DATA MINING SUMMARIES:

UNIT I: Data Mining

Data:

• Types of Data: Structured (tabular data), semi-structured (XML, JSON), and

unstructured (text, images, videos).
• Data Mining Functionalities: Tasks like classification, regression, clustering,
association analysis, and anomaly detection.
• Interestingness Patterns: Criteria for identifying useful and novel patterns.
• Classification of Data Mining Systems: Based on data types, system
functionality, or techniques used.
• Data Mining Task Primitives: Basic operations like data selection,
transformation, mining algorithms, and pattern evaluation.
• Integration with Data Warehouse: Ensures consistency and availability of data
for mining.
• Major Issues in Data Mining: Scalability, data quality, privacy, and integration.
• Data Preprocessing: Steps include data cleaning, integration, transformation,
reduction, and discretization.

UNIT II: Association Rule Mining

Mining Frequent Patterns:

• Associations and Correlations: Finding relationships among items in large

datasets.
• Mining Methods: Techniques like Apriori, FP-Growth, and Eclat.
• Mining Various Kinds of Association Rules: Includes multi-level, multi-
dimensional, and quantitative association rules.
• Correlation Analysis: Evaluates the statistical significance of the discovered
rules.
• Constraint-based Association Mining: Incorporates constraints to filter the
results.
• Graph Pattern Mining and Sequential Pattern Mining (SPM): Identifies
frequent subgraphs and sequences.

UNIT III: Classification

Classification and Prediction:

• Basic Concepts: Mapping data into predefined classes.

• Decision Tree Induction: A tree-like model for decision making.
• Bayesian Classification: Probabilistic approach using Bayes' theorem.
 • Rule-based Classification: Uses IF-THEN rules for classification.
• Lazy Learner: Methods like k-nearest neighbors that delay the processing until
prediction.

UNIT IV: Clustering and Applications

Cluster Analysis:

• Types of Data in Cluster Analysis: Includes numerical, categorical, and mixed

data types.
• Categorization of Major Clustering Methods:
o Partitioning Methods: Divide data into distinct clusters (e.g., k-means).
o Hierarchical Methods: Create a hierarchy of clusters (e.g.,
agglomerative, divisive).
o Density-Based Methods: Identify clusters based on density (e.g.,
DBSCAN).
o Grid-Based Methods: Quantize the data space into a grid structure.
• Outlier Analysis: Identifying and handling data points that differ significantly
from other observations.

UNIT V: Advanced Concepts

Basic Concepts in Mining Data Streams:

• Mining Time-series Data: Analyzing time-ordered data.

• Mining Sequence Patterns in Transactional Databases: Discovering frequent
sequences in transactions.
• Mining Object, Spatial, Multimedia, Text, and Web Data:
o Spatial Data Mining: Extracting knowledge from spatial data.
o Multimedia Data Mining: Analyzing data from multimedia sources.
o Text Mining: Extracting useful information from text.
o Mining the World Wide Web: Discovering patterns from web data,
including web structure, content, and usage mining.

Unit-1: Data Mining: Data–Types of Data–, Data Mining Functionalities–

Interestingness Patterns– Classification of Data Mining systems– Data
mining Task primitives –Integration of Data mining system with a Data
warehouse–Major issues in Data Mining–Data Preprocessing.
Data Mining: Data–Types of Data–, Data Mining
Functionalities– Interestingness Patterns–
• Data Types in Data Mining: Data mining involves analyzing and
extracting useful information from large datasets. The types of data
that can be mined include:
• Relational databases
• Data warehouses
• Transactional data
• Streaming data
• Spatial data
• Multimedia data
• Text data
• Web data
• Data Mining Functionalities: The main functionalities of data mining
include:
• Classification: Predicting categorical labels (discrete, unordered)
• Regression: Predicting continuous valued functions
• Clustering: Identifying groups of similar objects
• Summarization: Finding compact descriptions for data subsets
• Association rules: Discovering associations and correlations
• Interestingness Patterns: Interestingness measures are used to evaluate
the quality and usefulness of discovered patterns. Some common
measures include:
• Support: Frequency of a pattern in the dataset
• Confidence: Strength of the association between items in a rule
• Lift: Improvement in prediction of the consequent given the
antecedent
• Conviction: Implication strength of a rule

Classification of Data Mining systems

Data mining systems can be classified based on various criteria:
• Based on data types: Relational databases, object-oriented databases,
spatial databases, multimedia databases, time-series databases, text
databases, web databases
• Based on knowledge discovery: Descriptive (what is?) vs Predictive (what
will be?)
• Based on mining techniques: Classification, clustering, association rule
mining, pattern mining, outlier analysis

Data mining Task primitives

Data mining tasks are specified by a set of task-relevant data, background
knowledge, and a set of task-relevant functions. Task primitives include:
• Set of task relevant data to be mined: This is the portion of database
in which the user is interested. This portion includes the following:
• Database Attributes
• Data Warehouse dimensions of interest
• Kind of knowledge to be mined: It refers to the kind of functions to be
performed. These functions are:
• Characterization
• Discrimination
• Association and Correlation Analysis
• Classification
• Prediction
• Clustering
• Outlier Analysis
• Evolution Analysis
• Background knowledge: The background knowledge allows data to be
mined at multiple levels of abstraction. For example, the Concept
hierarchies are one of the background knowledge that allows data to be
mined at multiple levels of abstraction
• Interestingness measures and thresholds for pattern evaluation: This
is used to evaluate the patterns that are discovered by the process of
knowledge discovery. There are different interesting measures for
different kind of knowledge
 • Representation for visualizing the discovered patterns: This refers to
the form in which discovered patterns are to be displayed. These
representations may include the following:
• Rules
• Tables
• Charts
• Graphs
• Decision Trees
• Cubes

Integration of Data mining system with a Data

warehouse
Integrating data mining with data warehouses provides several benefits:
• Provides a large, consistent repository of data for mining
• Allows OLAP-style drill-down and roll-up during mining
• Enables mining of summarized, multidimensional data
• Provides a platform for scalable, efficient data mining

Major issues in Data Mining

Some major challenges and issues in data mining include:
• Mining different kinds of data in databases
• Interactive mining of knowledge at multiple abstraction levels
• Incorporation of background knowledge
• Data mining query languages and ad-hoc data mining
• Presentation and visualization of data mining results

Data Preprocessing
Data preprocessing is a crucial step that prepares the raw data for mining. It
includes:
• Data cleaning: Handling missing values, noisy data, etc.
• Data integration: Combining data from multiple sources
• Data transformation: Normalization, aggregation, generalization
• Data reduction: Reducing data size by compression, numerosity
reduction, dimensionality reduction
These notes cover the key concepts, techniques, and algorithms related to data
mining, including data types, data mining functionalities, interestingness
patterns, classification of data mining systems, data mining task primitives,
integration of data mining system with a data warehouse, major issues in data
mining, and data preprocessing.

Unit 1: Unveiling the Secrets Within - