to the broader
understanding of human cognition and how it functions in diverse contexts.
Self-Reports in Cognitive Psychology: Self-reports are commonly used in cognitive
psychology to gather information about individuals' subjective experiences, beliefs, thoughts,
and perceptions. Researchers use various self-report measures, such as questionnaires and
surveys, to assess cognitive functions, memory, attention, problem-solving strategies, and
attitudes towards cognitive tasks.
For example, in memory research, participants may be asked to recall or recognize
information presented in a memory task. Self-reports can provide valuable insights into how
individuals perceive their own memory abilities, strategies they use to remember information,
and their subjective experiences during memory tasks. However, it's important to
acknowledge that self-reports have limitations, such as potential biases and inaccuracies in
participants' responses. Researchers must carefully consider the phrasing of questions and be
aware of social desirability biases that could influence participants' answers.
Case Studies in Cognitive Psychology: Case studies in cognitive psychology are typically
used to explore rare or unique cognitive phenomena or to gain an in-depth understanding of a
specific individual's cognitive processes. Researchers may examine patients with brain
injuries, neurological disorders, or unique cognitive abilities to gain insights into the neural
basis of cognition.
For instance, studying individuals with selective memory deficits (e.g., highly superior
autobiographical memory) can provide valuable information about the mechanisms of
memory encoding and retrieval. Case studies can also be instrumental in investigating the
effects of brain lesions on specific cognitive functions.

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Although case studies offer detailed and nuanced information, their findings are not easily
generalizable to broader populations due to their focus on specific cases. Nevertheless, they
serve as important groundwork for generating hypotheses and guiding further research.
Naturalistic Observation in Cognitive Psychology: Naturalistic observation is used in
cognitive psychology to study cognition and behavior in real-world settings without artificial
manipulations. Observing individuals engaging in cognitive tasks or problem-solving in their
natural environment can offer valuable insights into how cognitive processes operate in
everyday life.
For example, researchers might observe how people use navigation strategies in a city or how
they solve problems during social interactions. This method allows researchers to examine
the influence of environmental and contextual factors on cognitive performance.
Naturalistic observation helps researchers understand the ecological validity of cognitive
processes, as they are studied in real-life situations. However, it also comes with limitations,
including the lack of control over extraneous variables and the potential for observer bias.
1.5.3 Computational Models:
Computational models are computer-based simulations that replicate cognitive processes and
behaviors based on theoretical assumptions. Researchers can employ computers to mimic
human cognition in what’s called computational modelling. A good computational model is
specific enough to predict human behaviour. These kinds of theories are more precise than
the oftenvague verbal theories that earlier cognitive psychologists used. Cognitive scientists
develop models to test theories about cognitive functioning and to understand how specific
cognitive processes might work.
These models help researchers make predictions about cognitive behaviors under different
conditions and can be compared to empirical data to validate or refine theories.
Computational models have contributed to advances in artificial intelligence and cognitive
neuroscience, bridging the gap between theory and application.
1.5.4 Studies with Patients
Studies with patients who have suffered brain injuries or neurological disorders provide
essential insights into the localization of cognitive functions in the brain.Cognitive
neuropsychology is the study of brain-damaged patients in an attempt to understand normal
cognition. Often the ingenious studies that cognitive psychologists devise are run on people
with various types of brain damage to see whether they perform differently. The aim is to

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identify what processes take place where in the brain, and what groups of tasks are related in
terms of cognitive functioning
By examining how specific cognitive abilities are affected after brain damage, researchers
can infer the brain regions responsible for those functions. For example, studying patients
with damage to the hippocampus has revealed its role in memory consolidation.
Patient studies also help identify cognitive deficits associated with specific neurological
conditions, informing rehabilitation strategies and treatment approaches.
Similarly studies on language disorders: Research with patients who have aphasia (language
impairment) after stroke or brain injury helps identify the brain areas involved in different
aspects of language processing.
The German neurologist, Korbinian Brodmann, was the first to map the brain directly. He
named 52 different brain areas and his descriptions are still used today.
1.5.5 Brain Scanning (Neuroimaging)
Brain scanning techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and
positron emission tomography (PET), enable non-invasive observation of brain activity
during cognitive tasks. Neuroimaging allows researchers to link cognitive processes with
specific brain regions and networks, providing a deeper understanding of the neural basis of
cognition. By mapping brain activity while participants engage in various cognitive tasks,
researchers gain insights into the brain areas involved in attention, memory, language
processing, and other cognitive functions.Neuroimaging techniques can be of various types:
 Single cell recording: An electrode records the activity of single cells, which usually
requires drilling into the skull and brain (so not something to undergo while eating
lunch).
 Electroencephalography (EEG): Electrodes placed on the surface of the scalp measure
the electrical activity of the brain. Electrical spikes occur due to the presentation of
certain stimuli, called event-related potentials (ERPs). This technique records brain
activity quickly but isn’t good at finding the source of the activity.
 Positron emission tomography (PET): Radioactive substances are absorbed into the
blood and a scanner picks them up when the blood enters the brain.
 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): A large (and noisy) scanner detects the
level of oxygen in the blood as it enters the brain. The more blood in certain areas, the

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more it’s assumed to be active. This technique isn’t good at measuring the speed of
brain processing, but it can localise the source quite accurately.
 Magneto-encephalography (MEG): Similar to EEG, this method measures magnetic
fields produced by the brain’s electrical activity.
 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): A large magnetic pulse is sent into part of the
brain, which stops that part working for a brief period.
 Transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS): This method involves sending a small
electrical current through parts of the brain to see how enhanced or reduced activity to a
particular region affects performance on certain cognitive tasks.
These techniques can be useful in establishing which part of the brain is responsible for
processing certain things, although none of them are completely accurate.
Integration of Methods:
The power of understanding cognition lies in the integration of these different methods. For
example, computational models can be tested against experimental data, confirming or
refining theories. Brain scanning in healthy individuals can be used to validate the predictions
made by computational models, ensuring their accuracy in representing brain function.
Studies with patients can provide critical evidence that supports or refutes hypotheses
generated by experiments and computational models.
Together, these methods have contributed to significant advancements in our understanding
of the cognitive system. By combining experimental findings, computational models, patient
studies, and brain imaging data, psychologists can develop comprehensive theories of
cognition and gain a more holistic understanding of how the human mind works.Each method
brings unique strengths to the investigation of cognitive processes, and their integration
allows researchers to gain a more comprehensive understanding of how the mind works. By
utilizing these diverse approaches, cognitive psychologists continue to advance our
knowledge of human cognition and behavior.

1.6 FUNDAMENTAL IDEAS AND KEY THEMES

There will be a number of common themes that will run throughout topics related to
cognitive psychology that you will study about – no matter what topic you are studying, these
‘running themes’ will recur and it is important that you keep these concepts in mind.

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1.6.1 Bottom-up
up processing and top
top-down processing
These two types of processing are fundamental approaches to information processing in
human perception and cognition. They involve different ways in which we make sense of the
world and interpret incoming sensory information.
Bottom-up
up processing, also kn
known as data-driven
driven processing, refers to the way we perceive
and interpret information by starting with individual sensory stimuli and building up to a
complete perception. In this approach, the sensory information from the environment is
analyzed and synthesized
hesized to form a perception or understanding of a stimulus.
Example of Bottom-Up
Up Processing:
Imagine looking at a new piece of art that you have never seen before. Your eyes receive the
visual information of various lines, colors, shapes, and textures on the canvas. Your brain
processes these individual elements and combines them to create a complete and coherent
perception of the artwork.

Fig.2: Bottom
Bottom-up processing flowchart

Top-down
down processing, also known as conceptually
conceptually-driven
driven processing, involves using
preexisting knowledge, context, and expectations to interpret incoming sensory information.
In this approach, our prior knowledge and experiences influence how we perceive and
understand the world.
Example of Top-Down
Down Processing:
Suppose you are reading
ing a familiar paragraph in a book, and there is a typo in one of the
words. Despite the typo, you can still understand the correct word because your brain relies

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on your knowledge of language and the context of the sentence to fill in the missing
information.

Fig.3: Top
Top-down processing flowchart
In summary, the main difference between bottom
bottom-up and top-down
down processing is the direction
of information flow. Bottom
Bottom-up
up processing starts with sensory input and builds up to a
perception, while top-down
down processing involves using prior knowledge and context to
interpret sensory information.

Fig
Fig.4: Visual processing diagram
(Source: Owlcation, CC0 Public Domain images, via Pixabay)

It is important to note that these two processing approaches often work together in tandem to
create a complete and coherent understanding of the world. The brain integrates both bottom
bottom-

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up and top-down processing to form perceptions and make sense of the vast amount of
information it receives from the environment.
1.6.2 Another important concept is Chunking. It is a cognitive process in which information
is organized into meaningful and manageable units or "chunks." It allows individuals to
efficiently process and remember information by grouping smaller pieces of information into
larger, more meaningful units. By chunking information, people can work with larger
amounts of data and recall it more easily.
For example, consider trying to remember the following sequence of random letters:
"O, T, E, C, U, N, O, M, E, R, I, C, N, A, B, S, I"
Remembering this sequence as individual letters can be challenging and prone to errors.
However, by chunking the letters into meaningful units, such as:
"OT, EC, UN, OM, ER, IC, NA, BS, I"
It becomes much easier to remember. Each chunk represents a meaningful group of letters,
making the information more manageable and memorable.
Chunking is an effective mnemonic strategy used to enhance memory and information
processing in various contexts, including learning new concepts, remembering sequences,
and improving problem-solving abilities. It is commonly used in education to help students
better understand and remember complex information by organizing it into meaningful
chunks. Additionally, chunking is often observed in expert performers who can effortlessly
process large amounts of information in their domain of expertise due to the effective use of
meaningful chunks.
1.6.3 Ecological validity in cognitive psychology refers to the extent to which the findings of
a study or experiment accurately represent and can be generalized to real-world situations or
everyday life. It assesses how well the research conditions and tasks mimic the natural
environment or the context in which the cognitive processes under investigation typically
occur.
Ecological validity is an essential consideration in cognitive psychology because researchers
aim to understand how cognitive processes operate in everyday settings. While laboratory
experiments provide control and precision, they may not always reflect the complexity and
diversity of real-world cognitive functioning. Therefore, the ecological validity of a study
influences the external validity or generalizability of its findings.
Some factors that affect the ecological validity in cognitive psychology research:
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 Task and Context: The tasks and experimental conditions should closely resemble
real-world situations to ensure that participants' cognitive processes are engaged
similarly to how they would be in their daily lives.
 Sample Characteristics: The participants involved in the study should be
representative of the target population of interest. Demographic factors such as age,
cultural background, and experience should be taken into account.
 Ecologically Valid Measures: The measures used to assess cognitive processes should
be ecologically valid. Researchers need to use instruments that align with how these
processes are naturally expressed in real-world scenarios.
 Environmental Context: The physical environment and the social context in which the
study takes place should be considered to ensure that they do not unduly influence
participants' cognitive behavior.
 Naturalistic Observation: Naturalistic observation, where researchers study behavior
in everyday settings without manipulation, can increase ecological validity by
providing a more authentic understanding of cognitive processes.
1.6.4 In cognitive psychology, the concept of innate ability refers to certain cognitive
capacities or skills that are believed to be present at birth and are genetically determined.
These abilities are considered to be a part of human nature and are thought to be universal
across individuals of a species. The idea of innate ability implies that some cognitive
functions or predispositions are hardwired in the brain, and they do not require extensive
learning or experience to develop.
Some examples of cognitive abilities that are often considered to have innate components
include:
 Language Acquisition: The ability to acquire language is believed to have an innate
basis. No matter the culture or language spoken around them, infants are born with the
capacity to learn and understand the structure of language.
 Basic Sensory Perception: Certain aspects of sensory perception, such as the ability to
recognize and distinguish basic visual shapes or sounds, are thought to be present
from birth.
 Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they
are out of sight, which develops in infants around 6 to 8 months old, is considered to
have innate components.

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It is important to note that the idea of innate ability is a complex and debated topic in
cognitive psychology. While some cognitive capacities may have a strong innate basis, they
are also heavily influenced by environmental factors and experiences. Nature and nurture
both play significant roles in shaping cognitive development and abilities.
Research in cognitive psychology often focuses on understanding the interplay between
genetic predispositions and environmental influences to gain a comprehensive understanding
of how cognitive abilities emerge and develop. Identifying innate cognitive capacities can
provide valuable insights into the mechanisms of cognitive development and the universality
of certain cognitive processes across different cultures and contexts. At the same time it is
essential for us to consider that cognitive abilities are highly malleable and subject to change
through learning, education, and experiences throughout an individual's lifespan.
1.6.5 Modularity
Modularity in cognitive psychology refers to the concept that the human mind is composed of
specialized cognitive systems or modules that function as independent and domain-specific
processors. These modules are thought to handle specific types of information or cognitive
tasks efficiently, with limited interaction or interference from other modules.
In simpler terms it means that the human mind works like a collection of specialized "brain
modules" that are like small, independent machines. Each module is designed to handle
specific tasks, such as recognizing faces, understanding language, or remembering locations.
Imagine your brain as a big puzzle, and each piece of the puzzle represents a different task or
skill. For example, one piece is responsible for recognizing faces, another for understanding
language, and so on. These pieces (or modules) work independently and efficiently, focusing
on their specific job without interfering with the others. So, instead of having one big,
general-purpose brain processor, modularity suggests that your brain is made up of many
smaller specialized processors, each doing its own job. This specialization helps your brain
work faster and more effectively, making it easier for you to do different things, like
recognizing familiar faces or understanding what someone is saying.
While the concept of modularity has been influential in understanding cognitive processes, it
has also faced criticism and debates within the field of cognitive psychology. Some
researchers argue that cognitive functions are more interconnected and interactive, and the
strict modularity hypothesis might oversimplify the complexity of cognitive processing. They
propose that cognitive processes might be better understood as highly interactive and
interconnected networks, with different brain regions contributing to multiple cognitive
functions.

