Large print exhibition text

Hieroglyphs
unlocking
ancient Egypt

Please do not remove from the exhibition

 This guide provides all the exhibition text in
large print.

There are further resources available for blind and

partially sighted people.

Audio described tours for blind and partially

sighted visitors, led by the exhibition curator
and a trained audio describer, will explore
highlight objects from the exhibition. Tours are
accompanied by a handling session. Please check
the events website page for dates and times:

britishmuseum.org/exhibitions/hieroglyphs-
unlocking-ancient-egypt#events

Booking is essential. Please book online or email

[email protected]

The tour is also available as a self-led option. You

can fnd the audio on the Museum’s SoundCloud,
along with other content on ancient Egypt:

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 Sponsor’s statement

soundcloud.com/britishmuseum Sponsor’s statement

There is also an object handling desk at the We’d like to congratulate the British Museum on
exhibition entrance that is open daily from curating this unique and fascinating exhibition.
11.00 to 16.00.
Hieroglyphs: unlocking ancient Egypt
For any queries about access at the Museum gives us the opportunity to unravel one of the
please email [email protected] world’s best known ancient civilisations. The story
of how a forgotten language and the everyday
lives of ancient Egyptians were deciphered is
remarkable, revealed thanks to the ingenuity and
persistence of the Rosetta Stone code breakers.

As a visitor, aided by the spectacular items on

display, you can delve into the lives of an ancient
society no longer with us, but one which has left
its imprint on the world forever. We hope that you
thoroughly enjoy it.

Supported by bp

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Advisory statement A forgotten language

Advisory statement [Exhibition introduction, to right of entrance]

Human remains A forgotten language

This exhibition contains human remains on closed The once lost language of ancient Egypt has
display. Please ask a member of staff if you require long invited speculation and inspired legend.
further information. A formidable superpower since its unifcation
around 3100 BC, Egypt experienced a cultural
The British Museum is committed to curating transformation as it was increasingly ruled by
human remains with care, respect and dignity. foreign powers throughout the frst millennium BC.
Find out more on our website about our principles
governing the holding, display and study of human With the spread of Christianity, ancient religious
remains. practices were abandoned and in AD 356,
temples were ordered to be closed. As
britishmuseum.org/our-work/departments/ hieroglyphs and other written scripts fell out
human-remains of use, displaced by Greek and later Arabic,
the ability to read ancient Egyptian vanished.
So began an intricate search to unlock the
hieroglyphic code.

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Interactive trail A forgotten language

[Opposite exhibition introduction] [Labels for object in wall case, left to right]

A quest for all ages Sacred carvings

This hieroglyph means ‘to fnd’ and is This inscription from the temple of King
pronounced gem: Amenemhat III is written in hieroglyphs, the oldest
ancient Egyptian form of writing. Commonly
used in temples, tombs and other monuments,
hieroglyphs depict objects from the real world
such as animals or plants. But their picture-like
Follow the gem-bird and discover an ancient nature hid the fact that they represent a complex
Egyptian saying! spoken language, delaying decipherment for
centuries.
There are three gem-birds to fnd.
1855–1808 BC, Hawara, limestone
British Museum, EA1072

In praise of the king

These mirrored hieroglyphs arranged in columns

read: ‘Amenemhat – King of Upper and Lower
Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, who creates
[…]. Horus who is in Shedet [and] Sobek, he of

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A forgotten language A forgotten language

Shedet, give life and stability.’ The city of Shedet British Museum, EA41542
(present-day Fayum) was also known as 100–88 BC, Gebelein, ceramic (centre right)
Crocodilopolis by the Greeks. British Museum, EA29703

Duration: 25 seconds Towards Coptic

[Display case, labels left to right] After Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in
332 BC, the use of Greek became widespread.
Ancient handwriting Egyptian words were annotated with Greek letters
to help with their pronunciation. Later, demotic
Writing with a brush or a reed pen and ink, as signs were also included to express sounds in
opposed to carving in hard stone, led to the the Egyptian language that did not exist in Greek.
development of a less pictorial, more abbreviated By AD 100, an effective system for writing
script called ‘hieratic’. Over time, the script Egyptian alphabetically was in place called
became increasingly cursive, developing into ‘Coptic’. The term comes from the Greek word
‘demotic’. Handwritten scripts were used for daily for ‘Egyptian’, Αἰγύπτιος (pronounced
correspondence and literature. They mostly read ai-ku-pi-ti-os). Coptic lives on as the liturgical
from right to left, in contrast to hieroglyphic texts language of Egyptian Christianity.
which could go in either direction.
AD 600–700, Egypt, papyrus (far right)
1525–1336 BC, Egypt, bronze (far left) British Museum, EA71005,6
British Museum, EA41643
1295–1186 BC, Thebes, limestone (centre left)

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Interactive trail Inspired guesswork

[In corner of room] [Section introduction through entrance to

next room]

Inspired guesswork
Hieroglyphs look like everyday objects, living
things and natural features found in ancient Egypt. The path to the decipherment of hieroglyphs was
But signs don’t always mean what they show. long and fascinating, driven by an unwavering
For example, these two signs are the letter ‘n’: thirst for knowledge of ancient Egypt. But too
much trust in erroneous classical and biblical
sources, as well as the complexity of the language
Spin the blocks and guess what real things the itself, set back progress for centuries. Early
signs are based on. scholars gave the picture-like signs magical
meanings. Despite some accurate deductions,
Lift fap for answer Egypt’s ancient writings remained largely a
mystery until 1799, when the rediscovery of the
is based on two arms Rosetta Stone provided a vital key.

is based on water waves

Together, they form a word:

‘no one’ or ‘not’ (pronounced nen)

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

[Label for object in front of section [Subsection introduction for centre plinth]
introduction]
Arab endeavours
The enchanted basin
Colourful hieroglyphs captured the attention of
Historians during the Mamluk Sultanate medieval Arab travellers as they explored ancient
(1250–1517) heard of a basin of ‘dark stone … temples and tombs, particularly from the AD 900s
inscribed with the writing of birds’ that foated onwards. Describing the mysterious writing as the
magically across the Nile in the AD 900s. This ‘letters of birds’, most probably due to the frequent
sarcophagus, made to hold the remains of the appearance of bird signs, Arab scholars hoped
nobleman Hapmen, is the source of the legend. to uncover the secrets of ancient sciences and
magic. Some used hieroglyphs as cryptic codes
Known as the fountain of lovers, some believed its for the Arabic alphabet, while others consulted
water could offer relief from ‘the torments of love’. local Coptic speakers, searching for a way to
It was discovered near the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in understand the ancient texts.
Cairo, in an area still known as al-Hawd
al-Marsud – ‘the enchanted basin’.
About 600 BC, Cairo, black granite
British Museum, EA23

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

[Display case, object labels left to right, Hieroglyphic characters explained

back to front]
Ibn Wahshiyah (died AD 930) was an Iraqi
Hermes ‘the greatest and greatest great god’ scholar who documented differences between
ancient Egyptian scripts. His idea that a known
Hermes Trismegistus was the Greek version of language – Coptic – could unlock an unknown
the Egyptian god of knowledge and writing, Thoth. one became the principle on which later
Often depicted writing, he was believed to be the decipherment was based. Original manuscripts
founder of sciences including medicine, astronomy are rare but translations show that his work
and alchemy, and the inventor of hieroglyphs. enjoyed widespread popularity.
Medieval Arabic sources drew parallels between
1806, London, paper (back)
the legend of Hermes and the Prophet Idris The British Library, 66.b.24
(Enoch), both believed to be ‘the frst to write’.
The manuscript with fake hieroglyphs reads: ‘The Magical meanings
temple script, language of Enoch – peace be
upon him’. This medieval Arabic manual on lucky charms
776, paper explores the supernatural and medical properties
The British Library, Add MS 23420/1 of jewels, stones, plants and animals. Here, the
text discusses star-related imagery to be inscribed
300–200 BC, Egypt, ceramic mould with modern plaster cast
(London, 1912) on stones and other materials for the making of
British Museum, EA51804 charms that represent specifc planets.

16 17
Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

Probably 1300–1350, paper (front) language, religion, monuments and general

The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, MS. Arab.
d. 221, fol. 48b and 49a
history, fourished long before the earliest
European Renaissance contact.
[Label for object on wall] Dr Okasha El Daly
Egyptologist and Head of Acquisitions, Qatar University
Press
Coptic keepers of knowledge

Arab scholars saw ancient Egyptians as masters

of alchemy – the study of mystical chemistry and
philosophy. Coptic monks were believed to be
the keepers of ancient wisdom as they still spoke
the old language of Egypt. Only four Coptic
alchemical texts survive, including this one, which
was probably translated from Arabic. The sun
symbol means ‘gold’.
AD 1000–1100, Egypt, papyrus
The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, Ms. Copt. a.2

[Quote to right of object label]

It is quite clear that the study by medieval

Egyptians and Arabs of ancient Egypt, its

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

[Subsection introduction on wall opposite] [Display case, labels right to left]

Interest from Europe The watchful hare

From the 1400s, Rome became the bustling The reading of hieroglyphs as symbols was
centre for Egyptian studies. Ancient monuments encouraged by the rediscovery of Hieroglyphica in
that had fallen into ruin, brought to Italy as trophies 1419, a text attributed to 5th-century Alexandrian
of Roman conquest long ago, were rediscovered priest Horapollo the Younger. This oldest surviving
and restored. Scholars of the Renaissance period copy provides descriptions in Greek of 189
(1300–1550) began to study the inscriptions hieroglyphic signs.
and old manuscripts that slowly reached them in
Europe from travellers to Egypt. They believed that Horapollo wrongly assumed hieroglyphs to be
hieroglyphs represented concepts as symbols, symbolic image-signs with no phonetic (sound)
rather than a written language. element, but occasionally he arrived at the
right answer. The hare, he explained, meant
‘open’ in ancient Egyptian because ‘this animal
always keeps its eyes open’. In this instance,
his translation was correct despite his faulty
reasoning.
1301–1400, Andros, paper manuscript
Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence MS 69.27

664–525 BC, Egypt, glazed composition amulet

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

British Museum, EA20853 the answer in a dream. Here are the words
which you should write on the wick of the lamp:
Reinventing hieroglyphs BAKHUKHSIKHUKH – soul of darkness, son of
darkness.
Renaissance scholars searching for a universal
language believed that Egyptian hieroglyphs Quote from the London Magical Papyrus

expressed ideas more literally than their own

alphabets. Italian architect and artist Leon Battista [Label for object on wall]
Alberti (1404–1472) became the father of a
movement that ‘reinvented’ hieroglyphs by mixing The London Magical Papyrus
characters to give them new meaning. The symbol
on this medal, which combined an eye with a bird This demotic text has Old Coptic and Greek
wing, became his personal icon. annotations, some of which could be read by
European scholars. It contains spells for healing,
1446–1450, Italy
British Museum, G3,IP.1 winning love and neutralising poison. Some
demotic signs were used in Coptic to represent
[Quote from object on wall] sounds that did not exist in Greek. In Old Coptic,
the shape and usage of the demotic signs had not
If you put frankincense up in front of the lamp yet been standardised.
and look at the lamp, you see the god near the AD 200–300, Thebes, papyrus (back wall)
lamp. You sleep on a reed mat without having British Museum, EA10070,2

spoken to anyone on earth, and he tells you

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

[Display case on left, labels right to left] as well as ideas greatly infuenced later western
scholars.
Ancient Roman marvels
Kircher’s multi-volume work on Egyptology, the
The ancient Egyptians constructed tall Oedipus Aegyptiacus, won him the nickname
needle-like stone monuments known as obelisks, ‘father of the owls’. Owls appear frequently
often dedicated to the sun god Ra. But the obelisk in the ancient Egyptian script and represent the
in Rome’s Piazza Navona was carved by Roman letter ‘m’.
craftspeople who demonstrated a clear familiarity
1678, Italy, paper
with hieroglyphic writing. Renaissance scholars The British Library, G.2083
began to study them as ‘authentic’ texts that had
332–30 BC, Egypt, limestone
survived from Egyptian antiquity. British Museum, EA38276
1678, Amsterdam, paper
British Museum, M,33.6 [Plinth to left, label for object on wall]

Father of the owls The travelling obelisk

Infuenced by medieval Arab intellectuals, German This fragment comes from an obelisk originally
Jesuit scholar Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680) carved in Heliopolis in honour of King Psamtek II
identifed Coptic as the language hidden behind (595–589 BC). The obelisk was taken by Roman
hieroglyphs. Most of his readings were fantasy, but emperor Octavian in 30 BC to celebrate his
his suggestion that the signs represented sounds conquest of Egypt and re-erected in Rome where

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

it doubled as a sundial. In 1748 it was moved by [Display cases on plinth to left, labels right
Pope Pius VI to the Piazza di Montecitorio where it to left]
still remains today.
Mummy souvenirs
595–589 BC, Heliopolis, red granite
MiC – Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, Inv. 2326
Mummy bandages played an important role in
[Display case label] the history of decipherment as they were easy
to obtain in Europe and often carried writing.
Capturing details Wrappings were distributed amongst attendees
of mummy unwrapping events, held from about
Impressed by the enormous scale of their 1600 to 1908. This piece inscribed with a Book of
hieroglyphs, Renaissance artists and scholars the Dead spell, taken from the body of a woman
intensively studied Rome’s obelisks. They began to named Aberuait, was one such souvenir.
record inscriptions more methodically by creating 332–30 BC, Saqqara, linen
plaster reliefs, moulds and casts, which captured Paris, Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités
égyptiennes, N 3059
details accurately. The winged dung-beetle
comes from the top of the obelisk at the Piazza di
Montecitorio. [Picture caption] The French Egyptology Society
unwrap the mummy of a priestess of Amun in
Before 1789, Rome, plaster casts
Cairo, 31 March 1891.
Thorvaldsens Museum, ThM L206, ThM L214
© Public domain: Paul Philippoteaux / Wikimedia Commons

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

Please touch (1606–1686) was one of the oldest of these

collections. Drawings show that it contained
Linen similar to mummy wrapping material ‘Ptah-Sokar-Osiris’ statues – mummy-like
statuettes showing the creator god Ptah merged
[Picture caption] The statuette on display with funerary gods Sokar and Osiris, seen here
can also be seen in this drawing from a 1677 with two feathers on his head.
catalogue for Ferdinando Cospi’s museum.
1677, Bologna, paper (back left)
© Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum British Museum, 1852,0612.471

1069–656 BC, Egypt, wood (back right)

[Label for objects at back] MCABo EG 341, Museo Civico Archeologico, Bologna

Curious things [Label for objects in two display cases on left]

Progress in deciphering hieroglyphs depended Early collecting

on the material available for study in Europe. The
royal fashion of assembling curiosity cabinets By the 1700s, the Museo Borgiano was one of the
was adopted by wealthy merchants, priests and richest Egyptian collections in Europe with over
travellers from the 1600s. Anything that seemed 700 artefacts. It included the statue of the deifed
unusual or ‘exotic’, including Egyptian antiquities, individual Pa-Maj, engraved with magical texts and
became a popular collector’s item. sketches of various gods. Objects that boasted
writing and drawing were popular subjects with
The cabinet of the nobleman Ferdinando Cospi artist-antiquarians.

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

Private collections were often later integrated into But for some private collectors hooked by the
national museums. The Museo Borgiano became ‘spirit’ of ancient Egypt, intricate fakes like this
part of the National Archaeological Museum of were just as acceptable. Filled with nonsensical
Naples. characters evocative of hieroglyphic writing, the
piece was inspired by a genuine carving from the
350–300 BC, Egypt, basalt
MiC – Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, inv. n. 1065 reign of King Nectanebo I (380–362 BC).

Before 1850, Velletri, paper (right) About 1711, Italy, marble

Thorvaldsens Museum, ThM E1416, E1418 MCABo EG 3707, Museo Civico Archeologico, Bologna

[QR code label]

[Touch object label on plinth to left and
diagonal]
The Bembine Tablet of Isis

Please touch
Scan the code to see the Bembine Tablet, a
Roman art piece that confounded scholars for
Replica of a Nectanebo I relief
centuries with its amusingly garbled hieroglyphs.

[Label for object on wall]

A pseudo-hieroglyphic fake

Earnest study of the ancient scripts beneftted britishmuseum.org/isis

from accurate to scale reproductions of objects.
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Inspired guesswork Interactive trail

[Display case to right] [To right, in corner of room]

On the threshold of understanding

Early Italian collections were studied by Danish Some hieroglyphs are silent. They sit at the end of
antiquarian and coin specialist Georg Zoëga a word to give us a clue to its meaning.
(1755–1809). Zoëga became the leading
Egyptologist of his generation and was almost This word means ‘to be born’ or ‘to give birth’. It is
successful in decipherment. He rejected the view pronounced mesy:
that hieroglyphs concerned occult sciences and
magical rites, reading many inscriptions instead
as praise of kings and gods. His early copy of the ?
hieroglyphs on this statue is the only evidence of
Which silent hieroglyph should go at the end?
its now lost inscription.
2022 print of original from 20 July 1789, Bologna, paper Lift fap for answer
© Det Kgl. Bibliotek – Royal Danish Library, NKS 357b folio,
XIII, 1c (XIII, 3, 3, 6)

747– 30 BC, Egypt, wood

MCABo EG 335, Museo Civico Archeologico, Bologna
Can you see the baby?

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

[Plinth to right of trail, labels left to right] Zoëga’s comments on the underside of the
accompanying drawing show that he exchanged
Workshop of wonders technical information about the object with
scholars in England: ‘British Museum. Sycamore
Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770–1844) was already a wood, covered with a bituminous substance like
talented young sculptor when he moved from pitch, above which the hieroglyphs are painted in
Copenhagen to Rome to complete his studies. yellow.’ The sculpture had been part of the British
There he met Zoëga, who instilled in him a great Museum’s collection since 1785.
appreciation for antique arts, including ancient
747–332 BC, Egypt, wood
Egyptian artefacts. Thorvaldsen’s collection of British Museum, EA60958
casts, pencil sketches and copper engravings
About 1792, London, pencil, pen and ink on paper
of inscriptions became a must-see for anyone Thorvaldsens Museum, ThM D1167
interested in ancient Egypt.
Before 1737, London, paper
Thorvaldsens Museum, ThM E1394

The power of words

This magical sculpture depicts the god Bes

protecting Horus as a child. Notice the faded
hieroglyphs on the back. Pouring water over the
words unleashed their power.

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

[Subsection introduction on plinth to right] [Display case on left]

The French Expedition Mapping Egypt

Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt on 1 July During the Expedition, the French scholars made
1798 with a force of 40,000 troops, determined numerous drawings, descriptions and maps
to cut off Britain’s lucrative trade with India by of Egypt. These were later compiled into the
seizing control of overland routes leading to the infuential multi-volume publication Description
Red Sea. The expedition unusually included de l’Égypte. Their work became invaluable for any
a large team of scholars and scientists who scholar researching ancient Egypt. The map here
surveyed and mapped the country. To safeguard shows the island of Elephantine and the town of
her own economic interests, Britain allied with Aswan at Egypt’s southern border.
the Ottoman governors of Egypt who had ruled
1821–1830, Paris, paper
there since 1517. British Museum, RBC.2°1

They have a great interest in the sciences and

make great efforts to learn the Arabic language
and the colloquial. ln this they strive day and night.
Historian Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti (1753–1825) describes
the French scholars in Cairo during the invasion of 1798.

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

[Labels for objects on back wall, left to right] Denon published his travel journal and drawings of
the great temple-complexes of Upper Egypt
Challenging the Church to wide acclaim.
1799–1802, Egypt or France, paper (back right)
North of Luxor, the Expedition discovered the British Museum, 1836,0109.127
Dendera zodiac, an astrological calendar which
was later used to question the historical reliability [Display case on right, labels left to right]
of the Bible. The Catholic Church was incensed
by arguments that used pagan carvings to The Capitulation of Alexandria
contradict its Scriptures. This smaller copy was
based on drawings of the original, which is now in Besieged by Ottoman, Egyptian and British
Paris. forces in Alexandria, the French proposed terms
1819, Paris, marble (back left) of surrender on 30 August 1801. The fnal
The Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, University of agreement would include Article 16, which stated
Cambridge, E.1.1862
all collections were ‘subject to the disposal of
the generals of the combined army’. Signed by all
Ruins at Apollonopolis Parva parties, it led to British possession of 22 Egyptian
antiquities – including the Rosetta Stone. But
Artist-antiquarian Dominique Vivant Denon the French scholars drew a line at giving up their
(1747–1825) was one of the most eminent research papers.
members of the Expedition and later the frst
1801, Alexandria, paper (left)
director of the Louvre. On his return to Paris,
On loan from The National Archives, UK, WO 1/345

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

We ourselves will burn our treasures… Count on ‘the linen of his wardrobe or his embroidered
the memory of history: you too will have burnt a saddles’. This list details the objects that travelled
library in Alexandria! to England with the Stone, some of which were
recovered from French offcers who had gathered
French scientist Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire’s fery response to
British demands for the Expedition’s collections, 1801. antiquities while in Egypt. The artefacts arrived at
Portsmouth Harbour in February 1802.
Not to be trusted 1801, Alexandria, paper (right)
British Museum, AESAr.312
General John Hely-Hutchinson instructed Edward
Daniel Clarke, a British scholar visiting Alexandria, [Label for flm on right]
to safeguard the Rosetta Stone and to copy the
inscriptions in case it should be damaged: ‘I do Voices of Rashid
not regard much the threats of the French savants,
it is better however not to trust them.’ The vibrant city of Rashid is more than just where
the Rosetta Stone was found. This flm takes you
1801, Alexandria, paper (centre)
British Museum, EA76744 on a brief tour to celebrate the city’s rich history
through the eyes of its residents.
HMS Egyptienne
Duration: 2 minutes 30 seconds
As the British retrieved the Rosetta Stone from
General Jacques-François de Menou’s personal This flm has audio.
belongings, he protested it was as much his as

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

Directed by Mostafa Naguib. The Rosetta Stone is inscribed with a priestly

decree repeated in each of the different scripts.
Look out for the mouth hieroglyph in the The decree was drawn up on 27 March 196 BC
exhibition as children from Rashid share their by a council of Egyptian priests in Memphis during
thoughts on featured objects. the reign of Ptolemy V Epiphanes. The text praises
the righteous acts of the king and lists the honours
[Display case behind, opposite flm] bestowed upon him by the priesthood. This type
of decree was not an Egyptian tradition but was
The Rosetta Stone adopted from Greek culture.
196 BC, Rashid, granodiorite
In July 1799, preparing for battle with the Ottoman British Museum, EA24
naval forces, the French rebuilt an old fort at
the port city of Rashid. From the rubble of its [Label on back wall for projected flm]
foundations, soldiers discovered a broken stone
upon which were carved three distinct scripts: Journey of the Rosetta Stone
hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. The stone’s
signifcance was immediately recognised – could From a temple in the Nile Delta to the British
this fnally be the key to decipherment? Museum, follow the journey of the Rosetta Stone
spanning over 2,200 years.
Rashid was known as ‘Rosette’ to the Europeans,
meaning ‘little rose’. The city thus lent its name to Duration: 2 minutes 45 seconds
the famous stone.

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Inspired guesswork Inspired guesswork

This flm is silent. Decree stelae are still being discovered and
are named after their place of issue. This is
Images © Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum;
Think Africa; Andrew Clayton-Payne; Look and Learn History why the Rosetta Stone is also known as the
Picture Archive Memphis Decree.

[Display case on left, next to frst flm, labels Spreading the message
left to right]
The last line of the Rosetta Stone orders its
Rosetta Stone family tree decree to be ‘inscribed on a stela of hard stone in
sacred, native and Greek characters and set up
During the Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC) in all temples of Egypt’. Three other copies of the
when Egypt was governed by Greek-speaking Memphis Decree have since been found. These
Macedonian rulers, Egyptian priests copied fragments, each in a different script, are from one
the Greek fashion of honouring worthy leaders ‘stela’ – an inscribed stone or wooden slab.
by erecting decrees. They added demotic and
196 BC, Elephantine, sandstone
hieroglyphic translations, relevant to an Egyptian Paris, Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités
audience. égyptiennes, E 12677, AF 10006, AF 10007

For each new king, the decree text was updated A distant relative
with royal names, dates and other important
details. It was probably written on papyrus, then This decree was issued in 238 BC in Canopus
sent across Egypt to be carved onto stone locally. and partially survived on a stela that was reused

44 45
Inspired guesswork The race to decipherment

in the threshold of a mosque next to the French [Section introduction through entrance to
Institute in Cairo. It was rediscovered in 1800 and next room, to left]
acquired by the Louvre in 1837. Five other copies
of this branch of the family were identifed later. The race to decipherment
238 BC, Cairo, basalt
Paris, Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités The centuries-long quest to unravel ancient
égyptiennes, N 273 Egyptian civilisation intensifed with the
contributions of two scholars, Thomas Young
(1773–1829) and Jean-François Champollion
(1790–1832). Their work overlapped in signifcant
ways as they came to realise that at least some
of the familiar images represented spoken words.
But they differed in method and persistence, each
attracting supporters and critics as their goal
drew near.

