1.
16 Network Analysis and Synthesis
2. Linear and Non-linear Elements If the resistance, inductance or capacitance offered by an element
does not change linearly with the change in applied voltage or circuit current, the element is termed as linear
element. Such an element shows a linear relation between
voltage and current as shown in Fig. 1.28. Ordinary resistors, I
capacitors and inductors are examples of linear elements.
A non-linear circuit element is one in which the
current does not change linearly with the change in
applied voltage. A semiconductor diode operating in the t
en t
curved region of characteristics as shown in Fig. 1.28 is m en
E le m
l e
common example of non-linear element. ar rE
ne ea
Other examples of non-linear elements are voltage- Li n
Li
dependent resistor (VDR), voltage-dependent capacitor n-
No
(varactor), temperature-dependent resistor (thermistor), light-
0 V
dependent resistor (LDR), etc. Linear elements obey Ohm’s
law whereas non-linear elements do not obey Ohm’s law.
3. Active and Passive Elements An element Fig. 1.28 V-I characteristics of linear
which is a source of electrical signal or which is capable and non-linear elements
of increasing the level of signal energy is termed as active element. Batteries, BJTs, FETs or OP-AMPs
are treated as active elements because these can be used for the amplification or generation of signals. All
other circuit elements, such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, VDR, LDR, thermistors, etc., are termed
passive elements. The behaviour of active elements cannot be described by Ohm’s law.
4. Unilateral and Bilateral Elements If the magnitude of current flowing through a circuit element
is affected when the polarity of the applied voltage is changed, the element is termed unilateral element.
Consider the example of a semiconductor diode. Current flows through the diode only in one direction.
Hence, it is called an unilateral element. Next, consider the example of a resistor. When the voltage is
applied, current starts to flow. If we change the polarity of the applied voltage, the direction of the current
is changed but its magnitude is not affected. Such an element is called a bilateral element.
5. Lumped and Distributed Elements A lumped element is the element which is separated physically,
like resistors, inductors and capacitors. Distributed elements are those which are not separable for analysis
purposes. Examples of distributed elements are transmission lines in which the resistance, inductance and
capacitance are distributed along its length.
6. Active and Passive Networks A network which contains at least one active element such as an
independent voltage or current source is an active network. A network which does not contain any active
element is a passive network.
7. Time-invariant and Time-variant Networks A network is said to be time-invariant or fixed if its
input–output relationship does not change with time. In other words, a network is said to time-invariant,
if for any time shift in input, an identical time-shift occurs for output. In time-variant networks, the
input–output relationship changes with time.
SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATIONS OF RESISTORS
I R1 R2 R3
Let R1 R2 and R3 be the resistances of three resistors
connected in series across a dc voltage source V as shown in
Fig. 1.29. Let V1 V2 and V3 be the voltages across resistances V1 V2 V3
R1 R2 and R3 respectively.
In series combination, the same current flows through
each resistor but voltage across each resistor is different. V
Series combination of resistors
V V1 + V2 V3
RT I = R1 I + R2 I + R3 I
RT R1 + R2 R3
Hence, when a number of resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is the sum of all the
individual resistance.
1. Voltage Division and Power in a Series Circuit
V
I=
R1 + R2 + R3
R1
V1 R1 I = V
R1 + R2 + R3
R2
V2 R2 I = V
R1 + R2 + R3
R3
V3 R3 I = V
R1 R2 + R3 I1 R1
Total power PT P1 + P2 P3
= I 2 R1 + I 2 R2 + I 2 R3 I I2 R2
V12 V22 V32
= + + I3 R3
R1 R2 R3
Figure 1.30 shows three resistors connected in parallel across
a dc voltage source V. Let I1 I 2 and I 3 be the current flowing
V
through resistors R1 R2 and R3 respectively.
In parallel combination, the voltage across each resistor is Parallel combination
same but current through each resistor is different. of resistors
I = I1 + I 2 I3
V V V V
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
R1 R2 R3
RT =
R2 R3 + R3 R1 + R1 R2
Hence, when a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance
is equal to the sum of reciprocals of individual resistances.