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Despite the debates, the concept of modularity has been a significant theoretical framework in
cognitive psychology, providing insights into how the human mind processes information
efficiently and effectively in specialized domains. It has also influenced research on cognitive
development, cognitive neuroscience, and evolutionary psychology.
1.6.6 Rehearsal
Rehearsal is another key cognitive process that has been used in cognitive psychology
research. As the name suggests rehearsal involves the repetition of information or material
that has already been analyzed or perceived. It is a memory strategy used to keep information
active in the short-term memory and prevent it from fading away quickly. Rehearsal helps
transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory, making it easier to
remember and retrieve later.
How Rehearsal Works:
When you encounter new information, such as a phone number, a name, or a list of items,
you can use rehearsal to keep that information in your mind for a short period. You do this by
repeating or mentally reviewing the information over and over again. The more you rehearse,
the longer the information stays in your short-term memory.
For example: Imagine you are trying to remember a friend's phone number that you just
learned. To prevent forgetting it quickly, you keep repeating the numbers to yourself multiple
times (e.g., "555-1234, 555-1234") or mentally rehearsing it until you have a chance to write
it down or save it in your phone. By doing this, you are using rehearsal to maintain the
information in your short-term memory.
1.6.7 Schemas
Schema is a mental framework or structure that represents knowledge about a specific
concept, category, person, event, or the world in general. Schemas are like building blocks of
information stored in long-term memory, and they help us organize and interpret new
information based on our existing knowledge and experiences.
Some of these building blocks or schemas that we use in our day-to-day life are:
 Personal Schema: This represents knowledge about ourselves, including our
personality traits, preferences, values, and experiences.
 Event Schema: Also known as a script, it represents the typical sequence of events
and actions that occur in a particular situation. For example, the schema for going to a
movie theater includes buying tickets, getting popcorn, and finding a seat.
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 Social Schema: This includes our knowledge about different social roles, stereotypes,
and expectations. For instance, the schema for a "teacher" might include
characteristics such as being knowledgeable, authoritative, and instructive.
 Cultural Schema: These are the shared beliefs, customs, and values that characterize a
particular culture. Cultural schemas influence how people from a specific culture
interpret and respond to various situations.
Overall, Schemas play a fundamental role in information processing and memory. They help
us make sense of the world and guide our behavior in various contexts. However, schemas
can also lead to biases and errors in perception and memory. Pre-existing schemas may cause
us to interpret new information based on our expectations, leading to memory distortions and
misunderstandings. Recognizing the influence of schemas on cognition is essential for
understanding how individuals perceive, remember, and interpret information.
1.6.8 Semantics
Semantics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning in language and
the links between meaningful concepts. It is concerned with how words, sentences, and
language convey meaning and how people interpret and understand the meaning of linguistic
expressions. It is borrowed by cognitive psychologists in order to understand valuable
insights into how language conveys meaning and the complex links between words and the
concepts they represent, contributing to our understanding of the intricate nature of human
language and cognition.
For example, when we hear the word "cat," we know it means that furry, four-legged animal
that many people keep as pets. Semantics helps us make sense of what the word "cat" really
means and how it's related to the animal we think of.
Semantics is essential because it helps us communicate clearly and understand what others
are saying. It also helps us interpret things like metaphors and idioms in language. For
example, when someone says "it's raining cats and dogs," we know they don't mean actual
animals falling from the sky, but rather a heavy rain.
So, in simpler terms, semantics is about understanding the meaning of words and sentences
and how they connect to the real world. It's like figuring out what words "say" and how they
help us communicate and understand each other. Additionally, semantics plays a vital role in
natural language processing, artificial intelligence, and machine learning, where algorithms
aim to understand and generate human-like language.

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1.7 PRACTICAL IMPLICATION OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Cognitive psychology plays a crucial role in shaping our understanding of the human mind
and behavior and has significant scope and relevance in various aspects of both academic
research and practical applications. It has proved to have numerous practical implications that
extend across various domains of everyday life. Its findings and principles have been applied
in diverse fields, leading to tangible benefits and improvements in human performance,
learning, communication, and overall well-being.
Education: Cognitive psychology informs teaching methods and curriculum design. Teachers
use cognitive psychology principles to design lesson plans that align with students' cognitive
abilities. For instance, they might use visual aids and hands-on activities to enhance learning
for young children.
Memory Improvement: Cognitive psychology research has led to the development of
memory enhancement techniques and strategies. Students use mnemonic devices like
acronyms or visualization techniques to remember complex information, such as
remembering the order of the planets using the sentence "My Very Excited Mother Just
Served Us Noodles."

Fig.5: Mnemonics for remembering names of planets

Cognitive Rehabilitation: In cases of cognitive impairments due to brain injuries or

neurological disorders, cognitive psychology contributes to the development of rehabilitation
programs to restore or compensate for cognitive deficits.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): CBT is a widely used therapeutic approach based on
cognitive psychology principles. It helps individuals identify and modify maladaptive thought
patterns and behaviors to address various mental health issues like anxiety, depression, and
phobias.
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Human-Computer Interaction (HCI): Cognitive psychology is crucial in designing user-

friendly interfaces and experiences for technology, making it easier for people to interact with
computers, smartphones, and other devices. A web designer organizes website content in a
user-friendly manner, utilizing cognitive principles like chunking and clear navigation to
improve the user experience.
Decision Making and Judgment: Understanding cognitive biases and heuristics helps
individuals make more informed decisions and avoid common judgment errors. For example,
A person who recognizes their tendency to have an optimism bias when making financial
decisions and might take steps to gather more information before investing in a risky venture.
Advertising and Marketing: Cognitive psychology findings are applied in advertising and
marketing to create persuasive messages that appeal to consumers' cognitive processes and
emotions. Advertisers use cognitive psychology principles like priming to subtly influence
consumer behavior, such as displaying images of happy families to create positive
associations with a product.
Artificial Intelligence (AI): Cognitive psychology contributes to AI research by providing
insights into human cognition, perception, and language processing, leading to the
development of more sophisticated AI systems. For example AI developers have successfully
incorporated natural language processing algorithms based on cognitive psychology research
to improve speech recognition in virtual assistants like Siri or Alexa.

1.8 CULTURE AND COGNITION

Culture and cognition are closely intertwined in cognitive psychology. Culture has a powerful
impact on how we think and understand the world around us. Different cultures have their
own unique ways of perceiving, reasoning, and solving problems. For example, language
shapes how we express our thoughts, and cultural beliefs influence our decision-making and
social interactions. Moreover, cultural experiences influence what we remember and how we
organize knowledge in our minds. Our cultural background affects our attention to certain
details and our ability to see things from different perspectives. Understanding the influence
of culture on cognition helps us appreciate the diverse ways people think and behave in
different parts of the world. It also reminds us to consider cultural context when studying
human behavior and developing effective communication strategies across diverse cultural
settings. As a result, cognitive psychology examines how cultural factors shape cognitive
processes and how cognitive mechanisms contribute to the development and maintenance of
cultural norms, values, and practices.

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Reciprocal Relationship: Additionally, cognition also plays a role in shaping culture.

Cognitive processes, such as language, memory, and reasoning, are essential for transmitting
and preserving cultural information across generations. Cognition enables individuals to
acquire, learn, and adapt cultural norms, beliefs, and practices.
The study of culture and cognition is closely related to cultural psychology. Cultural
psychology emphasizes the importance of considering cultural context in understanding
human cognition and behavior.
For example, the interaction between culture and cognition is evident in the concept of
"collectivism" and "individualism." In cultures that emphasize collectivism, individuals may
prioritize group goals over personal goals, leading to different cognitive patterns, such as
greater interdependence and sensitivity to social context. In contrast, cultures that prioritize
individualism may foster more independent and self-focused cognitive patterns.
Harry C. Triandis, a renowned social psychologist, conducted influential research on cultural
variations in individualism and collectivism. His studies explored how individualistic and
collectivistic cultures differ in their cognition, social behavior, and self-concept. His work has
been widely published in various journals and books.
Another gem of work done by ShinobuKitayama and Jeanne, along with David Matsumoto
Tsai, known as Matsumoto's Cross-Cultural Studies on Emotion, conducted studies on
cultural variations in emotion expression and perception. Their research compared Eastern
and Western cultures to understand how cultural norms and values influence emotional
experiences and expressions.
Culture and cognition in Indian thought
Indian thought offers a unique perspective on culture and cognition, drawing from its rich
philosophical and spiritual traditions that have developed over thousands of years. In Indian
thought, the relationship between culture and cognition is deeply intertwined, emphasizing
the interconnectedness of the individual with the larger social and cultural context. It is
believed that the culture, beliefs, and values that individuals grow up with have a big
influence on how they perceive things and make decisions. As per Indian philosophy the
concepts of karma (action) and dharma (duty/righteousness) are central to Indian thought.
They underscore how cultural beliefs and values guide individuals' actions and decision-
making, influencing the course of their lives and the outcomes they experience. In addition,
Indian thought highlights the importance of practices like meditation and self-reflection to
understand ourselves better and achieve a higher level of awareness.

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Advaita Vedanta, a prominent school of Indian philosophy, explores the non-dual nature of
reality. This perspective encourages a shift in cognition from the perception of multiplicity to
the recognition of the underlying unity of all existence.
Similarly, Yoga, in the Indian context, encompasses not only physical postures but also
mental and cognitive practices. Yogic psychology explores the mind's nature and how it can
be harnessed to cultivate higher states of awareness and understanding
Overall, Indian thought encourages us to look beyond material things and explore deeper
questions about ourselves, consciousness, and the connections between all living beings. It
provides a unique way of understanding how culture and beliefs shape the way we think and
perceive the world around us.

1.9 SUMMARY
In summary, cognitive psychology is the study of human cognition, how people perceive,
learn, and think about information. It developed from psychology, influenced by various
philosophical and empirical perspectives. It incorporates insights from diverse disciplines and
uses various methods to explore human thinking in different contexts. Current research in
cognitive psychology addresses a wide range of cognitive processes and their applications in
real-world settings. Cognitive psychologists use various methods to study how people think,
including experiments, psychobiological techniques, self-reports, case studies, naturalistic
observation, and computer simulations.

1.10 GLOSSARY
Analogy: In problem solving, the process by which a problem solver maps the solution
forone problem into a solution for another problem.
Artificial intelligence (AI):A field of computer science that attempts to develop programs that
will enablemachines to display intelligent behavior.
Algorithms: sequences of operations that may be repeated overand over again and that, in
theory, guarantee the solutionto a problem.
Associationism: examines how events or ideas can becomeassociated with one another in the
mind to result in aform of learning.
Behaviorism: emphasized observable behavior as the primary subject of study.
Bottom-up processing: the sensory information from the environment is analyzed and
synthesized to form a perception or understanding of a stimulus.
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Cognitive maps: internal representations of our physical environment, particularly centering

on spatial relationships.
Cognitive neuroscience: the field of study linking the brainand other aspects of the nervous
system to cognitiveprocessing and, ultimately, to behavior
Cognitive psychology: the study of how people perceive,learn, remember, and think about
information.
Cognitive science: a cross-disciplinary field that uses ideas andmethods from cognitive
psychology, psychobiology, artificialintelligence, philosophy, linguistics, and anthropology.
Ecological validity: the degree to which particular findings inone environmental context may
be considered relevantoutside that context.
Priming: the facilitation of one’s ability to utilize missinginformation; occurs when
recognition of certain stimuliis affected by prior presentation of the same or similarstimuli.

1.11SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. What is cognition and why is it important?
2. How can we study cognitive processes?
3. What were the contributions of classic schools of thought in cognitive revolution?
4. What is information processing theory?

1.12 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. b) Mental processes and information processing

2. c) Ulric Neisser
3. a) Computer science and technology
4. a) Language module

1.13REFERENCES
 Anderson, J. R. (1985). Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York:
Freeman.
 Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and
its control processes. In K. Spence & J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning
and motivation (Vol. 2, pp. 89–195). New York, NY: Academic Press
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 Clark, H. H., & Clark, E. V. (1977). Psychology and language. New York, NY:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
 Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2000). Cognitive psychology: A student’s
handbook (4th ed.). Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
 Gardiner, J. M., & Java, R. I. (1993). In Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2000).
Cognitive psychology: A student’s handbook (4th ed.) (p. 180). Hove, UK:
Psychology Press
 Sternberg, R.J. (2009). Applied Cognitive Psychology: Perceivnig, Learning, and
Remembering. New Delhi: Cengage learning India, Indian reprint 2009
 Gray, J. A. (1991). Neural systems, emotions, and personality. In J. Madden IV (Ed.),
Neurobiology of learning, emotion, and affect. Raven Press.
 Hetherington, A. W., & Ranson, S. W. (1940). Hypothalamic lesions and adiposity in
the rat. The Anatomical Record, 78(2), 149-172.