46 47
The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

[Display case in front of section introduction] Champollion arrives in Paris to study Near Eastern
languages
Sharing Rosetta
[Labels on table, left to right]
To aid decipherment of the Rosetta Stone, prints
and casts were swiftly distributed across Europe Obsessive genius
by the Society of Antiquaries, where the Stone
had been kept for a few months before coming to Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832) was a
the British Museum. Within one year of its arrival linguistic prodigy who mastered Coptic, ancient
in England, institutions in every western European Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Syriac, Persian and
country had a copy. The shallow inscriptions Arabic. Encouraged by his older brother and
proved diffcult to reproduce by hand. The frst fellow scholar Jacques Joseph (1778–1867),
attempts at copying used the Stone as a printing Champollion frst examined the Rosetta Stone
block instead. text when he was 17 years old. Like his peers,
he focussed on the oval-shaped cartouches
1803, London, paper (left)
British Museum, RBC.2°.60 enclosing royal names.

1802–1900, Britain, charcoal or graphite on paper (right) 1860–1900, France, ink on paper
British Museum AESAr.574, no. 46 Musée Champollion – Les Ecritures du Monde / Figeac

[Inscription on tabletop to right] Champollion is one-of-a-kind. Despite critical

health issues, he pursued his academic and
Sept 1807 scientifc passion. Even the ruler of Egypt,

48 49
The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

Muhammad Ali, would come to admire the study of Coptic, long believed to be the last
Champollion’s enthusiasm and talent. remnant of the ancient Egyptian language. His
knowledge of Arabic enabled him to read Coptic
Dr Hend Mohamed Abdel Rahman
Assistant Professor of Egypt’s Modern and Contemporary grammar books and dictionaries compiled by
History, Minya University medieval Arab scholars, such as this Scala Magna
(‘The Great Ladder’) by Abu al-Barakat, which he
Trial and error found far superior to those written by European
scholars.
Champollion could not make sense of the Rosetta
1200–1300, Egypt, paper
Stone so he turned to this papyrus in 1808. He The British Library, MS Or 1325 fol. 117a
assumed that the cursive scripts on both objects
were the same, thus heading for another failure: I only dream of Coptic … for fun I translate
the papyrus is written in hieratic, not demotic as everything that comes to my mind into Coptic; I
the middle text on the Stone. This funerary text is speak Coptic to myself (since no one would hear
one of the ‘Books of Breathing’, a guide for the me), this is the real way to put pure Egyptian in
afterlife. my head.
About 99 BC – AD 99, Thebes, papyrus Jean-François Champollion
Huis van het boek, The Hague. MMW, 42/88

The Askew Codex

Comfort in Coptic

Champollion studied Coptic dialects with

Discouraged, Champollion devoted himself to
Egyptian monks in Paris, soon becoming fuent.
50 51
The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

They spoke Bohairic, the last and most widely be seen on this writing board.
used Coptic dialect. But he knew an older dialect,
1069–715 BC, Egypt, wood
Sahidic, would be closer to ancient Egyptian. This British Museum, EA21635
Sahidic text is one of the few remaining complete
copies of ‘gnostic’ writings – spiritual teachings of Sounds of the scripts
the resurrected Jesus.
About AD 200–400, probably Egypt, parchment
Building on the previous work of Swedish scholar
The British Library, MS 5114 Johan David Åkerblad (1763–1819), Champollion
attributed Coptic sounds to demotic. Through
[Picture caption] Coptic monks attend mass at this, he was able to learn a vocabulary pivotal
the White Monastery in Sohag, Upper Egypt. The to understanding the older scripts. Yet Coptic
monastery was founded in AD 442. also misled him just as it had those before him,
not least because ancient Egyptian words were
© Matjaž Kačičnik
spelled in a different way.
Geographical deductions 1814–1822, Paris, paper
National Library of France, Department of Manuscripts,
NAF 20352
Champollion suspected that the ancient Egyptian
language might have survived through the names
Coptic service
of cities and villages. He studied Coptic lists of
towns and the maps published in Description de
Singing in Coptic remains an integral part of the
l’Égypte. His efforts paid off when he discovered
Coptic Church’s liturgical services. This Theotokia
the sign that classifed place names , which can
52 53
The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

(a hymn to Mary) is sung by Muallim Wagdi his attention to Egyptology. In July 1814, the
Bishara and may resemble those Champollion 41-year-old Young joined the ranks of researchers
would have listened to when he attended church poring over the Rosetta Stone as ‘amusement
services with members of the Coptic community in of a few of my leisure hours’. His efforts to
Paris. decipher the text would help Champollion later
crack the hieroglyphic code, but his richest gift to
Duration: 10 minutes 5 seconds
© Wagdi Bishara Egyptology was his work on the demotic script.
About 1950, London, copper alloy medal
[Tabletop inscription] British Museum 1964,0405.3

1830, London, paper (far back)

July 1814 British Museum, 1866,1013.655

Young begins studying the Rosetta Stone whilst in Cursive writing

Worthing
In 1823, Young published a drawing of
[Table display, labels left to right] Padihorpara’s Book of the Dead. He did not
believe that the hieroglyphic script conveyed
‘The last man who knew everything’ grammatical information or the sounds of Egyptian
speech, but Champollion later used the same
British polymath Thomas Young made landmark papyrus to illustrate the frequency of homophones:
contributions to the felds of medicine, physics, different signs that indicate the same sound.
optics, linguistics and music before directing
332–30 BC, Egypt, papyrus (front)

54 55
The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

British Museum, EA9907,4 whether even an early form of it would be similar

enough to help with decipherment.
Greek infuence
Egypt, 747–30 BC, linen (back right)
British Museum, EA73747
Young assumed that phonetic sound-based
writing was used only for Greek and Roman Please touch
proper names, which refected the infuence
of foreign elements in what he considered a purely Papyrus
ideas-based Egyptian script. Bilingual
mummy-labels such as the one displayed here of Word matching
Senpsais the Elder would have helped Young to
compare demotic and Greek names. Young’s Memorandums show his frst attempts to
AD 100–300, Akhmim, wood (back left) tackle the Rosetta Stone. He broke the Greek into
British Museum, EA23215 sections and tried to match them with the other
scripts. Young looked for characters that occurred
Demotic obsession repeatedly, pairing them with Greek words that
appeared an equal number of times. But there
Young argued that the demotic section of the were far more hieroglyphs, too many to represent
Rosetta Stone was the key to understanding an alphabet.
hieroglyphs, and compared it with the script found
1814, London, paper
on papyri, mummy wrappings and labels. He was The British Library, ADD 27281, f92
sceptical of the value of learning Coptic, doubting

56 57
The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

[Table to right inscription] on the original.

Jean-François Champollion
Nov 1814
I have had great pleasure and interest, Sir, in
Champollion requests a cast of the Rosetta Stone
making the comparisons you wish between
the two copies of the inscription … I see that we
[Labels left to right]
agree in the word for MICI and in some
other words, although there are cases where we
First encounters
differ greatly from each other.

Champollion wrote to the Royal Society of London Thomas Young

where Young was foreign secretary to verify
his copies of the Rosetta Stone inscription. He [Projected text on wall]
had never seen the Rosetta Stone in person.
Young drafted his reply in French at the end of You advise me to study the inscription of Rosetta.
Champollion’s original letter. That is exactly where I want to start.

1814, Grenoble and London, paper Jean-François Champollion

The British Library, ADD 21026, f15-f16
My curiosity was excited by a note that the
I am convinced that I would have already fxed unknown language of the Stone of Rosetta …
the reading of the entire inscription if I had had was capable of being analysed into an alphabet of
before my eyes a plaster cast in a mould made little more than thirty letters.

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The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

Thomas Young appear to relate to their ridiculous rites and

ceremonies: I see nothing that looks like history.
My almost entire life is thus spent in the midst of
British explorer William John Bankes to fellow antiquarian
the dead and stirring up the old dust of history, Hudson Gurney, 1816.
although the living … received and greeted me
with all desirable grace. [Picture caption] The Philae obelisk in Kingston
Jean-François Champollion Lacy, Dorset.
© Marilyn Peddle / Flickr with crop
[It] is impossible that all the characters can be
pictures of the things which they represent… Important puzzle pieces
Thomas Young
During this time, Egypt was increasing in
What a distraction, indeed, for the heart and soul popularity as a travel destination for European
is a grammar that is more than six thousand years visitors. British explorer William John Bankes
old! (1786–1855) recorded monuments and
hieroglyphs during his two voyages to Egypt in
Jean-François Champollion
1815 and 1818. Near Aswan, he identifed the
hieroglyphic cartouches of Ptolemy and Cleopatra
[Table to left, labels right to left] on an obelisk from Philae. Bankes later had the
obelisk removed and transported to his country
All the inscriptions on temples, and the generality home in Kingston Lacy, Dorset, where it still
of the manuscripts found with the mummies, stands.
60 61
The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

About 1820, England, stone 1818, London, paper (right)

British Museum, EA55204/AESAr.1079 British Museum, AESAr.387

About 1821, England, paper (left)

Kingston Lacy, The Bankes Collection (on long term loan from [Picture caption] The Dream Stela between the
the National Trust to Dorset History Centre) paws of the Great Sphinx.
1821, London, paper (right)
British Museum, AESAr.26 © Ilona Regulski

[Tabletop inscription] Old dreams, new discoveries

Nov 1815 As the race to decipherment intensifed, travellers

gathered more inscriptions for scholars to
Bankes discovers an obelisk with the names work on. British Consul and artist Henry Salt
Ptolemy and Cleopatra (1780–1827) skilfully copied a stela situated
between the front paws of the Great Sphinx.
In search of hieroglyphs In the text, the Sphinx appears before Prince
Thutmose IV in a dream, offering him the throne if
Keen to increase his sources, Young approached only he would remove the sand engulfng his body.
Bankes, a close friend, for help. This letter to 1817, Egypt, paper
Bankes’ father contains instructions for Bankes to British Museum, AESAr.731
copy inscriptions whilst in Egypt. It also outlines
some of what Young had already achieved.

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The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

Priceless resources The importance of accuracy

Drawings by travellers to Egypt were of vital Champollion had high regard for expert copyist
importance to Champollion and his peers as Frédéric Cailliaud (1787–1869), whose sketches
they provided new data. This ancient Egyptian arrived in France in November 1818. These
depiction of ‘the lady of the house and chief objects highlight the incredible accuracy of his
chantress of Montu’ Nestjerenmaat was painted work, years before hieroglyphs could be read: a
by Alessandro Ricci (1792–1834), an Italian artist cylinder seal inscribed with the name of King Pepy
who worked for Bankes and Salt. Nestjerenmaat I, and funerary cones stamped with the names of
is seen raising her hands in adoration of the god the deceased, once set into the façade of tomb
Ra-Horakhty. chapels.
1069–747 BC, Thebes, wood and plaster About 1818, France, paper
British Museum, EA8450 Musée Dobrée – Grand patrimoine de Loire-Atlantique

1818, Egypt, paper 2321–2287 BC, Asyut, glazed composition

British Museum, AESAr.1520 British Museum, EA47460

747–332 BC, Egypt, pottery

Voices of Rashid British Museum, EA35651, EA35658, EA35672

[It looks like] a cookie! [Tabletop inscription]

Fatma, 12 years old

1819

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The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

Young discusses sound-based signs in Greek and [Tabletop inscription]

Roman royal names
Aug 1821
Sounds and symbols
Champollion agrees there are sound signs in
Young’s notes show that he made signifcant foreign royal names
advances in the understanding of demotic,
demonstrating correctly that the script was On the verge of a breakthrough
made up of both ideographic (words or ideas)
and phonetic (sound) signs. But he remained On this stela, the high priest Pasherenptah’s
convinced that sound-based writing had only autobiographical text recounts the coronation
entered the Egyptian writing system with Greek of Cleopatra’s father Ptolemy XII in 76 BC.
infuence. Champollion noticed that ‘Cleopatra’ had 4 letters
in common with ‘Ptolemy’. The third, lion-like
In his 1819 article for Encyclopædia Britannica, sign in Ptolemy’s cartouche was the same as
Young discusses his reading of ‘Ptolemy’ as the second sign in Cleopatra’s. Young’s syllabic
p – t – lo/ole – m(a) – i/e – osh/is. reading of ‘ole’ for this sign was thus wrong; it
must be the alphabetic letter ‘l’.
1814, London, paper (left)
British Library, Ms. ADD 27282, f77 41 BC, Saqqara, limestone
British Museum, EA886
1819, London, paper (right)
British Museum, RBC.8˚.YOU