2. Current Division and Power in a Parallel Circuit
V RT I R1 I1 R2 I 2 R3 I 3
V R I R2 R3
I1 = = T = I
R1 R1 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
V R I R1 R3
I2 = = T = I
R2 R2 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
V R I R1 R2
I3 = = T = I
R3 R3 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Total power PT P1 + P2 P3
= I12 R1 + I 22 R2 + I 32 R3
2 2 3
V V V
= + +
R1 R2 R3
R1 R2
Note: For two branch circuits, RT =
R1 R2
V RT I R1 I1 R2 I 2
V R I R2
I1 = = T = I
R1 R1 R1 R2
V R I R1
I2 = = T = I
R2 R2 R1 R2
Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.31.
A B
10 Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω
Fig. 1.31
Solution Marking all the junctions and redrawing the network (Fig. 1.32),
A B
10 Ω C 10 Ω D 10 Ω
(a)
D
A
10 Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω
B
C
(b)
Fig. 1.32
RAB = 10 � 10 � 10 = 3.33 Ω
Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.33.
6Ω
A
8Ω 10 Ω
B
12 Ω
Fig. 1.33
Solution Marking all the junctions and redrawing the network (Fig. 1.34),
6Ω D
A C A
8Ω 10 Ω 8Ω 6Ω 10 Ω 12 Ω
B D B
12 Ω C
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.34
RAB = 8 � 6 � 10 � 12 = 2.11 Ω
Find the equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.35.
2Ω 15 Ω
B
A
10 Ω
8Ω
20 Ω 10 Ω
30 Ω 40 Ω
Fig. 1.35
Solution Marking all the junctions and redrawing the network (Fig. 1.36),
2Ω C 15 Ω
B
A 2Ω C, E 2Ω
10 Ω B B
8Ω
F D 25 Ω 50 Ω 50 Ω 12.5 Ω
20 Ω 10 Ω
A A
8Ω D, F 8Ω
30 Ω E 40 Ω (b) (c)
(a )
Fig. 1.36
RAB = 22.5 Ω
What is the resistance between the terminals A and B in network of Fig. 1.37 when the potential difference
between C and D is zero?
1.20 Network Analysis and Synthesis
C
R
R R
A
B D
R
Fig. 1.37
Solution When the potential difference between C and D is zero, the resistor connected between C and D
is shorted. Hence, the points C and D are at same potential.
Redrawing the network (Fig. 1.38),
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.39),
R
A C, D R
2
R A
R R R
2
B B
Fig. 1.38 Fig. 1.39
R R
RAB = + =RΩ
2 2
Example 1.18 Determine the current delivered by the source in the network of Fig. 1.40.
2Ω 2Ω
4Ω
2Ω 2Ω
2Ω 3Ω
30 V
1Ω 1Ω
Fig. 1.40
1.7 Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistors 1.21
Solution The network can be simplified by series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.41).
4Ω
2Ω
4Ω
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω
30 V 3Ω 30 V 1.5 Ω
3Ω
1Ω 1Ω
(a) (b)
3.5 Ω
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 1.27 Ω
30 V 30 V
1Ω 1Ω
(c) (d)
30 V 2Ω 2.27 Ω 30 V 1.06 Ω
I
(e) (f)
Fig. 1.41
30
I= = 28.3 A
1 06
Find the current delivered by the source in the network of Fig. 1.42.
2Ω 2Ω
2Ω 2Ω
4Ω 4Ω
4Ω
5Ω 2Ω 2Ω
50 V 3Ω
2Ω
1Ω 1Ω
Fig. 1.42
Solution The network can be simplified by series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.43).
4Ω 4Ω
4Ω 2Ω
4Ω 2Ω
4Ω 4Ω
2Ω 5Ω 2Ω
50 V 5Ω 2Ω 3Ω 50 V 2Ω 1.5 Ω
3Ω
1Ω 1Ω
(a) (b)
2Ω
5Ω 2Ω
50 V 2Ω 1.5 Ω
1Ω
(c)
3.5 Ω
2Ω 1.27 Ω
50 V 5Ω 2Ω 50 V 5Ω 2Ω
1Ω 1Ω
(d) (e)
5Ω 2.27 Ω 50 V 0.88 Ω
50 V 2Ω
I
(f) (g)
Fig. 1.43
50
I= = 56.82
82 A
0 88
Three equal resistors of 30 W each are connected in parallel across a 120 V dc sup- ply as shown in Fig.
1.44. What is the current through each of them (a) if one of the resistors burns out, or (b) if one of the
resistors gets shorted?
+ I1 I2 I3
120 V 30 Ω 30 Ω 30 Ω
Fig. 1.44