1.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

 Anderson, J. R. (1985). Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York:
Freeman.
 Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2000). Cognitive psychology: A student’s
handbook (4th ed.). Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
 Passer, M. W., & Smith, R. E. (2004). Psychology: The science of mind and behavior.
McGraw-Hill.

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Lesson-2 Unit-2
ATTENTION AND PERCEPTION
Dr. Halley Singh Thokchom
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Psychology, Aryabhatta College, UoD
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 The Perception-Attention Relationship
2.4 Neural Mechanisms of Attention and Perception
2.5 Types of Attention
2.6 Attentional Control
2.7 Perception
2.8 Perceptual Organization: Gestalt Principles and the Role of Context
2.9 Object Recognition and Viewpoint Invariance
2.10 Perceptual Constancy
2.11 Theories Explaining Perceptual Constancy
2.12 Perceptual Illusions
2.13 Definition and Types of Perceptual Illusions
2.14 Mechanisms and Explanations of Perceptual Illusions
2.15 Neural Mechanisms and Neural Adaptation
2.16 Summary
2.17 Glossary
2.18 Answers to In-text Questions
2.19 Self-Assessment Questions
2.20 References
2.21 Suggested Readings

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Understand the concept of attention and its role in selective processing of sensory
information.

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 Differentiate between different types of attention, including selective attention,

divided attention, and sustained attention, and comprehend their functions.
 Explore the mechanisms of attention control, including top-down and bottom-up
processing, and their influence on perception.
 Examine the concept of perception and its significance in organizing and interpreting
sensory inputs.
 Investigate various perceptual processes such as figure-ground segregation, depth
perception, and perceptual constancies.
 Identify and analyze different types of perceptual illusions and their underlying
mechanisms.
 Examine the implications of attention and perception in understanding human
cognition and behavior.
 Understand the practical applications of attention and perception research in fields
such as design, human-computer interaction, and education.
 Critically evaluate the strengths and limitations of attention and perception research
methods.
 Integrate knowledge of attention and perception to enhance decision-making,
problem-solving, and effective communication.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

The intricate interplay between attention and perception lies at the heart of our cognitive
abilities, shaping how we interact with and interpret the world around us. Understanding the
mechanisms underlying attention and perception is a fundamental pursuit in the field of
cognitive psychology. This chapter aims to explore the multifaceted nature of attention and
perception, delving into their roles in shaping our sensory experiences and cognitive
processes.
Attention can be defined as the cognitive process through which we selectively allocate our
limited cognitive resources to specific stimuli or information in our environment (Broadbent,
1958). It involves focusing on relevant stimuli while filtering out irrelevant or distracting
inputs. Attention acts as a gatekeeper, regulating the flow of information and determining
which stimuli receive priority processing (Treisman&Gelade, 1980).
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According to contemporary models of attention, such as the guided search model proposed by
Wolfe (1994), attention operates through a combination of feature-based, spatial, and object-
based mechanisms. These mechanisms allow us to efficiently allocate cognitive resources
based on the features and characteristics of the stimuli in our environment. Attention not only
enhances the processing of attended stimuli but also facilitates the integration of sensory
information and the formation of coherent perceptual representations (Jonides & Yantis,
1988).
Attention serves as a selective filter, determining what information from the vast array of
stimuli bombarding our senses receives priority processing. It enables us to focus on relevant
stimuli while filtering out irrelevant or distracting inputs. Early theories of attention, such as
the filter model proposed by Broadbent (1958), suggested that attention operates as a
bottleneck, allowing only a limited amount of information to pass through for further
processing. However, subsequent research revealed that attention operates through a more
dynamic and flexible mechanism.
Contemporary models of attention, such as the feature integration theory proposed by
Treisman and Gelade (1980) and the guided search model by Wolfe (1994), emphasize the
role of attention in guiding visual search and object recognition processes. These models
posit that attention operates through a combination of feature-based, spatial, and object-based
mechanisms, allowing for efficient allocation of cognitive resources.
Perception can be defined as the process by which we organize and interpret sensory
information to create meaningful representations of the world around us. It involves
integrating and processing sensory inputs from various modalities, such as vision, hearing,
touch, and smell, to construct a coherent perceptual experience. Perception allows us to make
sense of our sensory inputs, recognize objects and events, and extract meaningful patterns
and relationships (Goldstein, 2019).
Perception is influenced by various factors, including attention, prior knowledge,
expectations, and cultural context. The interaction between attention and perception is
bidirectional, as attentional processes modulate perceptual processing, and perceptual
interpretations guide attentional selection (Simons &Chabris, 1999). The formation of
perceptual representations involves complex neural computations, which integrate sensory
inputs with prior knowledge and contextual information (Goldstone, 2019).

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2.3 THE PERCEPTION-ATTENTION RELATIONSHIP

Perception and attention are intricately intertwined, as attention modulates perceptual
processes and, in turn, perception guides attentional selection. The influential concept of
attentional capture proposed by Jonides and Yantis (1988) suggests that attention is
automatically drawn to salient or behaviorally relevant stimuli, facilitating their perception.
This notion has been supported by neuroimaging studies revealing enhanced neural responses
to attended stimuli in various sensory regions.
Furthermore, research on the role of top-down processes in perception has highlighted the
influence of attentional biases and expectations on perceptual interpretations. For instance,
the phenomenon of inattentional blindness, as demonstrated by Simons and Chabris (1999),
reveals that when attention is directed to specific features or locations, individuals may fail to
perceive salient but unexpected objects or events in their visual field. This highlights the
selective nature of attention and its impact on perception.

2.4 NEURAL MECHANISMS OF ATTENTION AND PERCEPTION

Understanding the neural underpinnings of attention and perception is crucial for unraveling
the intricacies of these cognitive processes. Neuroimaging studies utilizing techniques such as
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have identified specific brain regions
involved in attention and perception. The dorsal frontoparietal network, including areas such
as the superior parietal lobule and frontal eye fields, has been implicated in top-down
attentional control and spatial processing. In contrast, the ventral visual pathway,
encompassing regions like the fusiform face area and lateral occipital cortex, is critical for
object recognition and perceptual processing.
Moreover, recent research has shed light on the role of oscillatory neural activity, particularly
in the alpha (8-12 Hz) and gamma (30-80 Hz) frequency ranges, in governing attentional and
perceptual processes. Alpha oscillations have been associated with inhibitory control,
regulating the flow of information across brain regions, while gamma oscillations are thought
to facilitate the binding of features and the integration of sensory information.
Attention and perception form the bedrock of our cognitive experiences, enabling us to
navigate the world and make sense of our surroundings. This chapter has provided a glimpse
into the intricate relationship between attention and perception, highlighting their mutual
influence and the underlying neural mechanisms. By unraveling the dynamics of attention

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and perception, researchers can gain valuable insights into human cognition and pave the way
for future advancements in cognitive psychology.
Attention and perception are two fundamental cognitive processes that work in tandem to
shape our experiences and understanding of the world. Attention acts as a selective filter,
determining the allocation of cognitive resources to relevant stimuli, while perception
organizes sensory information into coherent and meaningful representations. By establishing
clear definitions of attention and perception, we lay the foundation for further exploration
into their intricate dynamics and their impact on human cognition.

2.5TYPES OF ATTENTION
Attention is a multifaceted cognitive process that encompasses various dimensions and
operates in diverse ways. This section aims to elucidate three prominent types of attention:
selective attention, divided attention, and sustained attention. Understanding these distinct
forms of attention provides valuable insights into how we allocate cognitive resources and
process information in different contexts.
Selective Attention: Focusing on Relevant Stimuli
Selective attention refers to the ability to selectively attend to specific stimuli or information
while filtering out irrelevant or distracting stimuli. It involves directing cognitive resources
towards relevant aspects of the environment, enhancing their processing and reducing the
interference from competing stimuli (Broadbent, 1958). Selective attention allows us to
prioritize and process relevant information more effectively.
One influential framework for understanding selective attention is the feature integration
theory proposed by Treisman and Gelade (1980). This theory suggests that attention operates
by selectively binding features of objects or stimuli, guiding our visual search and object
recognition processes. Selective attention enables us to focus on particular attributes, such as
color, shape, or movement, allowing for efficient processing and identification of relevant
stimuli.
Divided Attention: Allocating Resources to Multiple Tasks
Divided attention refers to the ability to allocate cognitive resources simultaneously to
multiple tasks or stimuli. It involves dividing attentional resources among different tasks or
stimuli, enabling us to engage in multitasking or perform concurrent activities (Meyer
&Kieras, 1997). Divided attention is crucial in situations that require concurrent processing
and response to multiple sources of information.

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Research on divided attention has revealed that there are limitations in our capacity to divide
attention effectively. The limited capacity of our attentional resources often results in
performance decrements as the demands for attentional allocation increase (Kahneman,
1973). However, with practice and task familiarity, individuals can improve their ability to
divide attention and perform multiple tasks simultaneously.
Sustained Attention: Maintaining Focus over Time
Sustained attention, also known as vigilance or concentration, refers to the ability to maintain
attentional focus over an extended period. It involves the ability to sustain cognitive effort
and resist distractions or mind-wandering, allowing for continuous monitoring and processing
of relevant stimuli or information (Parasuraman & Wilson, 2008). Sustained attention is
crucial in tasks that require prolonged mental engagement and vigilance.
Studies on sustained attention have highlighted the impact of task demands, arousal levels,
and environmental factors on sustained attention performance (Robertson et al., 1997).
Factors such as fatigue, boredom, or the presence of distractions can adversely affect
sustained attention, leading to lapses in performance.
The Attention Filter Theory, proposed by Donald Broadbent in 1958, offers insights into the
selective nature of attention and how we process information. This theory posits that our
attention acts as a filter, allowing only a limited amount of information to be processed by
our conscious awareness.

Figure 2.1. Broadbent’s Filter Model

According to Broadbent's theory, incoming sensory information first enters a sensory register,
which holds a vast amount of information for a brief period. From there, the information is
selectively filtered based on certain features, such as physical characteristics (e.g., pitch,
color) or semantic content (e.g., meaning). The filtered information then enters a limited
capacity channel known as the selective filter.
The selective filter acts as a bottleneck, allowing only a subset of the filtered information to
pass through for further processing. This limited capacity restricts the amount of information
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that can be consciously attended to and processed. The filtered information is then transferred
to the higher-level cognitive processes, such as perception and memory.
Broadbent's theory proposes that the filtering process is based on early selection, meaning
that information is filtered before significant processing occurs. This implies that only the
selected information, which matches specific criteria, reaches conscious awareness, while the
unattended information is filtered out and quickly forgotten.
The Attentional Filter Theory has had a significant impact on the understanding of attention
and information processing. It has influenced subsequent research and theories in the field of
cognitive psychology, particularly in the domain of selective attention.
Attention encompasses a spectrum of cognitive processes, including selective attention,
divided attention, and sustained attention. Selective attention enables us to focus on relevant
stimuli, while divided attention allows for the allocation of cognitive resources to multiple
tasks. Sustained attention plays a critical role in maintaining focus over time. By
understanding the nuances of these attentional processes, researchers can gain valuable
insights into the complexities of human cognition and optimize cognitive performance in
various contexts.

2.6 ATTENTIONAL CONTROL

Attention is a complex cognitive process that involves the control and allocation of cognitive
resources to specific stimuli or information. This section explores two primary mechanisms
through which attention is controlled: top-down processing and bottom-up processing.
Understanding these mechanisms provides valuable insights into how attention is directed
and influenced in various contexts.
Top-Down Processing: Voluntary Control and Prior Knowledge
Top-down processing refers to the influence of higher-level cognitive processes, such as
expectations, goals, and prior knowledge, on attentional control. It involves the voluntary
allocation of attention based on internal factors and cognitive goals (Corbetta& Shulman,
2002). Top-down processing allows us to direct attention selectively toward stimuli that are
relevant to our current goals or expectations.
The frontal and parietal brain regions, including the prefrontal cortex and superior parietal
lobule, play crucial roles in top-down attentional control (Corbetta et al., 2008). These
regions engage in executive functions, such as working memory, cognitive control, and goal-
directed behavior, to guide and modulate attentional processing.
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Top-down processing enables us to focus attention selectively on specific features, locations,

or objects in our environment, facilitating efficient information processing and goal-directed
behavior (Desimone & Duncan, 1995). It allows us to filter out distractions and enhance the
processing of relevant stimuli.
Bottom-Up Processing: Stimulus-Driven Capture of Attention
In contrast to top-down processing, bottom-up processing involves attentional capture driven
by salient or unexpected stimuli in the environment (Itti& Koch, 2001). Bottom-up
processing occurs when attention is involuntarily drawn to stimuli that stand out due to their
physical characteristics, such as brightness, color, or motion.
The pulvinar nucleus in the thalamus and the superior colliculus are key brain regions
involved in the initial detection and rapid orienting of attention to salient stimuli in the
environment (Corbetta et al., 2008). Bottom-up processing acts as an automatic mechanism,
capturing attention and redirecting cognitive resources toward stimuli that are potentially
behaviorally relevant.
Bottom-up processing is essential for detecting and responding to unexpected or potentially
important stimuli, even when they are not the focus of our current goals or expectations.
However, the salience of stimuli can vary based on factors such as context, task relevance,
and individual differences.
Attention is controlled through a dynamic interplay between top-down and bottom-up
processing. Top-down processing allows for the voluntary allocation of attention based on
goals and expectations, while bottom-up processing captures attention automatically in
response to salient or unexpected stimuli. These mechanisms work together to guide
attention, enhance relevant information processing, and adaptively respond to the
environment. By understanding the dynamics of top-down and bottom-up processing,
researchers can gain valuable insights into the complexities of attentional control and its
impact on cognitive functioning.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. What is top-down processing in attentional control, and how does it influence our
allocation of attention?
2. _____________ is essential for detecting and responding to unexpected or potentially
important stimuli
a. Top-down processing
b. Bottom-up processing

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2.7 PERCEPTION

Perception is a fundamental cognitive process that allows us to make sense of the world by
organizing and interpreting sensory information. This section delves into how our perceptual
system organizes our perceptions and how we perceive objects as being the same despite
variations in viewing angles. By exploring prominent theories and empirical findings, we
gain insights into the mechanisms underlying perceptual organization and object recognition.