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The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

[Interactive screen] 1822, Paris, paper

British Museum, RBC.CHA

Cracking cartouches
The true breakthrough
Touch to start

Champollion theorised that if spelling based on

[Tabletop inscription]
pronunciation was present at any time, it must
have been there from the start. He tested a name
Sept 1822
that combined a sun disc , tied fox skins and
two door bolts . Champollion knew the last
Champollion cracks the hieroglyphic code
signs meant ‘s’ from ‘Ptolmys’, and the sun disc
was ‘ra’ in Coptic. Ra – ? – ss then must be
‘Je tiens l’affaire, vois!’
‘Ramesses’, who was known from the Bible. On
the stone inscription before you, the seated god
On 14 September 1822, 32-year-old Champollion
Ra replaces the sun disc, and a vertical s-sign (a
excitedly visited his brother. Waving his notes
folded cloth) the door bolts.
in the air, he gasped, ‘Look, I’ve got it!’ before
promptly collapsing. The notes formed the basis of 1184–1153 BC, Egypt, limestone
a historic letter to his colleague Bon-Joseph Dacier British Museum, EA1344

in which Champollion outlined his fndings on the About 1824, Paris, paper
translations of royal names, and the reasoning National Library of France, Department of Manuscripts, NAF
20337
behind them. This is considered the moment of
decipherment.
Voices of Rashid
68 69
The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

It could be a plane, a missile, a fre extinguisher, Egyptian history. He translated a cartouche

lampshades, or a light bulb, but it’s actually [a] containing the hieroglyphs
cartouche. as King Taharqa (690–664 BC), whom he already
knew from inscriptions at Naga and Gebel Barkal
Hana, 12 years old
in Sudan.
Testing the key 690–664 BC, Egypt, bronze
British Museum, EA5311

and reappeared in another name:

Champollion knew the ibis as Thoth’s sacred A mixed system
animal. The three signs together then must be
Thot – m – s, the great ruler Thutmose mentioned Champollion had unravelled the nature of Egyptian
by classical authors. He was correct, apart from writing: purely phonetic (sound) signs were used
one small mistake. The middle character is the alongside signs representing words (Ra and
two-letter sign ‘ms’, the following ‘s’ stresses the Thoth). He succeeded in reading earlier foreign
pronunciation. names, such as Xerxes, the Persian king who
occupied Egypt between 485 and 465 BC.
1504–1492 BC, Deir el-Bahari, limestone
Below the hieroglyphs on the vessel there is also
British Museum, EA1456
a cuneiform translation representing the Persian,
Median, and Assyrian languages.
Further confrmation
485–465 BC, Halicarnassus, Egyptian alabaster
Champollion was now certain that the hieroglyphic British Museum, 132114

script represented spoken language throughout

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The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

Common names has either borrowed or might have borrowed from

me I am not quite confdent.
Champollion expected a sign to indicate common
Thomas Young in an 1823 publication
names, just as the cartouche designated royal
names, and identifed the seated man sign. In this
So the poor Dr Young is incorrigible? Why stir up
stela, the seated man appears near the end of
old matter that is already mummifed?
line two, after Horiraa’s name. The frst sign in line
three is the feminine equivalent sign, classifying Jean-François Champollion to his brother Jacques Joseph,
1829
the now-lost name of his mother.
380–30 BC, Memphis, limestone The Briton [Young] can do as he pleases — it
British Museum, EA20945
shall be ours: and all of old England will learn
from young France to spell hieroglyphs by a totally
[Projected text on wall]
different method.

If I have one counsel to give you, it is not to Jean-François Champollion to his brother Jacques Joseph,
1829
communicate too much of your discoveries to
Champollion. It could happen that he would then
You will be surprised to hear that I have become
claim priority.
a complete convert to Mons. Champollion fls’
Antoine Isaac Sylvestre de Sacy to Thomas Young, 1815 system of explaining the hieroglyphs.
Henry Salt to William Hamilton, 1824
[Champollion] has been wonderfully successful…
How far he will acknowledge everything which he
72 73
The race to decipherment The race to decipherment

[Inscription on table near projected text] Memorial Fund by The National Trust in 1985))

1823 Further controversy

Young and Champollion dispute over who The ancient Greek at the top of this papyrus
correctly identifed sound signs frst translates the contents of a demotic text once
owned by the traveller Casati, a facsimile of
[Labels left to right] which is below. Describing the sale of a share of
income from tombs at Thebes, the mention of two
A muddied legacy witnesses became another source of contention
between Champollion and Young.
Champollion often relied on the work of others,
such as this drawing by John Gardner Wilkinson Champollion had read the names in the Casati
showing inscriptions at Philae, but some believed papyrus as ‘Antiochus’ and ‘Antigonus’, but the
he overlooked these contributions to his success. Greek text identifed them as ‘Antimachus’ and
In his famous 1824 ‘Précis’ which summarised ‘Antigenis’. For Young, this was clear proof of
the hieroglyphic system, Champollion would fnally Champollion’s inaccurate readings.
acknowledge Young’s correct identifcation of
153 BC, Hermonthis, papyrus (centre)
several sound signs in ‘Ptolemy’ and ‘Berenice’. The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, MS. Egypt
a.4(P)
1821–1822, Philae, paper (top)
1800–1850, Paris, cardboard (bottom)
National Trust Collections, Calke Abbey (The Harpur Crewe
British Museum, EA10396
Collection (acquired with the help of the National Heritage

74 75
Interactive trail The race to decipherment

[Interactive trail behind] [Label on table near projected text]

Unlocking Egypt

Ancient Egyptians had clever sayings, just like we Champollion continued to develop his ideas over
do. the next fve years, proclaiming on 1 January
1829 that there was nothing further to add to his
Look at the two words you’ve learned already: alphabet as it could be applied successfully to

?
all the monuments of Egypt. He was the frst to
grasp the structural logic of the ancient Egyptian
language in its varied forms. Champollion’s
No one is born ... grammar was the product of a long journey
towards decipherment, and was published
Spin the block to fnd the last word of this ancient posthumously from his notes by his older brother
Egyptian saying. Jacques Joseph. Through it, he provided the tools
for further exploration.
Lift fap for answer
1836, Paris, paper (top)
British Museum, RBC.4°.CHA

After 1822, Paris, paper (bottom)

National Library of France, Department of Manuscripts,
‘No one is born wise.’ Teaching of Ptahhotep NAF 20345

Great job! You’re an Egyptologist in the making!

76 77
Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

[Section introduction on left of threshold to [Display case on right of section panel, labels
next room] left to right]

Rediscovering ancient Egypt Egypt at last

Champollion continually refned his understanding From 1828 to 1829, Champollion and his friend
of hieroglyphs until his death in 1832, his health Italian Egyptologist Ippolito Rosellini undertook
further weakened by a scientifc expedition a joint expedition to Egypt. They visited many
to Egypt for more material. Over the next two monuments Champollion knew only from drawings
hundred years, scholars from across the world and descriptions, such as the tomb of King Sety I.
would continue his work. Thanks to these efforts, Its beautifully coloured reliefs had been painted in
we now know how to read ancient Egyptian texts. watercolour by artist Henry William Beechey.
Every new translation gives us fresh insight into
how ancient Egyptians once lived and experienced When the tomb was found in 1817, it was thought
the world. to belong to King Psamtek I, but Champollion
correctly deciphered the name ‘Sety’. He also
identifed the goose as ‘son’ in the title ‘son of Ra’,
as seen on this doorjamb from the tomb.
About 1818, Thebes, paper (back)
British Museum, AESAr.278

1294–1279 BC, Valley of the Kings, limestone

British Museum, EA884

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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

Collecting hieroglyphs words starting with the ‘sh’ sound.

© Bibliotheca Alexandrina 2022
Champollion’s decipherment of hieroglyphs made
a fundamental difference between what had been
[Picture caption] Ahmed Kamal Pasha, the frst
accomplished previously and what the expedition
Egyptian Egyptologist to write a hieroglyphic
could hope to achieve. They now held the key to
dictionary.
translate unseen texts. Based on the expedition’s
work, Rosellini fled each hieroglyph in preparation © Bibliotheca Alexandrina 2022

for his own dictionary.

The Franco-Tuscan expedition
After 1828, Pisa, wood and paper
Biblioteca Universitaria di Pisa – Ministero della Cultura –
Italia, Box 3 The expedition recorded inscriptions and collected
objects through excavations. The French and
Hieroglyphs in Arabic Italian teams covered more ground by dividing the
work and copying each other’s results, ultimately
The frst modern attempt to create an Arabic producing two identical sets of drawings and
dictionary of hieroglyphs was undertaken by notes. This drawing of birds identifed by their
Ahmed Kamal Pasha (1851–1923), the frst hieroglyphic names is an Italian copy of the French
Egyptian curator of the Egyptian Museum in original.
Cairo. The dictionary was never published but his
1828–1829, Egypt, paper
notes were recently donated to the Bibliotheca Biblioteca Universitaria di Pisa – Ministero della Cultura –
Alexandrina by his family. The page above shows Italia, Ms.272-c133

80 81
Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

Treasures for the Louvre of internal stability and confict.

Champollion remained in Egypt on expedition for A chronicle of kings

a year and a half, before returning to France with
100 pieces for the museum that would become The Abydos King List was discovered and copied
the Louvre. The objects, acquired with permission by William John Bankes in 1818, but he refused
from the Ottoman authorities in Egypt, still bear to share his notes with Champollion, deeming
his identifcation marks. Amongst them was this the latter a ‘dirty scoundrel’ for having failed to
box belonging to the draughtsman Ptahmes with acknowledge his role in the earlier decipherment
images of funerary servants and the four sons of of ‘Cleopatra’. Champollion may have used other
Horus. drawings such as this 1821–22 copy by John
Gardner Wilkinson.
1550–1295 BC, Egypt, wood
Paris, Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités 1821–1822, Abydos, paper
égyptiennes, N 2692 National Trust Collections, Calke Abbey (The Harpur Crewe
Collection (acquired with the help of the National Heritage
[Display case opposite, labels left to right] Memorial Fund by The National Trust in 1985))

Dynasties of Egypt [Picture caption] Pastel drawing of Champollion

in Egyptian dress by fellow expedition member
Egyptian history is traditionally subdivided into Giuseppe Angelilli, 1828.
31 dynasties grouped into periods which refect © Private collection, with permission of the owner
the political landscape of Egypt, including phases

82 83
Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

My moustache, black to please and already very British Museum, EA117

respectable, helps to orientalise my face. I took,
moreover, the habits and customs of the country, [Picture caption] Fragments of the Turin Royal
strong coffee and three sessions of pipe per day. Canon, a hieratic papyrus probably from the reign
of Ramesses II (1279–1213 BC).
Jean-François Champollion writing to his brother
Jacques-Joseph from Egypt in 1828. © Torino, Museo Egizio

Recognising Egyptian history [Label for scenery projections]

The Abydos King List once adorned the stunning Landscapes of Egypt
temple of Ramesses II, recording thirty-four royal
names in chronological order. By excluding foreign Walk along the banks of the river Nile, pay your
kings, female rulers and ‘heretic’ royalty, Ramesses respects at the necropolis and stand in awe in the
created his own version of history. shadows of a royal temple. As you do so, listen to
the sounds of ancient Egypt come alive.
Champollion studied the list alongside another
Images © Amen Moawad/ EyeEm; Paul Smit
record of kings, the Turin Royal Canon, uncovering
thousands more years of Egyptian history. He
relied on copies made by travellers until he was
fnally able to examine the King List himself during
an expedition to Egypt.
About 1250 BC, Abydos, limestone

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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

[Subsection introduction on display case far [Display case, left of subsection introduction]
left of threshold]
A tale of caution
Pharaoh and empire
When Champollion frst discovered the Teaching
of King Amenemhat, he failed to recognise the
Mesmerising new stories of a sprawling ancient
literary character of the text, interpreting it as a
multicultural society with colonial ambitions
true historical account. In the fctional story, the
became accessible with the decipherment of
dead king vividly describes how he was murdered
hieroglyphs. Travellers and traders from the ancient
by his bodyguards and instructs his son to trust no
Mediterranean to the Indian subcontinent came
one.
to Egypt, bringing their languages and cultures
with them. Some left a profound and lasting 1295–1186 BC, Egypt, papyrus
British Museum, EA10182,1
impression on Egyptian culture and its writing
system. But it was the introduction of Greek that
would eventually lead towards the abandonment of Weapons intended for my protection were raised
ancient Egyptian scripts. against me, while I acted like a snake of the
necropolis.