2.8 PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION: GESTALT PRINCIPLES AND

THE ROLE OF CONTEXT

Perceptual organization refers to the process by which our perceptual system groups and
organizes sensory inputs into meaningful wholes. One influential framework in
understanding perceptual organization is the Gestalt principles proposed by German
psychologists Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler (Wertheimer, 1923; Koffka, 1935; Köhler,
1929). These principles highlight how our perceptual system actively organizes sensory
elements to form coherent perceptual experiences.
The Gestalt principles include principles of proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, and
figure-ground segregation. Proximity suggests that elements that are close to each other are
perceived as belonging together. Similarity suggests that elements with similar features, such
as color or shape, are grouped together. Closure suggests that we tend to complete incomplete
figures or shapes. Continuity suggests that we prefer smooth and continuous paths or
contours. Figure-ground segregation refers to the differentiation of objects from their
background.
Additionally, context plays a crucial role in perceptual organization. Our perception is
influenced by the surrounding context, which helps us interpret and organize sensory
information (Biederman, 1987). The context can provide valuable cues for object recognition
and disambiguation.
The Feature Integration Theory, proposed by Anne Treisman in 1986, provides a
comprehensive framework for understanding how visual attention operates in the process of
perceiving and recognizing objects. This theory focuses on how individual features of an
object are integrated to form a coherent perception.

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Fig. 2.2. Process of attention according to Treisman.

According to Treisman's theory, perception involves two distinct stages: preattentive stage
and focused attention stage. During the preattentive stage, basic visual features of objects,
such as color, shape, and orientation, are processed automatically and in parallel across the
visual field. This processing occurs effortlessly and does not require focused attention.
Treisman referred to this early processing as "feature maps" or "feature detectors."
In the focused attention stage, attention is selectively directed to specific objects or locations
in the visual field. This focused attention facilitates the binding of the individual features
detected in the preattentive stage into a unified perception of an object. This binding process
is known as "feature integration." Treisman proposed that attention acts as a "glue" that
brings together the features associated with a particular object, allowing for the perception of
an integrated whole.
According to the Feature Integration Theory, failures in feature integration can lead to visual
illusions and errors in perception. For example, in the illusory conjunction phenomenon,
features from different objects may be mistakenly combined, resulting in the perception of
incorrect object configurations.
The Feature Integration Theory has had a significant impact on the field of cognitive
psychology and visual perception. It has provided a valuable framework for understanding
how attention plays a crucial role in object perception and the binding of features. This theory
has influenced subsequent research on visual attention, object recognition, and the neural
mechanisms underlying these processes.

2.9 OBJECT RECOGNITION AND VIEWPOINT INVARIANCE

Object recognition refers to the ability to identify and categorize objects based on their visual
features and stored knowledge. Despite variations in viewing angles, sizes, and lighting
conditions, we can recognize objects as being the same across different perspectives—a
phenomenon known as viewpoint invariance (Biederman, 1987).
The recognition of objects across perspectives can be attributed to the presence of structural
descriptions or geons. According to Biederman's recognition-by-components theory
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(Biederman, 1987), objects are represented by their basic geometric components called
geons. Geons are three-dimensional volumetric shapes, such as cylinders, cones, and blocks,
that are robust to changes in viewpoint. By analyzing the arrangement and relations among
geons, our perceptual system can recognize objects even when they are viewed from different
angles.
Empirical evidence supports the viewpoint invariance in object recognition. Studies using
behavioral experiments and neuroimaging techniques have demonstrated that our brain's
visual system can efficiently recognize objects across different viewpoints (Kourtzi&
Kanwisher, 2001; Logothetis& Sheinberg, 1996). The visual system shows sensitivity to the
structural relationships between object parts rather than the exact pixel-based information.
Perception involves the organization and interpretation of sensory information, allowing us to
create meaningful representations of the world. Perceptual organization, guided by principles
such as proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, and figure-ground segregation, enables us
to group sensory elements into coherent wholes. Object recognition, facilitated by viewpoint
invariance and the recognition-by-components theory, allows us to perceive objects as being
the same across different perspectives.
The Gist Perception Theory, proposed by Navon and Gopher in 1979, focuses on the rapid
and efficient processing of visual scenes to extract the "gist" or the overall meaning and
interpretation of the scene. This theory suggests that our visual system has the remarkable
ability to extract essential information from a scene rapidly, allowing us to make quick
judgments and decisions based on the general impression of the scene.
According to the Gist Perception Theory, the initial processing of a visual scene involves the
extraction of global, holistic information, followed by the analysis of more specific details.
This top-down processing prioritizes the rapid extraction of the scene's meaning and context,
allowing for quick assessments of the environment.
To illustrate the Gist Perception Theory, consider the example of walking into a room. Upon
entering, you quickly gather the overall impression of the scene, such as recognizing it as a
living room or a classroom, without focusing on every detail in the environment. You might
notice key elements, such as furniture arrangements, the presence of people, or specific
objects that stand out. This rapid extraction of the scene's gist provides you with an
immediate understanding of the context, allowing you to navigate and interact effectively.
The Gist Perception Theory emphasizes the efficiency and effectiveness of our visual system
in rapidly processing complex scenes. By prioritizing global information and the scene's

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overall meaning, our perceptual system can guide attention and allocate cognitive resources
to the most relevant aspects of the environment.
Understanding the gist of a scene plays a crucial role in various real-world scenarios, such as
driving, surveillance, and decision-making. It enables us to make quick assessments, adapt to
new situations, and respond efficiently to environmental demands.
By understanding the mechanisms underlying perceptual organization and object recognition,
researchers gain insights into how our perceptual system processes and represents visual
information. This knowledge has implications for fields such as psychology, neuroscience,
and computer vision, with potential applications in areas such as object recognition
algorithms and virtual reality systems.
Perceptual Constancy
Perceptual constancy refers to the ability of our perceptual system to maintain a stable
perception of objects despite variations in sensory inputs. It allows us to perceive objects as
consistent and unchanged even when they are viewed from different angles, under different
lighting conditions, or at different distances. This section explores the concept of perceptual
constancy and provides simple examples to illustrate its mechanisms.
Perceptual constancy is a fundamental aspect of our perceptual experience, enabling us to
perceive the world as stable and coherent. It involves the brain's ability to compensate for
variations in sensory information and generate a stable perception of objects.
Types of Perceptual Constancy
Among the various types of perceptual constancy, shape constancy, size constancy, color
constancy, brightness constancy, location constancy, and motion constancy play crucial roles
in providing us with a stable and consistent perception of the world. This section elaborates
on each type of perceptual constancy, supported by references to prominent theorists and
relevant books.
Shape Constancy:
Shape constancy refers to our ability to perceive an object as having the same shape even
when its orientation changes. Regardless of the viewing angle or perspective, we recognize
and interpret the underlying shape of an object consistently. The Gestalt psychologists, such
as Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka, emphasized the principles of organization and
perception in explaining shape constancy (Wertheimer, 1923; Koffka, 1935). Their theories
suggest that our perceptual system applies principles such as good continuation and closure to

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perceive objects with stable shapes. For instance, a circular dinner plate viewed obliquely
appears as an ellipse on the retina, yet we perceive it as a circle. This is possible due to shape
constancy, which enables us to recognize and interpret the underlying shape of an object
accurately (Gregory, 1997).

Figure 2.3. Shape of the plate remains the same regardless of whether the plate is standing
or out flat on the table.
Size Constancy:
Size constancy allows us to perceive an object as having the same size, regardless of its
distance from us. When an object moves closer or farther away, the retinal image size
changes, but our perception of the object's size remains constant. This phenomenon can be
attributed to size constancy, which takes into account depth cues, such as relative size,
familiar size, and linear perspective, as well as our prior knowledge about typical object sizes
(Gregory, 1997). For example, when viewing a car from a distance, the retinal image is
smaller compared to when viewing it up close. However, we still perceive the car as being the
same size. This perceptual phenomenon is explained by size constancy, which takes into
account depth cues and prior knowledge about the typical sizes of objects (Emmert, 1881).

Figure 2.4: The size of the shoe is presumed to be the same, irrespective of
whether the shoe is near or far.
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Color Constancy:
Color constancy enables us to perceive an object as having the same color even when the
lighting conditions change. Our visual system compensates for variations in illumination by
adjusting our perception of an object's color. This ability is crucial for perceiving stable and
consistent colors across different environments. Land's retinex theory provides insights into
color constancy, emphasizing the role of the visual system's processing mechanisms in
adjusting our perception of color based on the surrounding context (Land, 2013). For
example, we perceive a red apple as red whether it is illuminated by natural daylight or
artificial light. This perceptual stability arises from color constancy, which accounts for the
overall lighting conditions and allows us to perceive colors accurately (Land, 2013).
Brightness Constancy:
Brightness constancy refers to the ability to perceive an object as having the same brightness
even when the illumination conditions change. Despite variations in lighting, our visual
system compensates and maintains a stable perception of an object's brightness. Theories of
brightness constancy propose that our perceptual system takes into account the overall
illumination in the environment and makes adjustments to perceive objects with consistent
brightness (Gilchrist, 2015).
Location Constancy:
Location constancy allows us to perceive an object as being in the same place even when our
viewpoint changes. Regardless of our position or movement, we perceive objects as
occupying specific locations in space. This constancy is essential for our spatial perception
and the ability to interact with the environment. Theories of location constancy propose that
our perceptual system combines visual cues, such as binocular disparity and motion parallax,
with other sensory inputs to maintain a stable perception of object location (Cutting
&Vishton, 1995).
Motion Constancy:
Motion constancy refers to our ability to perceive an object as moving in a straight line even
when our viewpoint changes. Despite variations in our observation angle or position, we
perceive an object's motion as consistent and unaffected by our perspective. Theories of
motion constancy emphasize the role of motion processing mechanisms in the visual system,
which compensate for changes in viewpoint to maintain a stable perception of object motion
(Mather, 2014).

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Perceptual constancy plays a vital role in our ability to perceive the world as stable and
consistent. Shape constancy, size constancy, color constancy, brightness constancy, location
constancy, and motion constancy ensure that our perceptions remain relatively constant
despite variations in sensory inputs and viewing conditions. The theories proposed by
prominent psychologists and researchers, such as the Gestalt psychologists, Gregory, Land,
Gilchrist, Cutting, Vishton, and Mather, provide valuable insights into the mechanisms
underlying each type of perceptual constancy.
Understanding these types of perceptual constancy enhances our knowledge of human
perception and has implications for fields such as psychology, neuroscience, and design. By
unraveling the mechanisms of perceptual constancy, researchers can further explore the
intricate workings of our perceptual system and develop interventions and technologies that
leverage these constancies for improved perception and interaction with the world.

2.11 THEORIES EXPLAINING PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY

Various theories have been proposed to explain the mechanisms underlying perceptual
constancy.
Helmholtz's Unconscious Inference: Hermann von Helmholtz proposed the theory of
unconscious inference, suggesting that our perceptual system makes unconscious inferences
based on prior knowledge and sensory cues to construct a stable perception (Helmholtz,
1867). According to this theory, our brain combines sensory inputs with learned expectations
and assumptions to infer the true properties of objects.
Gibson's Direct Perception: James J. Gibson proposed the theory of direct perception, which
emphasizes the role of the environment and ecological information in perception (Gibson,
1979). According to this view, perceptual constancy arises from the direct perception of
affordances and invariant properties in the environment. Gibson argued that our perceptual
system is attuned to detect invariant features and patterns that allow us to perceive objects
consistently.
Gestalt Principles: Gestalt psychologists, such as Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka,
proposed that perceptual constancy arises from the application of Gestalt principles of
perception (Wertheimer, 1923; Koffka, 1935). The principles of similarity, good
continuation, and closure contribute to the stable perception of objects by organizing sensory
inputs into coherent wholes and compensating for variations in sensory cues.

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Perceptual constancy is a remarkable aspect of human perception that allows us to maintain

stable and consistent perceptions of objects in the face of changing sensory inputs. Through
size constancy, shape constancy, and color constancy, we perceive objects as maintaining
their size, shape, and color despite variations in distance, viewing angles, and lighting
conditions.
Theories proposed by psychologists such as Helmholtz, Gibson, and Gestalt psychologists
offer explanations for the mechanisms underlying perceptual constancy, emphasizing the role
of prior knowledge, ecological information, and organizational principles.
Understanding perceptual constancy not only enhances our knowledge of perception but also
has implications for fields such as psychology, neuroscience, and design, enabling the
development of technologies and interventions that leverage our perceptual system's ability to
maintain stability and coherence in our perception of the world.