I woke up to the fghting, pulled myself together,

and found that it was an attack of the palace
guard.
Quote from the Teaching of King Amenemhat

86 87
Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

[Display case opposite, labels left to right] until he is allowed to return home. The fctional
Tale of Sinuhe is one of the fnest works of ancient
Order and chaos Egyptian literature and is still being adapted for
the stage today.
In the ancient Egyptian worldview, foreigners
1295–1186 BC, Thebes, limestone
represented chaos and disorder, and their defeat British Museum, EA5629
became a popular topic in writing and art. The
subject was especially favoured by Egypt’s frst Policing the desert
kings. This tiny ancient label shows King Den
striking an enemy with the written explanation: The Egyptians employed the Medjau, a local
‘First occasion of smiting the East’. Lands east semi-nomadic people, to patrol the deserts to the
of Egypt’s borders were considered enduring east. They secured desert roads and borders, and
enemies. wealthy temples and cemeteries, often located at
About 2985 BC, Abydos, ivory the desert edge. Nebhepetra was a priest at the
British Museum, EA55586 royal palace in Thebes, but he also doubled as a
medja guarding the temple of Karnak.
The Tale of Sinuhe
About 1800–1900 BC, Thebes, serpentine
British Museum, EA83921
While on expedition to Libya, the royal offcial
Sinuhe learns of King Amenemhat I’s murder and Occupation of Nubia
fees to Canaan (present-day Palestine). He builds
a successful career abroad but remains restless To the south, Egypt conquered Wawat in Nubia,

88 89
Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

securing access to and exploiting valuable African

resources such as gold, gemstones, minerals
and ivory. Champollion used this drawing whilst
working in France to understand details of the
britishmuseum.org/sudan
conquest described on the stela behind, erected
by army commander Intef-Dedu. Two such stone
Settlement
slabs were displayed in the temple at the massive
fortress of Buhen in modern Northern Sudan.
As Egypt’s rule expanded southwards, soldiers
1965–1920 BC, Buhen, sandstone began to settle more permanently around the
British Museum, EA1177
Nubian fortresses. The complex interactions
1819, Buhen, paper between both cultures can be seen in the objects
Kingston Lacy, The Bankes Collection (on long term loan from found at Buhen. Local materials were often used
the National Trust to Dorset History Centre)
to create Egyptian designs such as these bowls,
or this doorjamb inscribed with the name of
Archaeological Sudan
Thutmose III. Communities continued to live there
until the creation of Lake Nasser submerged the
Scan the code for a secret glimpse into Kurgus,
site in 1964.
an important archaeological site in Sudan, where
remarkable inscriptions reveal the southern edge 1985–1795 BC, Buhen, ceramic (left)
British Museum, EA65695
of Egypt’s ancient empire.
2055–1600 BC, Buhen, ceramic (centre)
British Museum, EA65701

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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

1479–1425 BC, Buhen, sandstone (right) fragment while ‘Kayan’ and ‘Yakubher’ appear on
British Museum, EA1019
the scarabs.

[Picture caption] The fortress of Buhen pictured About 1555 BC, Tell el-Yahudiya, chert (left)
British Museum, EA32069
in 1960, shortly before it was submerged by the
construction of a new dam. About 1600 BC, Saqqara, glazed steatite (front centre)
British Museum, EA30500
© UNESCO 1650–1550 BC, Egypt, glazed steatite (right)
British Museum, EA40741
[Labels left to right]
Egypt reunited
Rewriting conquest
The Hyksos were defeated by King Ahmose,
By 1700 BC, foreign rulers from the ancient who reunited Egypt around 1540 BC. This oldest
Middle East had conquered northern Egypt and known royal shabti – a type of funerary statuette –
extended their infuence up the Nile from their is a rare surviving image of him. Champollion was
capital Avaris in the eastern Delta. They were the frst modern scholar to identify Ahmose as
known as Hyksos, a word derived from the ancient the founder of the prosperous 18th Dynasty
Egyptian term heqau khasut meaning ‘rulers from (1550–1295 BC). We now know that his
foreign lands’. predecessor Kamose helped pave the way to
victory by fghting decisive battles.
As the new kings of Egypt, they wrote their names About 1550 BC, Thebes, limestone
in cartouches: ‘Apepi’ is inscribed on this vessel British Museum, EA32191

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A new enemy encountered by the Egyptians during the battle,

including Ionians, Lycians, Ethiopians and Arabs.
Successful battles enhanced Egypt’s military
1274–1186 BC, Egypt, papyrus
confdence. The defeat of enemies became British Museum, EA10181,1
an established literary and decorative theme.
After 1300 BC, foreign invasion came from an Claiming victory
unexpected part of the ancient world – Libya. An
‘idealised’ version of the confict is depicted on the A large commemorative relief in his royal temple
walls of Karnak temple, as King Sety I ruthlessly at Abu Simbel depicts Ramesses II benevolently
slaughters the Libyan chief and tramples his receiving suppliants after the conclusion of the
people. Battle of Qadesh. This watercolour copy is by
1830–1849, Karnak, plaster cast (back) Salvatore Cherubini (1797–1869), one of the fve
British Museum, EA91038a-o illustrators of the Franco-Tuscan expedition to
Egypt.
Expanding the empire
1829–28, Egypt, paper
Biblioteca Universitaria di Pisa – Ministero della Cultura –
In one of the ancient world’s largest chariot Italia, Ms_300_2_c130-132
battles, fought in 1275 BC, Ramesses II tried
to seize Syria from the powerful Hittites and The rise of pharaoh
recapture the city of Qadesh. Both sides would
claim victory. When Champollion read this ancient This is the only known seated statue of the
poem, he discovered the names of foreign peoples pharaoh Sety II. His royal names are inscribed

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on his shoulders and below his feet. He holds a Nubian strength

ram’s head representing the god Amun. During
the New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC), Egypt’s ruler From 800 BC onwards, Egypt was frequently
began to be identifed by his residential palace, the ruled by foreign empires. King Piankhy’s victory
‘Great House’, or (pronounced per-aa), which stela recounts how Egypt was conquered by the
evolved into the recognisable ‘pharaoh’. Nubian state, creating a major power whose only
rival in the ancient Middle East was Assyria. The
1200–1194 BC, Thebes, quartzite
British Museum, EA26 original from Gebel Barkal in Sudan is now in the
Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
A rare fnd 1891, Cairo, plaster cast (back)
British Museum, EA1121
In 2016, the British Museum was able to purchase
a unique record of silver payments in ‘abnormal The end of native rule
hieratic’, an almost illegible form of cursive writing.
The papyrus mentions the Kushite king Taharqa The fnal centuries of pharaonic rule were a period
and was purchased by scholar Alexandre de of great unrest (747–332 BC). Obscure rulers,
Vaucelles (1798–1851) during his 1826 voyage sometimes of foreign origin themselves, fought for
through Egypt. In preparation for his journey, Egypt’s fading independence. For example, King
de Vaucelles learned hieroglyphs. Hakor may not have been a native Egyptian but
instead from a North Arabian nomadic tribe. This
690–664 BC, Thebes, papyrus
British Museum, EA87512,1-2 is a fragment from his statue.
393–380 BC, Tell Basta, limestone

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British Museum, EA1825 examples were found in Amarna, the capital city
of King Akhenaten, and are letters from rulers of
[Display case to right and behind, labels right
the lands north of Egypt. In this message, King
to left]
Tushratta of Mitanni negotiates a royal marriage
between his daughter and King Amenhotep III.
Foreign languages
About 1350 BC, Amarna, clay (back)
British Museum, E29793
Egypt had close trade relationships with the island
of Crete. The hieratic inscription on this writing
Persian infuence
board reads: ‘Making the names of the Keftiw’
(Cretans). These phonetic spellings of Cretan
The frst Persian rule over Egypt (526–401 BC)
names provide a glimpse of the language spoken
introduced several new languages written in
in Crete and show how foreign words were
cuneiform. Though the text on this cylinder seal
accurately recorded.
may look uniform, the inscription is in fact written
1550–1069 BC, Egypt, wood (front) in three languages: Old Persian, Elamite and
British Museum, EA5647
Babylonian. A reference to King Darius I suggests
the seal was probably brought to Egypt by an
Diplomatic correspondence
offcial from the royal centres of Persepolis or
Susa (present-day Iran).
Wedge-shaped cuneiform originating from
Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) was the frst foreign 522–486 BC, Thebes, chalcedony or prase
British Museum, 89132
script encountered by the Egyptians. Many

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Alphabetic infuence 450–300 BC, Memphis, limestone

Carpentras, Bibliothèque-musée Inguimbertine, 2007.0.16

Scribal traditions brought from the ancient Middle

The origins of Coptic
East introduced an alphabetic sequence for
arranging Egyptian words. As early as the New
As Greek became more dominant in Egypt,
Kingdom (1550–1069 BC), words could be
older texts could be rendered in a Greek script
ordered according to their frst letter. This fragment
to help with pronunciation. The papyrus above
of a demotic text lists personal names starting with
demonstrates an early part of this process. First,
the letter ‘h’.
the nearest approximation in the Greek alphabet
400–250 BC, Egypt, papyrus (back right) was used, for example θ for ‘th’. Later, demotic
British Museum, EA10852
signs were added to express those Egyptian
sounds that did not exist in Greek.
A common language
About 100–200 AD, Oxyrhynchus, papyrus (back left)
British Museum, EA10808
Wrongly identifed as Phoenician when it was
discovered in 1704, this Aramaic funerary poem
Early alphabet
accompanies an image of the deceased woman
Taba on her deathbed. She is surrounded by four
The base of the sphinx displays early alphabetic
deities in typical ancient Egyptian iconography.
signs beneath the Egyptian hieroglyphs. This
Aramaic was a common language of the ancient
script called Proto-Sinaitic is an ancestor of the
Middle East, rendered in a simple alphabet of
Latin alphabet. It was probably used by local
twenty-two signs.
people working as guides or traders in the Sinai
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desert. About 130–50 BC, Naukratis (made in Brindisi, Italy),

ceramic (left)
About 1800 BC, Serabit el-Khadim, sandstone British Museum, 1955,0920.89
British Museum, EA41748
About 575–550 BC, Naukratis (made in Chios, Greece),
ceramic (centre)
A cultural hub British Museum, 1924,1201.755

The most profound encounter with a foreign Shared beliefs

language began about 650 BC with the arrival
of Greek-speaking immigrants, predominantly Greeks and other foreigners lived in Naukratis
mercenaries and traders. They mainly settled in long before the arrival of Alexander the Great.
northern Egypt, for example at the port and trading Temples dedicated to Egyptian gods operated
city of Naukratis. next to Greek sanctuaries, and foreign residents
supported the local cult of the cat-goddess
A fragment of a drinking cup dedicated by Aigyptis Bastet, known as Bubastis in Greek.
(‘the Egyptian’ in Greek) was found there in the
temple of Aphrodite. Could she have been one These statues were probably intended as
of the ‘peculiarly alluring’ sex workers the city dedications to her. The upright cat sits in typical
was famed for? Other objects such as Aramaic Egyptian fashion while the base accompanying the
stamp seals and Latin-stamped amphora handles Greek-style skulking cat reads: ‘Galateia daughter
indicate foreign presence and trade networks. of Theodotos to Bubastis’.
About 500–400 BC, Naukratis, copper alloy (right)
British Museum, 1886,0401.1706 ‘Cat’ in ancient Egyptian is ‘mioew’.

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266–227 BC, Naukratis, limestone [Subsection introduction at end of display

British Museum, 1905,0612.3
case to left]
325–225 BC, Naukratis, Greek (Parian) marble
British Museum, 1905,0612.7
The concept of time
325–250 BC, Naukratis, limestone
British Museum, 1905,0612.20
Champollion did not just decipher a writing
system: he uncovered one of the oldest written
languages in human history. This achievement
revealed how the Egyptians measured time,
organised the year, and commemorated ancestors
– or erased them from history. A wealth of written
sources confrms a deep appreciation by the
ancient Egyptians for their past.

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[Labels on right of case, left to right] Khakheperreseneb … Ptahhotep or Kaires?’

These learned scribes supposedly foretold
The invention of writing the future through their exquisite writings, thus
securing their ever-lasting memory.
This pottery fragment shows the oldest Egyptian
1295–1186 BC, Deir el-Medina, papyrus (top)
text in the British Museum and dates to 3100 BC. British Museum, EA10684,5
It mentions both ‘accounts from Upper Egypt’ and
the name Sekhen/Ka, who ruled there just before Wise teachings
the unifcation of Egypt’s regions into one state.
Writing in Egypt was ‘invented’ around 3250 BC Some scribes were well known from ‘Teachings’
to organise the distribution and storage of goods or ‘Instructions’. These writings discussed
as society became more complex. moral principles in the form of short sayings and
About 3100 BC, Abydos, pottery warnings and were often copied. The Loyalist
British Museum, EA35508 Teaching of Kaires addresses hierarchy and the
dependence of the elite on their subordinates:
Great ones of the past ‘an overworked feld-labourer will run away, so
a harsh master ultimately undermines his own
Authorship was rarely attributed in ancient Egypt, success’.
but this papyrus commemorates eight ‘great’
1295–1069 BC, Deir el-Medina, limestone
authors of the past: ‘Is there any here like British Museum, EA5632
Hordedef? Is there another like Imhotep …
Neferti and Khety … Ptahemdjehuty and

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Poetic delight 1390–1352 BC, limestone, Egypt

British Museum, EA24430

Khakheperreseneb’s soul-searching and heartfelt

Starry nights
poem on language was copied over and over on
writing boards like this to teach new generations
As their name suggests, star clocks used stars to
of scribes vocabulary and writing: ‘If only I had
determine the time. First appearing inside coffn
unknown utterances, and extraordinary verses, in a
lids around 2100 BC, the clocks measured the
new language that does not pass away, free from
motion of groups of stars that appeared in the
repetition, without a verse of worn-out speech,
eastern sky at dawn every ten days. Arranged in
spoken by the ancestors!’
grids of 36 intervals, each interval had 12 stars,
1550–1350 BC, Egypt, wood and plaster one for every hour of the night.
British Museum, EA5645
About 240 BC, Thebes, wood and pigment (back)
British Museum, EA6678
Expelled from history

Celebrating the New Year

Some individuals were forgotten about or
deliberately erased from memory. A disliked
The Egyptian year was organised according to
individual’s name or image might be violently
seasonal Nile River cycles, which dictated dates
obliterated or hacked out, as seen on this statue.
for ploughing, harvesting, and celebrating festivals.
In other cases, names were altered or erased
This statue group for the parents of Iymhotep
because they were no longer needed, or because
bears a feast list on the back, including the
an object needed to be re-used.
Opening of the Year, New Year’s Day, Full and
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Half Moon Festivals, the Thoth Feast, and the Calendar of Lucky and Unlucky Days
Festival of Sokar.
Champollion discovered that the ancient Egyptian
The joy of these festivals was expressed through year was divided into 12 months of 30 days and
drunkenness and offerings of Nile water and 3 seasons – Akhet (fooding), Peret (growing),
perfume in vessels such as this New Year’s fask. and Shemu (harvest). Every day had mythological
signifcance and calendars were drawn up to
747–332 BC, Egypt, wood (left)
British Museum, EA41516 specify days as lucky or unlucky, good or bad. The
above papyrus shows days in the Peret season.
664–525 BC, Thebes, glazed composition (right)
British Museum, EA4770 1295–1186 BC, Thebes, papyrus (top)
British Museum, EA10184,6
Keeping time
[Interactive screen]
The ancient Egyptians divided days into 24 hours
using timekeeping devices such as water clocks. The Calendar of Lucky and Unlucky Days
Marks on the inside served to measure each Discover your fate
hour as the water dripped out. Decorations often Touch to start
showed the king making offerings to deities,
suggesting that these clocks were used by priests [Display case behind, labels left to right]
for timekeeping during nocturnal temple rituals.
Keeping traditions alive
About 320 BC, Tell el-Yahudiya, basalt
British Museum, EA938

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Egyptian texts, art and architecture were often égyptiennes, A 91

infuenced by past trends. The block statue was 5. 332–30 BC, Karnak, black granite
one of the longest-surviving types of non-royal British Museum, EA48035
sculpture in ancient Egypt, providing artists of
old with a link to even more bygone times. Such Voices of Rashid
statues depict a person seated with their knees
drawn up to their chest, usually with their body He looks like he is sad.
concealed in a cloak.
Rahma, 12 years old

The design was invented around 1900 BC and

Please touch
copied throughout Egyptian history, as these
examples show. Inscriptions identify the individuals
Types of granite, a hard stone commonly used to
from left to right as Sahathor, Kamose, Parenu,
create block statues
Wahibra and Padiamennebnesuttawy.
1. About 1900 BC, Abydos, limestone
British Museum, EA570

2. About 1400 BC, Egypt, granodiorite

British Museum, EA1210

3. 1295–1069 BC, Egypt, limestone

British Museum, EA1085

4. About 595–525 BC, Sais, granodiorite

Paris, Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités

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[Subsection introduction on wall to left] [Display cases to left, labels right to left]

Spirituality and the afterlife [Picture caption] The falcon and jackal-headed
jars, drawn in 1719 by French Benedictine monk
Dom Bernard de Montfaucon.
Like many other cultures, Egyptians saw death as
a natural progression into another state of being. © Bibliothèque nationale de France
Preparation for death was essential to preserve
the future well-being of one’s soul. As perhaps the Preserved for the afterlife
most powerful and prevalent force driving ancient
Egyptian culture, the concept of the afterlife Canopic jars preserved the organs of the
infuenced objects, architecture and imagery deceased. The inscriptions on these jars record
alike. Yet insight into what really happened in the the name of the owner, Ahmose, as well as the
lives and deaths of ancient Egyptians was long relevant protective deity. Imset, the human-headed
hampered by a lack of understanding of their texts. god, preserved the liver, jackal-headed Duamutef
protected the stomach, baboon-headed Hapi
cared for the lungs, while the falcon-headed
Qebehsenuef looked after the intestines. This is
the frst time the jars have been reunited since the
mid-1700s.
747–332 BC, Egypt, calcite
Musée Calvet, Avignon, no. 115

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Paris, Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités died between the ages of 25 and 35.
égyptiennes, E. 13137
National Museums Liverpool, Lady Lever Art Gallery, from the 945–715 BC, Egypt, human remains, organic
Collection of 1st Viscount Leverhulme, LL 5134a & LL 5135, Courtesy of the Natural History Society of Northumbria
LL 5136 & LL 5137

Book of the Dead

[Picture caption] This translation of Champollion’s
now lost 1823 letter shows his readings of the
Karl Richard Lepsius (1810–1884), the father of
hieroglyphs on the cartonnage.
German Egyptology, infuenced public discourse
Courtesy of the Natural History Society of Northumbria. with his 1842 translation of a guide for the afterlife
Image © Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums
entitled Book of the Dead. Though the term is still
extensively used, it is neither a book nor a fxed
Baketenhor travels to England text. Instead, people commissioned a personal
selection of religious and magical spells to be
When the mummifed remains of Baketenhor read out loud during their burial. This abbreviated
arrived in Newcastle in 1821, onlookers eagerly compilation belonged to lady Djedmutiuesankh
requested an unwrapping. Fortunately, they were and was studied and signed by Champollion in
denied, saving her beautiful cartonnage – a 1827.
protective cover made from plastered layers of
1069–715 BC, Thebes, papyrus
fbre, papyrus or linen, sometimes coated in resin.
Private collection of David and Molly Lowell Borthwick
In 1823, Champollion identifed the inscription as a
prayer addressed to several deities for the soul of
the deceased. A recent medical scan revealed she

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Soul searching policemen. If revealed on judgement day, there is

little doubt her sins would have led to her eternal
Funerary texts identifed different parts of the soul: damnation. But in this papyrus, she brazenly
intellect (akh), essence (ka), and personality (ba). waits by the scales of justice for her heart to
Certain burial rituals focused on reuniting the body be weighed against Maat, the goddess of truth.
with its ba, which few away upon death. This is Maat is represented in Egyptian iconography as a
why the ba was often depicted as a feather or as a seated goddess with a feather on
human-headed bird. A reunion was essential her head.
for a person to be reborn in the next life.
About 1070 BC, Egypt, papyrus
747–30 BC, Egypt, wood (top) British Museum, EA10541
British Museum, EA61884
747–332 BC, Egypt, copper alloy
British Museum, EA60383
[Picture caption] Letter from General Piankh to
his mother Queen Nedjemet regarding a murder Silence heart!
plot the two had arranged.
© Staatliche Museen zu Berlin – ÄMP, P. Berlin 10489, Final judgement before a tribunal in the afterlife
photo: S. Steiß was an important part of the burial ritual. Heart
amulets were often buried with the deceased,
A doomed soul sometimes wrapped inside the mummy bandages,
to provide additional protection during judgement.
Nedjmet, the unscrupulous owner of this Book Some amulets bore a spell from the Book of the
of the Dead, coordinated the murder of two Dead that urged the deceased’s heart: ‘Do not

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stand as a witness! Do not oppose me in the of the ancient Egyptians, leaving us with
tribunal! Do not show your hostility against me masterpieces of magnifcent buildings and
before the Keeper of the Balance!’ rich texts. In many aspects, ancient Egypt is
still present in the consciousness of modern
1350–1250 BC, Egypt, jasper (left)
British Museum, EA15619 Egyptians today.

Egypt, red jasper (centre) Dr Khaled Hassan Abd el-Aziz

British Museum, EA8090 Associate Professor of Egyptology, Cairo University

Egypt, breccia (right)

British Museum, EA24393 [Wall text, left to right, top to bottom]

Book of the Dead Ra-Horakhty – the sun god Ra, Horus of the
Two Horizons. In front of him is a table laden with
Spells from the Book of the Dead were meant to offerings.
be spoken aloud. Because many of the precise
sounds of the Egyptian language are not known Hymns in honour of Ra-Horakhty, titled in red.
(including vowels, which are never recorded in This one reads: ‘Adoring Ra as he rises from the
hieroglyphic writing), this recitation is only an eastern horizon of the sky’.
approximation.
The couple worship Osiris, god of the afterlife,
Duration: 2 minutes 40 seconds in front of tables laden with offerings.

The idea of life after death occupied the minds Baboons greet the morning sun, who is helped

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to rise by an ankh with arms. The ankh was the A spell intended to be ‘spoken over this image
symbol of life. which is written on fresh papyrus … and placed
at the breast of the blessed dead to prevent an
The journey to the afterlife begins with a funeral approach to his body’.
procession across the river Nile to the ‘beautiful
west’. The body is then transported by sledge to a The title of this spell reads: ‘Going out by
tomb. day, taking any form desired to be taken’. The
deceased could change their appearance upon
Nedjmet plays the game senet, symbolising the entering the afterlife.
passage of her life force ka to the afterlife.
[Display cases, labels right to left]
Nedjmet’s ba – her soul in bird form – and Herihor
worship two lions: yesterday and tomorrow. In the Digital insight
present, the sun rises.
Though papyrus sheets are now often kept in
Husband and wife King Herihor and Queen frames, the densely rolled papyrus on the left
Nedjmet worship Ra-Horakhty. This Book of the shows how they would once have been stored in
Dead belonged to Queen Nedjmet. tombs. Resin stains suggest that this particular
papyrus was placed close to a mummy.
Goddess of justice Maat sits on the left scale
while Nedjmet is weighed across from her on the To prevent damage through unrolling,
right. The god of writing, Thoth, records the result. non-destructive scanning methods are now being

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used. They reveal that the righthand papyrus is when labour was required. Called shabtis, the
made up of tiny fragments from different sheets, a word derives from ‘weshebti’, meaning ‘answerer’.
tactic probably used by later dealers to increase The writing identifes this shabti’s owner as ‘Osiris
sales value. They also show areas where different Tarudj, born of Tentmen’.
types of ink were used, visible as white patches in
664–525 BC, Saqqara, glazed composition\
the cross-section scan of the left-hand papyrus. British Museum, EA9180

1069 BC – AD 395, Thebes, papyrus (left)

British Museum, EA10748 Help from the grave
1550–1069 BC, Egypt, papyrus and linen (right)
British Museum, EA76548 Letters to the dead were prompted by unfortunate
events in the lives of those they had left behind.
[Picture caption] Scans can sometimes even Recipients were requested to stop harming the
identify individual hieroglyphs. living or to intercede with a fellow spirit suspected
of causing trouble. The letters were recited and
Emilie Cazin / Benjamin Moreno
© Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum left in tombs. Here, Shepsi complains to his late
parents about his inheritance issues.
Life after life 2181–2125 BC, Qaw el-Qebir, clay
Petrie Museum, UC16163
The afterlife was an idealised version of Egypt
where people could continue their earthly Voices of Rashid
activities. To avoid having to work, people were
buried with magical fgures who took their place The head is in the form of a human being and

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there are signs of ancient Egyptian writing and it is such as priests, cemetery workers or scribes.
called a sculpture. This stela, depicting Userwer and his family, was
never fnished. The reference grid and preliminary
Malak, 12 years old
drawings are still visible.
Family memorials 1985–1795 BC, Egypt, limestone
British Museum, EA579

Ancestor busts preserved the memory of the

deceased. They were often set into household O living ones who are on the earth who pass by
shrines and sometimes found near tombs. This this tomb, as your deities love and favour you, may
depiction of the musician Muteminet may be from you say:
the tomb chapel of her son Amenmose, where a
bust of her husband was also discovered. ‘A thousand of bread and beer, a thousand of
cattle and birds, a thousand of alabaster and
1295–1186 BC, Thebes, limestone clothes, a thousand of offerings and provisions
British Museum, EA1198
that go forth before Osiris.’