2.12 PERCEPTUAL ILLUSIONS

Perceptual illusions are intriguing phenomena that challenge our understanding of how we
perceive and interpret the world. These illusions occur when our perception deviates from the
objective reality, leading to misinterpretations of sensory information. This section explores
the mechanisms underlying perceptual illusions and highlights theories proposed by
prominent psychologists to explain their occurrence.

2.13 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF PERCEPTUAL ILLUSIONS

Perceptual illusions are perceptual experiences that differ from the actual physical properties
of the stimuli. These illusions can occur in various sensory modalities, including vision,
audition, and touch, and they reveal the complex nature of our perceptual processes.
There are several types of perceptual illusions, each highlighting specific aspects of
misperception. Some notable examples include:
Visual Illusions: Visual illusions involve misinterpretations of visual stimuli, leading to
discrepancies between our perception and the physical properties of the stimuli. Examples of
visual illusions include the Müller-Lyer illusion, where two lines with arrow-like fins appear
to be of different lengths despite being the same length, and the Ponzo illusion, where two
identical lines appear to be of different lengths due to the presence of converging lines.

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Auditory Illusions: Auditory illusions occur when our perception of sound deviates from the
actual acoustic properties. The Shepard tone illusion, for instance, creates the auditory
illusion of a continuously ascending or descending tone, despite the fact that the sound is a
loop of a finite set of tones.
Tactile Illusions: Tactile illusions involve misperceptions of touch or physical sensations. The
cutaneous rabbit illusion is a well-known tactile illusion where sequential taps on different
locations of the skin create the perception of a continuous stimulus moving across the skin.
Ponzo Illusion:
The Ponzo illusion is a well-known visual illusion that demonstrates how our perception of
size can be influenced by surrounding context and depth cues. It was first described by Mario
Ponzo in 1911 and has since become a classic example in the field of perceptual psychology.
In the Ponzo illusion, two horizontal lines of the same length are presented within a
converging context. The lines are positioned between two converging lines or borders that
create the illusion of depth. The upper line is placed between two lines that converge inward,
resembling the sides of a railway track, while the lower line is positioned between two lines
that converge outward.

Fig. 2.5 Even though the two lines are physically identical in length, the upper line appears longer
than the lower line. This perceptual distortion occurs because our visual system interprets the
converging lines or borders as depth cues. The converging lines create the illusion of depth, leading

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us to perceive the upper line as farther away than the lower line. Since objects fa
farther away in a
scene tend to be larger, we perceive the upper line as being larger or longer.

To better understand the Ponzo illusion, consider a simple example. Draw two horizontal
lines of equal length on a piece of paper. Now, draw two converging lines or borders above
and below the lines, resembling the sides of a railway track. When you compare the two
lines, you might perceive the upper line as longer than the lower line, even though they are
physically the same length.
The Ponzo illusion can be explexplained by the concept of size-distance
distance scaling. Our visual
system takes into account depth cues and perspective to interpret the size of objects in
relation to their perceived distance. In the case of the Ponzo illusion, the converging lines
create a depth cue that leads us to perceive the upper line as farther away and therefore larger.
The Ponzo illusion has been widely studied in perceptual psychology and has contributed to
our understanding of how context and depth cues influence our perception of size aand
distance.
Muller-Lyer Illusion:
The Müller-Lyer
Lyer illusion is a famous visual illusion that demonstrates how our perception of
line lengths can be distorted by the presence of certain visual cues. It was first described by
Franz Carl Müller-Lyer
Lyer in 1889 and has since become a classic example in the field of
perceptual psychology.
In the Müller-Lyer
Lyer illusion, two horizontal lines of the same length are presented, but each
line is adorned with arrow-like
like tails pointing in opposite directions. One line has iinward-
pointing arrowheads, while the other line has outward
outward-pointing
pointing arrowheads. Surprisingly, the
line with outward-pointing
pointing arrowheads appears longer than the line with inward
inward-pointing
arrowheads, even though they are actually identical in length.

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Fig. 2.6. Müller-Lyer Illusion.

The Müller-Lyer illusion can be easily understood through a simple example. Imagine
drawing two straight lines of equal length on a piece of paper. Now, add inward-pointing
arrowheads at the ends of one line and outward-pointing arrowheads at the ends of the other
line. When you compare the two lines, you might perceive the line with outward-pointing
arrowheads as longer than the line with inward-pointing arrowheads, even though they are
physically the same length.
The underlying mechanism behind the Müller-Lyer illusion is still a topic of debate among
researchers. One explanation is based on the concept of "perceptual misapplied constancy
scaling." It suggests that our visual system tends to interpret the arrowheads as depth cues,
similar to the corners of buildings or rooms. The line with outward-pointing arrowheads is
interpreted as receding into the distance, while the line with inward-pointing arrowheads is
perceived as approaching the viewer. This depth interpretation leads to an overestimation of
the line's length with outward-pointing arrowheads.
Another explanation focuses on the role of contextual cues and the effect of the arrowheads
on our perception of the line's terminations. The arrowheads can be seen as inducing a change
in the perceived shape of the line, making it appear longer or shorter based on the perceived
spatial relationships created by the arrowheads.
The Müller-Lyer illusion highlights the complex interplay between visual perception and
cognitive processes. It demonstrates how our perception can be influenced by contextual cues
and the interpretation of visual depth, leading to distortions in our judgment of line lengths.
Ebbinghaus Illusion:
The Ebbinghaus illusion demonstrates how our perception of an object's size is influenced by
the size of surrounding objects. In this illusion, a central circle is surrounded by smaller
circles in one condition and larger circles in another condition. The central circle appears
larger when surrounded by smaller circles and smaller when surrounded by larger circles,
even though the central circle remains the same size (Ebbinghaus, 1902). This illusion occurs
due to our perceptual system's reliance on relative size cues and the influence of the
surrounding context on our size perception.

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Fig. 2.7. Ebbinghaus illusion

Pepper’s Ghost Illusion:

Pepper’s Ghost illusion creates the appearance of a three
three-dimensional
dimensional object or a ghostly
figure in space using a two--dimensional
dimensional image. This illusion relies on the reflection and
refraction of light to create a transparent image that seems to be floating in mid
mid-air. It has
been used in various theatrical and entertainment settings to create captivating visual effects
(Pepper, 1862). The illusion is achieved by placing a semi
semi-transparent
arent surface, such as glass
or a reflective film, at an angle between the viewer and the image, allowing the image to be
reflected and superimposed onto the scene.
Trompe l’oeil Illusion:
The Trompe l’oeil illusion, French for “deceive the eye,” creates tthe
he perception of a three-
three
dimensional object or scene on a two two-dimensional
dimensional surface. This artistic technique utilizes
realistic and detailed rendering to trick the viewer’s perception into believing that the
depicted objects are physically present (Alpers, 11983).
983). Trompe l’oeil illusions have been
employed in painting and architecture to create optical illusions that simulate depth and
reality, blurring the boundaries between art and reality.

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Fig. 2.8. Escaping Criticism by Pere Borrell del Caso, 1874

2.14 MECHANISMS AND EXPLANATIONS OF PERCEPTUAL

ILLUSIONS

Perceptual illusions arise from the inherent limitations and biases in our perceptual systems.
Several theories have been proposed to explain the mechanisms underlying these illusions
and provide insights into how our brain processes sensory information.
Bottom-Up Processing and Sensory Ambiguity: According to the direct perception theory
proposed by James J. Gibson, perceptual illusions can occur due to the inherent ambiguity
and variability of sensory information (Gibson, 1966). Our perceptual system relies on
bottom-up processing, where sensory inputs are directly perceived without the need for
complex cognitive processes. However, this direct perception can lead to misinterpretations
when the sensory information is ambiguous or inconsistent.
Gestalt Principles and Perceptual Organization: Gestalt psychologists, such as Max
Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka, proposed that perceptual illusions arise from our brain's
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tendency to impose organization and structure on sensory inputs (Wertheimer, 1923; Koffka,
1935). The principles of perceptual organization, such as proximity, similarity, and closure,
can lead to misperceptions when our brain applies these organizing principles to stimuli that
do not conform to their underlying rules.
Cognitive Biases and Expectations: Cognitive biases and prior expectations play a significant
role in shaping our perceptual experiences. The theory of Bayesian inference suggests that
our brain combines prior knowledge and sensory information to generate perceptual
interpretations (Knill&Pouget, 2004). When our expectations or biases influence this process,
perceptual illusions can occur as our brain tries to reconcile conflicting information.

2.15 NEURAL MECHANISMS AND NEURAL ADAPTATION

Neural mechanisms within the sensory pathways also contribute to the occurrence of
perceptual illusions. Neural adaptation, where neurons become less responsive to constant
stimuli over time, can lead to distortions in perception (Clifford et al., 2007). Adaptation to a
specific stimulus can affect our perception of subsequent stimuli, resulting in illusions such as
the motion aftereffect.
Perceptual illusions are fascinating phenomena that shed light on the intricacies of human
perception. They highlight the complexities of our perceptual processes, including bottom-up
sensory inputs, the influence of organizational principles, cognitive biases, and neural
mechanisms. The study of perceptual illusions not only enhances our understanding of
perception but also has practical implications in fields such as psychology, neuroscience, and
design. Perceptual illusions are caused by the way our brains process information from our
senses. Our brains are constantly making assumptions about the world around us, and these
assumptions can lead to errors in perception. Perceptual illusions can be fun and interesting,
but they can also be used to deceive us.
Perceptual illusions, such as the Ponzo illusion, Muller-Lyer illusion, Ebbinghaus illusion,
Pepper's Ghost illusion, and Trompe l'oeil illusion, challenge our understanding of perception
and highlight the complexities of the human visual system. These illusions demonstrate how
our perception can be influenced by contextual cues, depth cues, size cues, and artistic
techniques. The theories proposed by researchers, including Ponzo, Muller-Lyer, Ebbinghaus,
Pepper, and discussions on Trompe l'oeil in various art and perception literature, shed light
on the mechanisms underlying these captivating perceptual distortions.

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Understanding perceptual illusions not only provides insights into the intricacies of human
vision but also has practical applications in fields such as psychology, art, design, and
entertainment. By unraveling the mysteries of perceptual illusions, researchers continue to
deepen our understanding of how our brain constructs our perceptual experiences and how
external factors can influence our interpretations of the world around us.

2.16 SUMMARY

In conclusion, attention and perception play fundamental roles in our understanding of the
world and how we interact with it. Attention allows us to selectively process and focus on
relevant information while filtering out distractions. It can be divided into different types
such as selective attention, divided attention, and sustained attention, each serving specific
purposes in our cognitive processes.
Attention is controlled through both top-down and bottom-up processing. Top-down
processing involves the influence of prior knowledge, expectations, and goals on attentional
selection, while bottom-up processing relies on the salience and novelty of stimuli to capture
our attention. These two mechanisms work in concert to guide our attention and shape our
perception of the world.
Perception, on the other hand, involves the interpretation and organization of sensory
information to form meaningful experiences. We organize our perceptions through processes
like figure-ground segregation, depth perception, and perceptual constancies. These
mechanisms allow us to make sense of complex sensory inputs and create a coherent
representation of our environment.
Perceptual constancies, such as shape constancy, size constancy, color constancy, brightness
constancy, location constancy, and motion constancy, ensure that our perception remains
stable despite changes in the viewing conditions. They allow us to perceive objects as having
consistent properties across different situations, contributing to our sense of stability and
continuity in the world.
However, perception is not infallible, and perceptual illusions serve as intriguing
demonstrations of how our perception can be influenced and deceived. Illusions like the
Müller-Lyer illusion and the Ponzo illusion challenge our assumptions about the accuracy
and reliability of our perceptual processes. They highlight the role of contextual cues, depth
cues, and cognitive biases in shaping our perception.

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Understanding attention and perception has broad implications for various domains,
including psychology, neuroscience, design, and human-computer interaction. It helps us
understand how we process information, make decisions, and navigate our environment.
Moreover, insights from attention and perception research can be applied to design principles,
such as creating effective visual displays, optimizing user interfaces, and enhancing learning
and memory processes.
By studying attention and perception, we gain valuable insights into the mechanisms that
shape our perception of the world. This knowledge has practical applications in fields ranging
from education to marketing, from driving safety to virtual reality experiences. It allows us to
better understand how humans perceive and interact with the world around them, ultimately
enhancing our understanding of the complexities of the human mind and cognition.
In conclusion, attention and perception are intricate processes that shape our understanding of
the world. They influence how we select, interpret, and organize sensory information,
enabling us to navigate our environment and interact with it effectively. By studying attention
and perception, we gain valuable insights into the workings of the human mind, with wide-
ranging implications for various fields and applications in our daily lives.