An appeal to the living

To prevent the memory of the deceased from

fading into oblivion, the living were urged to read Kha ta heneket, kha ka-u apedju, kha shes
inscribed prayers out loud to reactivate offerings. menekhet, kha hetep jefa, peret em bah Usir.
Texts were addressed to a specifc audience,

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Life in the necropolis 332 BC – AD 395, Egypt, pottery

British Museum, EA5679

Mummifed bodies were sometimes temporarily

The business of death
stored in tombs, awaiting their turn for burial.
Inscribed wooden labels were attached to identify
The rights to mummies and tombs and the
the corpse for both administrative and religious
income accrued from them were carefully
purposes. This mummy-label of lady Tatetriphis
defned in contracts. On 14 July 157 BC,
has an extract from the Book of Traversing Eternity
the scribe Harekusis wrote an agreement in
in hieratic and demotic.
demotic between two groups of mortuary priests
AD 100–200, Akhmim, wood concerning the provision of cloth to individuals
British Museum, EA23198
performing different operations during the
mummifcation ritual. These rolls of linen are similar
The afterlife industry
to those discussed in the contract. The document
ends with a penalty clause and a royal oath.
The job of mortuary workers did not end with
burial. They also earned money by protecting 157 BC, Asyut, papyrus (top)
tombs and charging patrons to maintain mortuary British Museum, EA10561
cults for deceased relatives. This demotic text About 100 BC – AD 200, Egypt, linen and resin
settles a dispute between two parties who thought British Museum, EA15039
they had rights to manage the same burial. The
oath admits an invalid claim, allowing the tomb to
be reopened.

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[Subsection introduction to left, at end of [Display case, labels left to right]

display case]
The god of writing
Scribal knowledge
The patron god of writing, thinking and learning
In ancient Egypt, being able to write was a key to was Thoth, the moon deity. His name means
success as only about 1% of the population were ‘the one of the ibis’ and he could be depicted
literate. Those who were unable to read or write as an ibis or a man with an ibis head, possibly
employed scribes to draw up contracts, letters because the curve of the beak resembles the
and wills. Not all scribes mastered hieroglyphs, crescent moon. Sometimes, he was also depicted
as the script was typically reserved for formal as a baboon holding up the moon. The Greeks
and religious monuments. Instead, many learned associated him with Hermes, and eventually with
hieratic and demotic, the cursive scripts used in Hermes Trismegistus, the legendary inventor of
everyday administration. writing.
Egypt, black steatite (left)
British Museum, EA24655

664–525 BC, Egypt, glazed composition (centre)

British Museum, EA64606

747–30 BC, Egypt, bronze (right)

British Museum, EA64095

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The lucky few Tools of the trade

Education and apprenticeship in ancient Egypt Scribes were educated in schools where they
were profession-oriented, aimed at training probably learned hieratic frst, replaced by
scribes and specialist craftspeople to work in demotic in later periods. They were taught to
local and national institutions such as the palace write by doing spelling and grammar exercises,
and temples. As highly respected members of recording passages dictated by the teacher, and
society, it was every parent’s wish to see their copying parts of literary texts. Their daily tools
son become a scribe. Scribes often appear included personalised palettes with black and red
seated cross-legged with an unfolded papyrus pigments, papyrus smoothers, inkwells, reed pens,
on their lap. knives and solid pigment cakes.
2494–2345 BC, Egypt, limestone 1. Palette
Paris, Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités 1795–1650 BC, Egypt, wood
égyptiennes, N 43 British Museum, EA5516

2. Pigment container
Students of Egyptology who used the 747–332 BC, Egypt, glazed composition
encyclopaedic grammar of Champollion to British Museum, EA5539

study the ancient Egyptian language would have 3. Pigment

learned hieroglyphs, hieratic, demotic and Coptic Egypt, Egyptian blue
British Museum, EA5570
simultaneously.
4. Inkwell
Dr Ola el-Aguizy
664–525 BC, Egypt, steatite
Emeritus Professor of Egyptology, University of Cairo
British Museum, EA59852

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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

5. Smoother Practice makes perfect

1550–1295 BC, Egypt, stone
British Museum, EA66212
Students practised writing on limestone fakes or
6. Inkwell pottery fragments called ostraca, as well as on
1 BC – AD 1, Tanis, glazed composition
British Museum, EA22015 wooden or stone tablets, and trial pieces. Training
included basic spelling and grammar exercises
7. Palette
1550–1295 BC, Egypt, schist and the copying of whole texts. These were either
British Museum, EA12779 dictated or copied from examples. For easy reuse,
8. Knife tablets or writing boards were waxed and written
1550–1295 BC, Thebes, bronze upon with a stylus, or ink inscriptions were erased
British Museum, EA65635
and overwritten.
9. Pens 1. About 1479–1425 BC, Egypt, wood and plaster
Egypt, reed British Museum, EA5601
British Museum, EA27452, EA5535
2. 600–700 AD, Egypt, wood
Voices of Rashid British Museum, EA29528

3. 664–525 BC, Memphis, quartzite

[Is it] a tray of cupcakes? British Museum, EA69159

Hana, 12 years old

Personal marks

Ostraca were cheap and easily available, so they

were a good medium on which to practise. One

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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

side of this ostracon shows two different texts professions in favour of the scribal one in order
onto which a sketch was added later. The reverse to convince his son to become a scribe: ‘There’s
records a list of the ‘personal marks’ of villagers, a nothing that surpasses writings!’
kind of signature for people who could not write.
1504–1492 BC, Egypt, limestone
4. 1295–1069 BC, Deir el-Medina, limestone British Museum, EA41650, EA47896, EA29550, EA65943,
British Museum, EA50716 EA6559

1295–1069 BC, Egypt, papyrus (above)

[Picture caption] Ancient ‘signatures’ are visible British Museum, EA10182,3–11, EA10222,1-4, EA10699,5

on the reverse of the displayed ostracon.

I see the coppersmith at his toil at the mouth of
© Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum
his furnace, his fngers like crocodile skin, his
stench worse than fsh eggs…
Preserving writing
The feld labourer complains eternally, his voice
The scribal profession involved more than just
rises higher than the birds, with his fngers turned
writing. Scribes preserved the memory of Egypt
into sores from carrying overloads of produce…
by copying, reinterpreting and reworking revered
pieces of literature.
The mat-weaver lives inside the weaving-house,
he is worse off than a woman…
The Teaching of Khety was produced around
Quotes from the Teaching of Khety
2000 BC but mostly preserved through later
copies like these. The work is also known as Satire
of the Trades because Khety mocks all other
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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

[Subsection introduction at end of display case [Labels for wall cases on right, left to right]
behind]
Crime in antiquity
Family and society
No formal Egyptian code of law has been
preserved, but legal writings reveal penalties
Cracking jokes and writing love poetry may not be
for theft of private property. One famous case
the frst things that come to mind when imagining
concerned the theft of copper fttings from a
ancient Egyptian life. But thanks to decipherment,
chest of Ramessesnakht, High Priest of Amun.
we know that just like us, ancient Egyptians sent
The porter and witness, Ahautinufer, revealed the
letters, got married and divorced, and negotiated
culprits who were also known from another case.
business deals. The earthly nature of much ancient
writing may surprise some, as expressions of 1099–1069 BC, Egypt, papyrus (top)
British Museum, EA10403
passion, politics and personal beliefs have often
been overshadowed by religious prayers and
monumental propaganda. Money troubles

People often erected boundary stones to mark

their properties. This stela is inscribed with the
words Pr-Snt, the ‘estate of Senet’.

Land could be mortgaged, as we learn from the

papyrus above that describes a loan the herdsman

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Harsiesis was unable to repay. The moneylender Khunanup speaks

Panas kept it in his extensive archive as proof of
his entitlement to the land that had been forfeited ‘You are the equal of Thoth, one who judges
by Harsiesis. Panas belonged to a well-known without being partial.’ In this scene, the eloquent
family of mortuary priests. peasant fatters, admonishes and pleads with the
2055–1650 BC, Egypt, limestone
high steward to act and restore justice after he
British Museum, EA59205 has been robbed of his possessions.
162 BC, Thebes, papyrus
British Museum, EA10823 Duration: 1 minute 25 seconds

Tale of the Eloquent Peasant ‘A peasant good of speech’

In this story, the peasant Khunanup is tricked Scan the code to read The Eloquent Peasant and
and swindled by a greedy landowner. His case to fnd out about the British Museum’s related
is brought before the high steward who is so community work in Asyut, Middle Egypt. The
intrigued by the peasant’s gift for words that project resulted in a series of flms and a children’s
he forces him to endlessly repeat his elegant book exploring local mythology, all of which are
speeches so they can be recorded and presented free to download.
to the king. After much suffering, Khunanup is
fnally granted justice.
1985–1795 BC, Thebes, papyrus
British Museum, EA10274
britishmuseum.org/eloquent-peasant
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[Display case behind, labels left to right] Building and measuring

Weights and measures Through this measuring rod, Champollion

discovered that the Egyptians used units of
Different units were needed for measuring measurement inspired by the human body. The
volume, especially grain or four, as these were basic unit was the cubit, or the length from the
the standard currency for salaries. Small weights elbow to the tip of the middle fnger (about
used deben as the basic unit, here marked with 45 cm). The cubit was subdivided into seven
‘60’ (948g), ‘6’ (95g) and the third with ‘Sahura, palms (7.5 cm) and further separated into
beloved of the gods, unit 35’ (554g). four fngers (1.875 cm). Heights in cubits are
mentioned in this letter from Mentuhotep to
Over 3,000 years ago in Deir al-Medina, Ahmose about the construction of a house.
Amenemope paid between 12 and 25 deben for
1550–1295 BC, Thebes, papyrus (back wall)
his bed to the carpenter Meryre, as this inscription British Museum, EA10102
shows. This equalled between 6 and 12.5 sacks of
1319–1292 BC, Saqqara, wood
grain. Torino, Museo Egizio, Cat. 6347
1295–1186 BC, Deir el-Medina, ceramic (left)
British Museum, EA5644 Voices of Rashid
2055–1650 BC, Gebelein, sandstone (centre two)
British Museum, EA15775, EA23067 This is [like] the ruler we use at school.
2494–2345 BC, Egypt, steatite (right) Farah, 12 years old
British Museum, EA65836

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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

Textbook maths Ancient Egyptians believed that dreams could

reveal the future. This dream book belonging to
The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is an ancient Qenherkhepshef explained whether a dream was
textbook with 88 mathematical problems. Each a good or bad omen:
starts with a ‘method of calculating’, written in
red, with the steps and solution following in black. ‘If a man sees himself in a dream looking after
It includes fractions, division and multiplication monkeys: bad – a change awaits him.’
tables, and the calculation of volumes and areas.
The top roll focuses on arithmetic and algebra On the back, a poem about the Battle of
while the longer one below it explores geometry. Qadesh and a letter to the vizier written in
Qenherkhepshef’s bold handwriting are also
About 1550 BC, Thebes, papyrus (top)
British Museum, EA10057-58 visible.
About 1220 BC, Deir el-Medina, papyrus
[Interactive screen] British Museum, EA10683,3

Counting in Egypt Medicine and magic

Touch to start
Since many illnesses were thought to be caused
[Labels left to right] by evil demons, medical practice was combined
with magic as an effective method of treatment.
The interpretation of dreams The London Medical Papyrus contains a broad
range of charms and recipes against skin

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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

complaints, burns, eye diseases and miscarriages. 2055–1650 BC, Egypt, hematite and gold
British Museum, EA32151
Spell 7 gives a remedy for a skin disease using
red ochre, Lower Egyptian salt in linen, fruits, and
Divine protection
the froth of sweet beer.
1550–1295 BC, Egypt, papyrus (bottom) Some incantations and hymns focused on warding
British Museum, EA10059,1
away dangerous animals such as lions, crocodiles
AD 1–800, Egypt, salt-infused linen and snakes. Although these animals were feared,
British Museum, EA53927
they were also bestowed with positive qualities
Egypt, ochre pigment sample and worshipped as gods. The scorpion goddess
British Museum, EA91061
Serqet, or Selkis, became the patroness for curing
1550–1069 BC, Egypt, organics in ceramic bowl venomous bites and stings.
British Museum, EA37254, EA5369
Statues of legendary saints also protected
Practical fashion people from harm. Imhotep, the architect of King
Djoser’s step pyramid, was known as a healer
Over 90 different recipes are known for the and worshipped as a god of medicine even two
treatment of eye problems. Black and green kohl thousand years after his death.
powder had antibacterial properties and could be
carried around in pots to be applied as eyeliner. 747–332 BC, Egypt, green basalt (right)
British Museum, EA57365
Preventative and cosmetic uses were not always
distinguishable from each other. 747–332 BC, Egypt, bronze (left)
British Museum, EA64495

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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

[Other side of display case, labels left to right] Caring for parents

For the love of a child The most fundamental duty of the eldest child
was to care for their parents. In the letter
The portrayal of the goddess Isis breastfeeding above, Butehamen writes to troop commander
her son Horus was later adapted by Christians Shedsuhor expressing concerns about his father
for the Virgin and child. The left-hand statue was Tjaroy who is about to go on a journey to Nubia:
commissioned by Panebu, a teacher to the king. ‘Look after (him) with vigilance in the evening as
Children were often shown naked, suckling on well, while he is in your hands.’
their index fngers and wearing a side lock.
1072 BC, Thebes, papyrus (top)
British Museum, EA10284
This typical depiction of ‘Horus the child’ was
adopted and exported across the Mediterranean A tale of treachery
world as ‘Harpocrates’ by the Greeks, as
demonstrated by the statue on the right. The base A pleasant lifestyle is disrupted when the wife
is inscribed in hieroglyphs and Phoenician, an of Anubis tries to seduce her brother-in-law,
extinct alphabetic language. Bata. Humiliated by his refusal, she claims that
About 664–525 BC, Egypt, feldspar, breccia (left) Bata attacked her. Anubis initially turns against
British Museum, EA23050 his brother but later discovers his wife’s betrayal
and kills her. Inena’s Tale of the Two Brothers is
600–300 BC, Egypt, bronze (right)
British Museum, 132908 one of the most famous ancient Egyptian literary

148 149
Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

compositions. a little girl named Buiharkhons. The hieratic text

is composed of a series of sentences starting
About 1215 BC, Memphis, papyrus
British Museum, EA10183,6 with ‘We shall keep her safe from…’, for example,
‘We shall keep her safe from leprosy, from
Marriage and divorce blindness, and from the wedjat-eye.’
Accompanying amulets in the form of the threat,
This text reports the separation of Hessunebef in this case the wedjat-eye (also known as the
from his wife Hener and states that he supported Eye of Horus), reinforced the spell’s power.
her for three years after the divorce. The reason for About 900 BC, Thebes, papyrus
separation is not mentioned, but could have been British Museum, EA10083
initiated by either party. Hener would probably
Egypt, steatite
have kept the possessions she brought into the British Museum, EA8069
marriage, along with a partial claim to properties
acquired with her former husband. Divine protection
1186–1069 BC, Thebes, limestone
Petrie Museum, UC 19614 As family was so important for Egyptians, it
was essential to protect one’s relatives from
‘We shall keep her safe’ evil. Several gods and goddesses appeared
on amulets to safeguard the family. Taweret,
Protective spells could be recited or written on a hippopotamus with large breasts, was the
long papyrus strips, rolled up, and placed inside goddess of childbirth. Bes, a bandy-legged
necklaces. This spell was for the wellbeing of dwarf with a lion’s mane and protruding tongue,

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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

protected mothers and children. Heket was a quality for Egyptians.

goddess of fertility, represented by a frog.
747–332 BC, Egypt, bronze
Egypt, glazed composition (left and centre) British Museum, EA36310
British Museum, EA11853, EA61218
Expressions of love
1550–747 BC, Egypt, diorite or gneiss (right)
British Museum, EA14758
Love poems provide intimate glimpses into
Voices of Rashid everyday life as they are surprisingly direct about
love and romance. The poems were probably
It’s interesting his name is ‘Bes’, a common word sung, and used interactions with the natural world
we use in the informal Egyptian dialect with – growing fruit, capturing birds, swimming in the
several meanings like ‘but’ and ‘that’s it!’ Nile – as metaphors to express affection and
desire. For instance, sweet pomegranate wine is
Asmaa, 12 years old
said to taste bitter when lovesick. The cosmetic
spoon in the form of a naked girl swimming with a
The sound of love
duck also recalls the poetry’s natural imagery.

Prayers to Hathor, the goddess of love and 1550–1295 BC, Egypt, papyrus
British Museum, EA10060
music, were often accompanied by the sistrum, a
musical instrument used in dances and religious 1550–1295 BC, Egypt, glazed composition
ceremonies. When shaken, the sistrum could British Museum, EA59398

produce a soft clink or a loud jangle. Its power Egypt, organic

to appease the anger of gods was an attractive British Museum, EA91062

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Rediscovering ancient Egypt Rediscovering ancient Egypt

1550–1069 BC, Egypt, wood 1295–1069 BC, Deir el-Medina, limestone

British Museum, EA38186 British Museum, EA50714

Music and poetry A human obsession

In this ancient love poem, translated from the Erotic fgures sometimes had humorous aspects,
papyrus before you, the speaker describes how such as this man with an enormous phallus
sweet things such as pomegranate wine seem wrapped over his head. It may have been worn as
bitter without her lover. She mentions Amun, the an amulet to ensure potency, or perhaps to ward
king of gods, before a sistrum rattles. off evil.
400–50 BC, Egypt, glazed composition
Duration: 35 seconds British Museum, EA90380

Naughty drawings

Erotic depictions were uncommon in formal

settings, although nakedness was abundant in
Egyptian art. The rough etchings on this stone
fake reveal a cheeky ancient doodle. A caption
reads ‘gentle is the charm of my skin’. The use of
hieroglyphic script suggests it mocks more formal
paintings.

154 155
Writing for eternity Writing for eternity

[Section introduction through entrance to last [Labels left to right]

room]
A message from the past
Writing for eternity
The Shabaka Stone records a myth in which the
god Ptah created the world by reading aloud the
Despite their aspirations for immortality, ancient names of gods, people, cities and temples. The
Egyptians could never be certain that their text claims to be a copy of an ancient worm-eaten
writings would survive. But survive they did on papyrus which the pharaoh ordered to be carved
stone, papyrus, ceramic, and metal, waiting to on stone to preserve it for eternity. Although it
be decoded. The decipherment of hieroglyphs was nearly erased by later re-use, ultimately the
in 1822 is now considered the most important pharaoh succeeded in his task, as we can enjoy
event in the history of Egyptology, unlocking three the text today, 2732 years later.
thousand years of history, language, literature,
religion, art and architecture. Most importantly, 710 BC, Memphis, conglomerate stone
British Museum, EA498
it has allowed us to fnd the similarities, and the
differences, between ancient Egyptians and
Experience the story of creation
ourselves.
This writing – his majesty copied it so that it
became better than it had been before, in order
that his name may endure and his monument last
throughout eternity, a work done by the Son of Ra,

156 157
Writing for eternity Find out more

Shabaka. Find out more

Listen to the story of Ptah creating the world in Events
different languages: ancient Egyptian, Arabic, Learn more about Egyptian hieroglyphs and the
English, French, German, Greek, Hindi, Italian, race to decipher them in a programme of events
Japanese, Mandarin, Spanish and Swahili. including talks and lectures from leading experts.
Visit britishmuseum.org/hieroglyphs for details.
Duration: 1 minute 30 seconds
Related galleries
As an Arabic-speaking Egyptian Egyptologist, Egyptian sculpture (Room 4)
cultural continuity in Egypt has always fascinated Egyptian life and death (Room 61),
me because I constantly see the impact of ancient The Michael Cohen Gallery
Egyptian culture on our daily life, despite the Egyptian death and afterlife: mummies (Rooms
changes in language, religion and circumstance 62–63),
that the country has undergone during its very The Roxie Walker Galleries
long history. Early Egypt (Room 64)
Sudan, Egypt and Nubia (Room 65)
Dr Fayza Haikal
Emerita Professor of Egyptology, American University of Cairo Ethiopia and Coptic Egypt (Room 66)

Shopping
Discover a range of products inspired by the
exhibition in the exhibition shop and online shop.

158 159
Find out more Become a Member

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Become a Member Acknowledgements

• The British Museum Magazine Acknowledgements

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The Trustees of the British Museum wish to
thank the following for their generous loans to the
You can also join online at
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of Manuscripts
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The British Library
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Huis van het boek, The Hague
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Musée Champollion – Les Ecritures du Monde /
Figeac
Musée Dobrée – Grand patrimoine de
162 163
Acknowledgements Acknowledgements

Loire-Atlantique All exhibition services unless otherwise

Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités credited
égyptiennes, Paris British Museum
MiC – Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli
Museo Civico Archeologico, Bologna Exhibition design
Museo Egizio, Turin Opera Amsterdam
The National Archives, UK
National Museums Liverpool, Lady Lever Art Graphic design
Gallery Opera Amsterdam
The National Trust
Natural History Society of Northumbria Digital media design
Petrie Museum of Egyptian and Sudanese NewAngle
Archaeology, UCL
The Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, University Digital media hardware
of Cambridge Blue Elephant
Thorvaldsens Museum
Lighting design
The British Museum would also like to thank His DHA Designs Ltd
Excellency Sherif Kamel, Ambassador of the Arab
Republic of Egypt to the United Kingdom of Great Construction
Britain and Northern Ireland for his support in the Setworks
staging of this exhibition.

164 165
Acknowledgements Acknowledgements

Graphic production Translation services

Omni Steven Kennedy

Cost management All images copyright the Trustees of the British

Greenway Associates Museum unless otherwise stated.

CDM advice Support and consultation

ORSA Colleagues of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina

Fine art transport Digital media content

MOMART Ltd Ahmed Dream, photographer
Ahmed Mansour, Director Writing and Scripts
Object mounts Center, Bibliotheca Alexandrina
Richard Rogers Conservation Ltd Chris Crowe, Head of Digital Learning, Harrow
School
Large print guides Fatma Keshk, Egyptologist and heritage outreach
gpex expert
Maisa Omran, Helwan University
Touch objects Mohamed el-Dahshan, researcher
Bespoke Scientifc Mostafa Naguib, cinematographer
Rock Unique Naglaa Ezz el-Dean, Ministry of Tourism and
Antiquities

166 167
Acknowledgements Acknowledgements

The people of Rashid As part of the Museum’s efforts to lessen its

Sarah Quraishi, High Commission of India, environmental impact, materials, fttings and
London equipment are reused where possible. The
Svenja Gülden, Mainz University Museum aims to make its exhibitions sustainable,
sharing best practice, resources and the latest
Floating papers installation images innovations with other museums and galleries.
Bibliothèque nationale de France Every effort has been made to contact the
Photo © Musée du Louvre, Dist. RMN-Grand copyright owners of images and other print
Palais / Georges Poncet and digital media in the exhibition. If you are a
© Antiquariat Inlibris, Vienna rights holder of an item in this exhibition and are
© Bibliotheca Alexandrina 2022 concerned that you did not grant permission to
Courtesy of the Natural History Society of use it, please contact the Museum’s Exhibitions
Northumbria. Image © Tyne & Wear Archives & Department at [email protected]
Museums.

This exhibition has been made possible as a result

of the Government Indemnity Scheme. The British
Museum would like to thank HM Government
for providing Government Indemnity and the
Department for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport
and Arts Council England for arranging
the indemnity.

168 169
We want to hear from you

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Scan the QR code or follow the link to fnd a short

survey about the exhibition that you can complete
now or later.

To thank you for your help you will have the

chance to enter a draw with a £50 prize.

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exhibition, please go to
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170 171
Please do not remove from the exhibition