2.17 GLOSSARY

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic: A mental shortcut where people use a known reference
point (anchor) to make estimates or judgments.
Attention and Aging: The study of changes in attentional capacities and perceptual abilities
across the lifespan.
Attention and Emotional Regulation: The role of attention in managing emotional
experiences and responses.
Attention and Learning: The impact of attention on the process of acquiring new information
and skills.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A neurodevelopmental disorder
characterized by persistent inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
Attention in Multitasking: The ability to allocate attention to multiple tasks or stimuli
simultaneously and its effects on performance.
Attention Training for ADHD: Interventions aimed at improving attentional abilities in
individuals with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

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Attention: The cognitive process of selectively focusing on specific stimuli or information

while ignoring others.
Attentional Bias: A tendency to allocate attention more to certain types of stimuli or
information due to personal biases or preferences.
Attentional Blink: A temporary lapse in attention that occurs after processing one stimulus
and before processing another.
Attentional Capture: The process by which attention is involuntarily drawn to highly salient
or emotionally significant stimuli.
Attentional Control Training: Interventions designed to improve attentional control through
targeted exercises and practice.
Attentional Focus in Meditation: The role of attention in mindfulness meditation practices
and its effects on cognitive processes.
Availability Heuristic: A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples or instances that
come to mind when making judgments.
Bottom-Up Processing: Attentional capture driven by salient or unexpected stimuli in the
environment.
Change Blindness: The failure to notice significant changes in a visual scene when attention
is diverted elsewhere.
Change Detection: The ability to detect differences between two similar visual displays.
Cognitive Biases and Attention: The influence of cognitive biases on attentional processes
and information processing.
Cognitive Biases: Systematic errors in thinking that can influence attention and perception.
Cognitive Control: The ability to regulate and direct cognitive processes, including attention
and memory, to achieve specific goals.
Cognitive Load Theory: A framework that explores how the amount of mental effort required
for a task affects cognitive performance.
Cognitive Load: The amount of mental effort required to process information during a
cognitive task.
Cognitive Load: The amount of mental effort required to process information during a
cognitive task.
Cognitive Training for Attention: Interventions aimed at improving attentional abilities
through targeted cognitive exercises.

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Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek or interpret information in a way that confirms
preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.
Developmental Aspects of Attention and Perception: The study of how attention and
perception develop from infancy through childhood and adolescence.
Divided Attention in Driving: The ability to allocate attention to multiple tasks while
operating a vehicle.
Divided Attention: The capacity to allocate attention to multiple tasks or stimuli
simultaneously.
Dual-Task Paradigm: An experimental setup where individuals perform two tasks
simultaneously to investigate divided attention.
Executive Functions: Higher-level cognitive processes responsible for planning, decision-
making, and goal-directed behavior.
Feature Integration Theory: A theory explaining how individual features are combined to
form a coherent perception of objects.
Guided Search Theory: A theory proposing that attention is guided by both bottom-up and
top-down factors during visual search.
Hemispatial Neglect: A neurological condition where individuals fail to attend to one side of
space, often after brain injury.
Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice unexpected objects or events when attention is
focused elsewhere.
Inhibition of Return: A delay in returning attention to a previously attended location,
reducing the likelihood of revisiting that location.
Inhibition of Return: A phenomenon where attention is less likely to return to a previously
attended location.
Inhibition: The ability to suppress irrelevant or interfering information to maintain focus on
relevant stimuli.
Mindfulness: The intentional and non-judgmental awareness of the present moment.
Multisensory Attention: The integration of attention across multiple sensory modalities.
Multisensory Integration: The process of combining information from different sensory
modalities to form a unified perception.
Multitasking and Cognitive Load: The cognitive demands and limitations associated with
performing multiple tasks simultaneously.

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Perception of Time: The cognitive process of estimating and experiencing the duration of
time intervals.
Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to form a
meaningful representation of the world.
Perceptual Expertise: The development of specialized perceptual skills in individuals with
extensive experience in a particular domain.
Perceptual Load: The amount of perceptual information to be processed at a given time.
Selective Attention in Infants: The ability of infants to selectively attend to specific stimuli or
features from their environment.
Selective Attention: The ability to focus on relevant stimuli while filtering out irrelevant or
distracting information.
Sensory Memory: A brief and temporary storage system that holds sensory information for a
short time.
Sensory Sensitivity: Individual differences in the ability to detect and discriminate sensory
stimuli.
Spatial Attention: The focus of attention on specific locations or regions in the visual field.
Stroop Effect: A phenomenon where the automatic processing of a word's meaning interferes
with naming the color of the word's ink.
Sustained Attention: The ability to maintain focus on a task or stimuli over an extended
period.
Temporal Attention and Memory: The relationship between attentional processes and the
encoding and retrieval of memories.
Temporal Attention: The allocation of attention to specific moments or time intervals in time.
Top-Down Processing: Influence of higher-level cognitive processes, such as expectations
and goals, on attentional control.
Visual Attention and Driving: The impact of attentional processes on driving performance
and safety.
Visual Attention and Reading: The role of attention in the process of reading and
comprehension.
Visual Attention and Sports Performance: How attentional processes influence performance
in sports and athletic activities.
Visual Search: The process of scanning the environment for a specific target among
distractors.
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Working Memory: A limited-capacity system that temporarily holds and manipulates

information needed for ongoing tasks.

ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

3. Top-down processing in attentional control refers to the influence of higher-level
cognitive processes, such as expectations and goals, on directing our attention. It
allows us to voluntarily allocate attention based on internal factors and cognitive
goals, selectively focusing on stimuli that are relevant to our current expectations
and objectives.
4. Bottom-up processing

2.19 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between top-down processing and bottom-up processing in

attentional control?
2. How do the frontal and parietal brain regions contribute to top-down attentional control?
3. Give an example of how top-down processing affects attentional allocation in a real-life
scenario.
4. Describe the role of the pulvinar nucleus and the superior colliculus in bottom-up
processing of attention.
5. How does bottom-up processing capture attention involuntarily, and why is it important
in our perception of the environment?
6. Discuss the dynamic interplay between top-down and bottom-up processing in guiding
attention and adapting to the environment.
7. What are the executive functions associated with top-down processing, and how do they
influence attentional control?
8. Explain how cognitive biases can influence attentional processes and information
processing.
9. How does mindfulness practice impact attention and perception, and what are its
potential benefits in daily life?

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10. How can cognitive load theory help us understand the relationship between attention and
cognitive performance in different tasks?
11. Describe the role of attention in visual search tasks, and how feature integration theory
and guided search theory explain the process.
12. What is the attentional blink, and how does it affect our ability to detect and process
multiple stimuli in rapid succession?
13. How can understanding inattentional blindness be relevant in situations where
individuals may miss important information or events?
14. Discuss the implications of cognitive biases in decision-making and problem-solving
processes.
15. How can attentional control training be utilized to improve cognitive performance and
task management?
16. What are some factors that can influence the salience of stimuli in bottom-up processing?
17. How does selective attention in infants develop, and what are the key factors
contributing to its early development?
18. How do attention and perception change with age, and what are the effects of aging on
cognitive functioning?
19. Describe the relationship between attentional control and multitasking abilities, and
discuss potential challenges in divided attention tasks.
20. How can the understanding of attention and perception in driving be applied to improve
road safety and driver training programs?

2.20 REFERENCES

Alpers, S. (1983). The art of describing: Dutch art in the seventeenth century.
University of Chicago Press.
Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. Pergamon Press.
Biederman, I. (1987). Recognition-by-components: A theory of human image
understanding. Psychological Review, 94(2), 115-147.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.94.2.115
Ebbinghaus, H. (1902). Grundzüge der Psychologie. Leipzig: Veit.
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 Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology

Goldstein, E. B. (2019). Sensation and perception. Cengage Learning.

Gibson, J. J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual systems. Houghton
Mifflin.
Gilchrist, A. (2015). Seeing Black and White. Oxford University Press.
Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. Prentice Hall.
Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt psychology. Harcourt, Brace.

2.21 SUGGESTED READINGS

Cutting, J. E., &Vishton, P. M. (1995). Perceiving layout and knowing distances:

The integration, relative potency, and contextual use of different information
about depth. In Perception of Space and Motion (pp. 69-117). Academic Press.
Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton
Mifflin.
Logothetis, N. K., & Sheinberg, D. L. (1996). Visual object recognition. Annual
Review of Neuroscience, 19(1), 577-621.
Mather, G. (2014). Motion processing in the brain. In The Oxford Handbook of
Perceptual Organization (pp. 167-186). Oxford University Press.
Parasuraman, R., & Wilson, G. F. (2008). Putting the brain to work:
Neuroergonomics past, present, and future. Human Factors, 50(3), 468-474.
Simons, D. J., &Chabris, C. F. (1999). Gorillas in our midst: Sustained
inattentional blindness for dynamic events. Perception, 28(9), 1059-1074.
Treisman, A. M. (1986). Features and objects: The Fourteenth Bartlett Memorial
Lecture. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38(4), 527-582.
Wolfe, J. M. (1994). Guided search 2.0: A revised model of visual search.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1(2), 202-238.
Wertheimer, M. (1923). Laws of organization in perceptual forms. A source book
of Gestalt psychology, 71-88.

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LESSON-3 UNIT-3
PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY
Ms. Vidyut Singh
Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Email-Id: [email protected]

Ms. Shalini Chaudhary

Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
University of Delhi
Email-Id: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Aspects of problem solving
3.4 Theories of problem solving
3.5 Stages of Problem Solving
3.6 Strategies of Problem Solving
3.7 Factors Affecting Problem Solving
3.8 Creativity
3.9 Theories of Creativity
3.10 Creativity and Intelligence
3.11 Fostering Creativity
3.12 Summary
3.13 Glossary
3.14 Self-Assessment Questions
3.15 References
3.16 Suggested Readings

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3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

● To explain the meaning of problem solving and creativity
● To understand various aspects and stages of problem solving and creativity
● To understand factors effecting problem solving and creativity.
● To reflect upon various theories and view

3.2 INTRODUCTION
Problem solving, a common component of most activities, is a process of reaching out to a
goal by overcoming various barriers. These barriers may include simple personal difficulties
like how to turn on an appliance to the sophisticated problems in the commercial or technical
industries requiring specific skills. All such problems need to be solved. The approach of
problem solving differs depending on the nature of task and the availability of resources.
Therefore, two important tools needed to solve any problem are: a. Resources and b.
Knowledge.
Before we start with the nature of solving any problem, let us understand the nature of the
problem itself. Two alternative classifications of the problem are: Ill-defined and well-
defined problems (Schacter, 2009). Well-defined problems have explicit goals, clearly
defined solutions, and clearly stated expected solutions while ill-defined problems are
problems that lack distinct goals, solution paths, or expected solutions. In addition to using
pragmatics (logical reasoning) and semantics (understanding of the meanings underlying the
problem), problem solving frequently calls for abstract thought and creativity in order to
come up with fresh solutions.
Resources can be anything ranging from tools to books to overcome a problem. For example-
to use a nail, a hammer is needed so that the photograph can be hanged. A student having
problem in solving math’s questions will need books to see the formula and solve the
mathematical problem. To utilize the available resources accurately and efficiently, the
person will need accurate knowledge. For example, without having the knowledge of
numbers and formulas, the student will not be able to apply the formula. To use a hammer the
person needs to have knowledge of how to hold the hammer and how to apply pressure.
Following are some features of challenging tasks that are typical:
• Lack of understanding regarding the circumstance
• Opacity from the start. (There is uncertainty on where to begin stating the problem)
• Persistent opacity (a lack of clarity about the issue that continues to cause uncertainty)
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• Lack of expression (inability to state the issue clearly)

• Conflict
• Transience (the issue changes frequently)
• Complexity (There are too many items, interactions, and decisions, which is a problem)
• Enumerability (It cannot be enumerated or quantified)
• Connectivity (Relationship, communication, and allocation concerns are ranked in a
hierarchy)
• Heterogeneity (The issue is not uniform, making it challenging to solve)
• Dynamics (time-related issues)

3.3 ASPECTS OF PROBLEM SOLVING

The three aspects of problem solving are Givens, Goals and Operations. Where Givens are
the facts presented to describe the problem. Goal is the desired end state of the problem and
operation is the actions to be performed in reaching the desired goal.
Each presenting problem has a set of characteristics associated with it (refer to Table 1).
Example – if mathematics question is the givens (available characteristics of the problem),
the goal is to find the value of presented variable, operations is the formula.
Figure – Aspects Of Problem Solving

Givens

are the facts or pieces of

information presented to describe
the problem

Goal

is the desired end state of the

problem

Operations

are the actions to be performed

in reaching the desired goal

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3.4 THEORIES OF PROBLEM SOLVING

3.4.1 Behavioristic theories are based on cause-and-effect relationship, postulating that
behavior followed by positive consequences will be repeated. Behavior with negative
consequences will be followed by trial-and-error method. This entails tackling the issue in
multiple ways until a desired solution is discovered. These kinds of problem-solving skills are
displayed by young children when they solve a jigsaw puzzle. Behaviorists have placed a
strong emphasis on habit formation and trial-and-error learning, as well as the potential
contribution of stimulus-response interactions to problem-solving. These early theories of
learning and problem-solving highlighted the observable aspects of the process rather than
attempting to explain the subject's cognitive underpinnings.
3.4.2 Cognitive theory: Within the cognitive framework, Wallas and Polya, developed a four-
stage model of problem solving.
Wallas identified four stages of problem-solving:

 preparation, which involved defining the issue and acquiring relevant data
 incubation, or subconsciously contemplating the issue;
 inspiration: a moment of clarity
 verification—ascertaining that the solution was accurate by checking—insight into the
problem's solution.
Polya (1945) described the following four steps in the problem-solving process:
understand the problem

devise a plan

carry out the plan

look backward
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3.4.3 Newell’s theory

The general problem-solving theory was supported by Newell's early work in artificial
intelligence (AI). AI refers to the study and creation of computer programmers for problem-
solving. An AI programmer moves from the problem state to the solution state using a finite
number of functions. AI programmers were able to solve a large number of straightforward
riddles and logic issues, supporting the notion that problem-solving success was directly
proportional to general problem-solving ability. A hypothesis of human issue solving put
forth by Newell and colleagues highlighted the parallels between human and AI problem
solving. This hypothesis is underpinned by the following four ideas
(1) A few broad characteristics of the problem-solving process are constant regardless of
the task or the problem solver
(2) The problem's characteristics are sufficient to identify the problem space
(3) The structure of the task environment determines the potential structure of the problem
space
(4) The potential programmers (methods) that can be used to solve the problem are
determined by the structure of the problem space.

3.5 STAGES OF PROBLEM SOLVING

Most commonly, there are seven stages or steps of problem solving as listed below:
3.5.1 Identifying the problem
Finding the issue may seem like a simple first step, but it is not always that straightforward.
Sometimes people will incorrectly pinpoint the cause of an issue, rendering attempts to fix it
ineffectively or even pointlessly. You might employ the following techniques to identify the
root cause of a problem:
 requesting information about the issue
 dividing the issue into smaller components
 examining the issue from a variety of angles
 conducting research to determine the connections between various variables of the
issue.
3.5.2 Defining the problem
It is crucial to properly characterize the issue after it has been identified so that it can be
resolved. By characterizing or operationalizing each part of the problem and creating goals
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for those aspects you can handle, you will identify the problem.
concentrate on identifying the components of the issues that are factual and those that are just
opinions. Clarify the issue and indicate the range of potential solutions.
3.5.2 Creating a Plan
Once the issue has been located, it is time to begin thinking of potential fixes. This
steptypically entails coming up with as many ideas as you can without evaluating them. After
various options have been developed, they can be assessed and reduced. The next stage is to
create a plan of action to address the issue. The strategy will change based upon the
circumstance and the person's particular preferences. Heuristics and algorithms are the
methods used most often for solving problems.
3.5.3 Organizing of information
The information at hand must be organized before coming up with a solution. This involves
asking questions like
How much do you know about the issue?
Why do you lack knowledge?
The more knowledge you have, the better equipped you will be to find a precise solution.
Making a choice without having enough knowledge can produce results that are biased or
incorrect.
3.5.4 Allocating the resources
At this point, it's crucial to take into account all the variables that could have an impact on the
current issue. This entails examining the resources at hand, the dates that must be reached,
and any potential hazards associated with each solution. A choice about the best course of
action can be made after serious considerations.
For example- if it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to
solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too
much of your available resources on coming up with a solution.
3.5.5 Monitoring progress
This step involves putting the plan into action after choosing a problem-solving approach to
test if it works. This step could involve experimenting with various solutions to see which is
the most successful. After implementing a solution, it is crucial to keep an eye on the
situation to make sure the issue has been resolved and that no new issues have appeared
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because of the suggested remedy. Effective problem-solvers frequently track their

development as they search for a solution. They will reassess their strategy or search for new
ones if they are not making much progress towards their goal.
3.5.6 Evaluating the results
Once a solution has been found, it is critical to assess the outcomes to see whether it truly
solves the issue. This assessment may take place when someone checks the findings of a
maths problem to make sure the solution is accurate, or it may take place later, like when
someone assesses the effectiveness of a therapy programme after several months of
treatment.

3.6 STRATEGIES OF PROBLEM SOLVING

A plan of action used to discover a solution is known as a problem-solving strategy.
3.6.1 Trial and Error
Trial and Error is a well-known tactic. The proverb "If at first you don't succeed, try, try
again" perfectly sums up trial and error. You might try checking the ink levels on your faulty
printer, and if that does not work, you could make sure the paper tray isn't jammed. Or
perhaps your laptop and printer are not actually connected. When using trial and error, you
would keep attempting various fixes until your problem is fixed. Strategies of problem
solving are employed in the following situations:
 When too much information is presented.
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 when one has a finite amount of time to decide

 when the choice at hand is not significant
 when there is minimal information available to employ in the decision-making
 when an adequate heuristic simultaneously enters one's head.
There are two major strategies of problem solving viz. a. Algorithms and b. Heuristics
3.6.2 Algorithms
An algorithm is a method or formula that relies on carrying out a series of predetermined
operations to solve a problem. It is a formula for solving problems that gives you a detailed
instructions on how to get the result you want (Kahneman, 2011). An elaborate algorithm can
be thought of as a computer programme. In our daily lives, algorithms are often employed,
particularly in computer science.
Search engines like Google utilise algorithms to determine which items will come first in you
r list of results when you conduct a search on the Internet. It can be compared to a recipe with
extremely specific instructions leading to the same outcome. Additionally, Facebook
employs algorithms to choose which content to show in your newsfeed. Can you think of any
further instances where algorithms are used? Shortcuts.
Advantages of algorithms
1. It is simple to understand because it represents a solution to a specific problem step by
step.
2. An algorithm follows a predetermined process.
3. Because it is independent of any programming language, even those without experience
can easily understand it.
4. An algorithm is simple to debug since each step has its own logical order.
5. The difficulty is divided into smaller components or steps using an algorithm, making it
simpler for programmers to turn the problem into a working software.
The disadvantages of algorithms
1) Algorithms take a lot of time.
2) It's challenging to demonstrate looping and branching in algorithms.
3) Complex jobs are challenging for algorithms to handle.
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3.6.3 Heuristics
Another kind of approach for problem solving is the heuristic. A heuristic is a generic
framework for problem-solving, in contrast to an algorithm, which must be followed
precisely to obtain the intended result (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). Heuristics were initially
established in psychology in 1950s by Nobel laureate economist and cognitive psychologist
Herbert Simon. Despite people's best efforts to make reasonable decisions, he argued that
human judgement is subject to cognitive constraints. Making judgements based only on logic
would require assessing all the prospective benefits and costs of each possibility. Heuristics
are mental shortcuts that lessen the cognitive work needed when making decisions. We
frequently use heuristics instead of rather than thoroughly estimating the likelihood and the
subjective worth or utility of each potential result.
A heuristic is what you may call a "rule of thumb" or shortcut. Such a rule spares the
decision-maker time and effort, but despite its time-saving benefits, it is not necessarily the
most effective strategy for arriving at an informed choice. Different types of heuristics (as
listed below) are employed in various contexts (Pratkanis, 1989)
1. Availability heuristic
The availability heuristic describes our propensity to assess the likelihood or frequency of
different events based on how quickly they may be remembered. This shortcut works well
since the easier it is for us to recall an experience, the more likely it is that it will happen
again. can also lead us astray. Tversky and Kahneman (1974) in their study illustrated the
availability heuristic in action. Following the distribution of name lists to participants, the
researchers quizzed them on whether the lists had a greater proportion of male or female
names. Although there were about equal amounts of male and female names, approximately
80% of individuals claimed that feminine names were more common. Why? The names of
the ladies on the lists were easier to recall and think of since they were more well-known.
Many people are influenced by the availability heuristic to overestimate their likelihood of
becoming a victim of violent crime, being in an aeroplane accident, or winning the lottery.
Because People can recall vivid examples of these occurrences because they are widely
covered in the media. According to Tyler and Cook (1984), they draw the conclusion that
such outcomes occur far more frequently than they do.
2. Representative heuristics
The representativeness heuristic is the propensity to infer that an item is more likely to belong
to a notion if it closely resembles typical examples of that concept. An example if this
heuristic can be inferred from the following incident.

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Rahul is 34 years old. Although clever, he lacks creativity and enjoys collecting vintage jazz
records. He excelled in mathematics but struggled in the humanities and social sciences at
school.
Which of the following is most likely:
A. Rahul is an accountant who enjoys playing the trumpet.
B. Rahul is a trumpet enthusiast.
The description might lead you to believe that solution A is more appropriate. But this breaks
a basic principle of probability. It is not possible for the likelihood of two events to be more
likely than one another than to occur simultaneously (for example, "accountant" and "trumpet
player"). The probability of a scenario may only drop with time as it becomes more detailed,
but its representativeness (and hence, seeming likelihood) may rise. The representativeness
heuristic would be applied if you thought in this way. In other words, you would base your
choice on a comparatively straightforward rule: An item is more likely to fall within a certain
idea or category if it resembles that concept or category's most prevalent examples the most
closely. In order to decide, the representativeness heuristic compares the current circumstance
to the most representative mental prototype. Aspects of the person may be compared to other
mental examples you have in order to determine if the person is trustworthy.
3. Anchoring and adjustment
The tendency to arrive at decisions by adjusting reference points or current information is
known as the anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic. The cognitive method known as
"anchoring and adjustment" describes how a person heavily relies on the information they
first learn (also known as the "anchor") while making decisions. In other words, if the anchor
value is too different from the genuine value, it may affect all subsequent decisions and force
them to be adjusted in order to stay close to it. This bias typically appears when people
predict future outcomes based on the information that is now accessible. a mental guideline
for making judgements by adjusting the knowledge that is already known. The main issue
with this heuristic is that the adjustments are frequently too little to completely negate the
influence of the initial reference point.
Other methods of problem solving -
- Abstraction – refers to solving the problem within a model of the situation before
applying it to reality.
- Analogy – is using a solution that solves a similar problem.

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- Brainstorming – refers to collecting and analysing a large amount of solutions,

especially within a group of people, to combine the solutions and developing them until
an optimal solution is reached.
- Divide and conquer – breaking down large complex problems into smaller more
manageable problems.
- Hypothesis testing – method used in experimentation where an assumption about what
would happen in response to manipulating an independent variable is made, and
analysis of the effects of the manipulation are made and compared to the original
hypothesis.
- Lateral thinking – approaching problems indirectly and creatively by viewing
the problem in a new and unusual light.

3.7 BARRIERS OF PROBLEM SOLVING

3.7.1 Confirmation bias
Our unwillingness to look for knowledge that can contradict our views is one of the obstacles
that prevents us from finding a solution. It explains that we are more willing to find evidence
that supports our opinions than that which contradicts them. Business managers may, for
instance, track the successful careers of people they have hired rather than those they have
rejected in order to verify their hiring skills. The confirmation bias compels one to decide
based on the beliefs and values they hold.
3.7.2 Hindsight bias
Our tendency to believe that we knew something was going to happen before we realised it
did is known as hindsight. The "I knew it all along" or "I knew it was going to happen"
phenomenon is another name for the hindsight bias. It means that when an event occurs, we
frequently feel as though it was inevitable or that we were foreseeing it. It is a fallacy to think
that we could have foreseen the outcome with certainty before the incident had happened.
The happenings do not surprise us in our opinion. Even when they looked unlikely before
they happened, we seem to be expecting them after they have happened.
3.7.3 Overconfidence bias
Overconfidence is the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and
judgments. We tend to think we know more than we do and accomplish in less time than it
takes. For example, students typically expect to finish projects ahead of schedule. But they

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get finished after about twice as many days as predicted. Overconfidence is a general bias. It
applies to both lay people and experts. For example, doctors’ confidence increases during the
diagnosis of the disease as they receive more information, even if this information is
irrelevant and non-diagnostic.
3.7.4 Escalation of commitment
In which individuals continue to support a choice even after realising that it is unwise and
detrimental. Studies have shown that they steadfastly adhere to their choices. These folks
refuse to acknowledge their error and attempt to prove their choice was correct. They might
even invest more time, money, effort, and resources in their own self-defence of that choice.
They are, in a sense, locked into poor judgements with no way out, a situation known as
escalation of commitment. For instance, even when the firm is in horrible shape, managers
choose not to dissolve it because people continue to be in unhappy marriages.
3.7.5 Functional fixedness
Functional fixedness is a form of mental obstacle that causes us to perceive items as only
having traditional functions. We are unable to go past these set purposes of things or
instruments. This limits our ability to be creative and could prevent us from realising an
object's full potential.

3.8 CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT THINKING

All the humans possess convergent thinking but some people develop differently from others.
In this type of thinking there are no possibilities to have various solutions to one problem.
This type of thinking is vertical and specific where the logic is right and results in unique
answer. The process of this type of thinking is a reflection of the existing knowledge, action
and precise result of the situation that requires quick and logical process using all the
available information. Convergent is used more when there are difficult situations that require
concentration such as making important decisions and where thinking has to be critical,
analytical and reflective. People who develop convergent type of thinking in depth can be
more confident and secure in taking decisions because they analyse different alternatives
beforehand and opted for the solution which is best and most concrete. This type of thinking
is necessary to make precise decisions in order to achieve success to resolve conflicts.
Though it can limit the creativity of a person because the person is only relying on true and
tangible data which offer solutions.

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Divergent or creative thinking is an activity that leads to new information or previously

undiscovered solutions. Divergent thinking usually happens in a free flowing and
spontaneous manner. The term divergent refers to developing in different directions.
Therefore, divergent means opening the mind in various directions and trying to look for
multiple solutions to a problem. Divergent thinking relates to looking out for new solutions to
a problems.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Whose problem-solving theory worked on artificial intelligence?
a) Polya b) Ulric Neisser
c) Wallas d) Newell
2. Which theory of problem solving is based on cause effect relationship?
a) General problem solving b) Behaviourist
c) Cognitive d) Noam Chomsky
3. Breaking down of large complex problems into more manageable problems is:
a) Brainstorming b) Hypothesis testing
c) Divide and Conquer d) Lateral Thinking
4. A generic framework for problem-solving, in contrast to an algorithm, which
must be followed precisely to obtain the intended result
a) Escalation of commitment b) Functional fixedness
c) Hindsight bias d) Overconfidence bias

3.8 CREATIVITY
3.8.1 Introduction
The ability to create new ideas or use things or knowledge in innovative manners is referred
to as creativity. It can entail grandiose concepts that has the potential to transform the world,
like creating tools that alter how people live, or it can involve tiny acts of creativity, like
coming up with a novel way to complete an everyday chore. The capacity to develop, create,
or uncover fresh concepts, ideas, or possibilities. People who are very creative frequently
have a deep understanding of a subject, devote years to it, consider creative solutions, consult
other experts for guidance, and take chances. Although creativity is sometimes connected to
the arts, it is also a crucial aspect of intellect that motivates people across many fields to
make new discoveries. Every aspect of life may benefit from creativity, from how you

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decorate your home to a novel theory on how cells function. Components of creativity are
originality, usefulness, surprise.
The very first criterion is uniqueness. The possibility of the idea must be slim. Yes, it should
frequently be different. This requirement was undoubtedly met by Albert Einstein's special
theory of relativity. Utility is the second requirement. The concept must be useful or
effective. For instance, a remedy must address the issue at hand. It is not creative to use an
original recipe to make a dish that tastes too bad to eat. In the instance of Einstein's theory,
his relativity principle gave explanations for empirical findings that otherwise would be
incomprehensible. Surprise is the third and final component The concept must be novel or at
the very least nonobvious.
For instance, even if a solution were creative, it cannot be regarded surprising if it is a simple
derivation from accumulated skill. Einstein's theory of relativity was based on a novel
foundation that called into question the fundamental assumptions of conventional physics
rather than being a step-by-step deduction from classical physics.
Guilford first offered up the idea of "divergent thinking" in the 1950s after observing that
those who are creative frequently engage in this way of thinking more than others. Thus, he
equated divergent thinking with creativity and identified its following traits: Fluency is the
capacity to generate many ideas or solutions to problems in a short amount of time.
Flexibility is the capacity to simultaneously suggest several approaches to a particular
problem. Originality is the capacity to generate new, original ideas. Elaboration is the
capacity to systematise and organise the specifics of an idea in one's mind and implement it.
There are four stages involved in creativity:
1. Preparation
In this stage the thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials
considered necessary for finding new solutions. Many a times the problem cannot be
solved even after days, weeks or months of concentrated efforts. Failing to solve the
problem, the thinker turns away from it initiating next stage

2. Incubation
During this period some of the ideas that were interfering with the solution will tend to
fade. The overt activity and sometimes even thinking about the problem is absent in this
stage. But the unconscious thought process involved in creative thinking is at work
during this period. Apparently, the thinker will be busy in other activities like reading

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literature or playing games, etc. Inspite of these activities the contemplation about
finding a solution to problem will be going on in the mind.

3. Illumination
Following the period of incubation, the creative ideas occur suddenly. Consequently,
the obscure thing becomes clear. This sudden flash of solution is known as illumination
and is similar to ‘aha (eureka)’ experience. For example, Archimedes found solution to
the crown problem.

4. Verification
Though the solution is found in illumination stage, it is necessary to verify whether that
solution is correct or not. Hence in this last stage evaluation of the solution is done. If
the solution is not satisfactory the thinker will go back to creative process from the
beginning. If it is satisfactory, the same will be accepted and if necessary, minor
modification may also be made in solution.

3.8.2 Measures of creativity

1. The Remote Associates Test, referred to as the RAT, was developed by Mednick in
1962. According to Mednick, the ability to mentally connect ideas that are seen to be
quite far from one another is necessary for the creative process. The RAT's tasks ask
respondents to choose a term that can be connected to three somewhat distinct stimulus
words. What word, for instance, comes to mind when you hear the terms "widow, bite,
monkey"?
2. The Unusual Uses Task (Guilford, 1967; Torrance, 1974) is the second evaluation tool.
Here, the participant is invited to think of different applications for an everyday object,
such a brick. The responses can be graded based on four factors: (a) fluency, which
measures the total number of appropriate uses generated; (b) originality, which
measures how uncommon the uses are statistically; (c) flexibility, which measures the
number of different conceptual categories implied by the various uses; and (d)
elaboration, which measures the level of detail provided for the generated uses.

3.9 THEORIES OF CREATIVITY

3.9.1 Componential model of creativity
Amabile suggested that the secret to individual creativity lay in three interrelated factors.
Domain-relevant skills, also known as technical aptitudes and specialised knowledge, came
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first. Processes that are more broadly applicable to creativity include tolerating ambiguity and
being prepared to take calculated risks. She also mentioned intrinsic motivation, which is the
practise of engaging in an activity because it is pleasurable or meaningful. In contrast,
extrinsic motivation occurs when a person is motivated by something outside of themselves,
such as money, accolades, or grades.
A creative writer, for instance, might have creativity-relevant processes like curiosity about
the world and a desire to understand other people, as well as domain-relevant skills like the
ability to construct a narrative and use beautiful language. They might also have intrinsic
motivation because they enjoy telling stories and find the process rewarding. in the revised
model, four new parts have been added.
Synergistic extrinsic motivation, which happens when external motivators are present but
either add to or are consistent with a person's knowledge, competence, values, and
engagement, is now combined with intrinsic motivation. One's motivation may be impacted
by work orientation. Affect (more especially, positive affect) contributes to the creative
process and can increase motivation. Finding meaning in one's work might improve one's
affect and motivation.
3.9.2 Investment theory of creativity
The Investment Theory of Creativity (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995) compares a creative
individual to a financial investor. In the world of ideas, one must buy low and sell high in
order to be innovative. As a result, the successful creator can spot underappreciated concepts,
persuade others of their value, and then move on to the next undertaking. Sternberg and
Lubart suggest that six factor Intellectual qualities include the capacity to perceive issues
from novel angles, the discernment of which of one's ideas merit further development, and
the capacity to persuade others of these novel concepts.
 Knowledge, Enough expertise in a field to advance it.
 The confluence approach contends that various elements must come together for
creativity to develop.
 Particular ways of thinking a preference for original thought and the capacity for
perspective-taking, or the capacity to think both globally and locally.
 Personality traits, Qualities include a readiness to take chances and a tolerance for
uncertainty.
 Motivation that is intrinsic to the job at hand: Creative people typically enjoy what they
are doing and derive intrinsic satisfaction from it.
 An atmosphere that encourages creativity
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3.9.3 Research Studies

An increasing body of evidence provides evidence that the method of convergence. Take one
study by Lubart and Sternberg (1995) as an illustration. In this study, forty-eight persons
between the ages of 18 and 65 were asked to develop original works in the fields of writing,
art, advertising, and science. For instance, they were instructed to create drawings depicting
"hope," "rage," and "the earth from an insect's point of view" for the art category. They were
tasked with creating television commercials for the Internal Revenue Service and bow ties in
terms of advertising. The overall inventiveness, novelty, and perceived effort of each
participant's creation were all evaluated. Additionally, participants performed two personality
tests, a thinking style test, and a fluid intelligence test.
First, the findings showed that there was broad agreement among raters regarding what
constituted creativity and what did not. This is a significant discovery because it shows that
creativity is a subject that can be researched scientifically. Second, it was discovered that the
relationship between creativity in one domain—such as art, writing, and so forth—and
creativity in other disciplines was simply tangential. People can therefore be innovative in
one field but not another, as common sense would suggest. Third, creativity was highly
correlated with mental capacity, cognitive style, and personality. These findings, together
with those of other recent studies, provide evidence in favour of the confluence method when
seen collectively. It seems that for creativity to arise, a number of variables must come
together. While none of these characteristics by themselves are unusual, when they come
together, they can lead to consequences and results that are, in some situations,
extraordinarily unusual.
3.9.4 Creativity and intelligence
Empirical studies on the relationship between creativity and intellect have been conducted for
many years. However, there is still disagreement over the connections between these
concepts. The threshold theory, which holds that having above-average intellect is a
requirement for having high levels of creativity, is one of the most well-known theories about
how intelligence and creativity interact. Although the threshold concept was mostly
confirmed by prior research, it has recently come under scrutiny. It is usual practise to test the
threshold hypothesis by dividing a sample at a predetermined point (for example, at 120 IQ
points) and estimating separate correlations for the lower and upper IQ ranges. However,
there is no compelling reason to set the criterion at an IQ of 120, and no attempts have been
made to do so up to this point.
3.9.5 Fostering creativity
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We require a variety of viewpoints to foster creativity. To generate as many ideas as possible,

diverse thinking is required.
A list of the different creativity strategies that have been put forth is provided by Nickerson
(1999). These include techniques created by academia and business alike, such as:
1. Identifying a goal and intention.
2. Developing fundamental abilities.
3. Promoting the acquisition of knowledge specific to a given topic.
4. Encouraging and encouraging discovery and curiosity.
5. Increasing motivation, especially within.
6. Promoting self-assurance and a readiness to take chances.
7. Concentrating on self-competition and mastery.
8. Supporting rational perspectives on creativity.
9. Providing options and chances for exploration.
10. Developing metacognitive skills for self-management.
11. Methods and tactics for encouraging creative performance in the classroom.
3.9.6 Providing equilibrium.
According to Torrance's (1995) research, soft thinking, deconstruction/reconstruction,
visualising, playing, exploration, dialectical thinking, learning from failure, and
collaboration/cooperation are all ways to boost creativity. In fact, there are various strategies
to encourage or hinder human creativity. Every time humans encounter circumstances for
which they have not already studied and prepared a response, some level or sort of creativity
is required.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. A form of mental obstacle that causes us to perceive items as only having traditional
functions
a) Self Report b) Functional fixedness
c) Computer Simulation d) Artificial Intelligence
6. A method used in experimentation where an assumption about what would happen in
response to manipulating an independent variable
a) Information processing b) Hypothesis
c) Lateral thinking d) Evolutionary
7. In this stage the thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials
considered necessary for finding new solutions.
a) Preparation b) Verification
c) Incubation d) Illumination

3.10 SUMMARY
Problem solving is a process of reaching out to a desired goal by overcoming various
difficulties. Most influential tools required to solve any problem are resources and
knowledge. These tools help in defining the problem in a clear manner. The three aspects
namely Givens, Goals and Operations help in defining the problems. Further some popular
theories that explain the underlying strategies of problem solving include behavioristic
theories, Cognitive theory and Newell’s theory. Problem solving takes place in 7 steps or
stages each stage representing the complexity of the problem. There are mainly 3 strategies
used for making decisions while solving a problem. These strategies are Trial and Error
Method, Algorithms and Heuristics like availability, representativeness and anchoring and
adjustment. Biases such as confirmation bias, hindsight bias, overconfidence bias, escalation
of commitment bias and Functional fixedness affect the problem solving efficiency and
impairs its effectiveness.
Being creative requires the capacity to create new (unexpected, creative) and appropriate (it
serves a purpose, is valuable, or fulfils a task) work. According to confluence theories,
several factors must come together for creativity to develop. According to these beliefs,
certain intellectual aptitudes, expertise in a certain topic, particular ways of thinking,
personality qualities, intrinsic motivation, and an atmosphere that fosters original thought are
among the elements that are essential for creativity. According to research, each of the

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elements described by confluence theories significantly predicts creativity in a variety of

fields (such as writing, art, and science).

1.11 GLOSSARY
 Heuristic- Mental shortcuts or Rule of Thumb
 Well-defined problems – Problems which have explicit goals, clearly defined
solutions, and clearly stated expected solutions.
 Ill-defined problems - They are problems that lack distinct goals, solution paths, or
expected solutions
 Resources - Anything to overcome a problem.
 Behavioristic theories - They are based on cause-and-effect relationship, postulating
that behavior followed by positive consequences will be repeated.
 Algorithms - A method or formula that relies on carrying out a series of predetermined
operations to solve a problem.
 Functional fixedness - A form of mental obstacle that causes us to perceive items as
only having traditional functions
 Creativity - The ability to create new ideas or use things or knowledge in innovative
manners.
 Convergent thinking - In this type of thinking there are no possibilities to have
various solutions to one problem
 Divergent or creative thinking - An activity that leads to new information or
previously undiscovered solutions.
 Problem solving- process that occur when goal must be reached by thinking in a
particular manner
 Trial and Error- trying possible solutions one after another till success is achieved

3.12 ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

1. (d) Newell 5. (c) Functional fixedness
2. (b) Logical concepts 6. (a) Hypothesis

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3. (d) Divide and conquer 7. (d) Preparation

4. (b) Functional Fixedness

3.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define the nature of thinking.
2. Explain the various factors affecting decision-making.
3. Explain the various strategies of problem solving.
4. Elucidate on the theories of creativity.
5. Differentiate between convergent and divergent thinking.
6. Highlight different stages of problem solving. Discuss barriers in effective problem
solving.
7. Explain various barriers to problem solving.

3.14 REFERENCES
Feldman, R.S.. (2019). Understanding Psychology, (14th Ed). New York: McGraw Hill
Education. Chicago
Morgan, C.T.; King, R.A.; Weisz, R.A.; & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to
Psychology [7 ed.] McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

3.15 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ranganathan, S.R. (2006). Classified catalogue code with additional rules for dictionary
catalogue code. New Delhi: Ess Ess Publications.
Baron, R.A. (2001). Introduction to Psychology, (5th Ed). Pearson Education
Baron, R.A.& Misra, G. (2006). Psychology (Adaptation) Four Colour; (5th Ed) Indian
Subcontinent Edition
Feldman, R.S.. (2019). Understanding Psychology, (14th Ed). New York: McGraw Hill
Education. Chicago
Morgan, C.T.; King, R.A.; Weisz, R.A.; & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to
Psychology [7 ed.] McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Morgan, J. J. B., & Gilliland, A. R. (1927). An introduction to psychology. Macmillan.

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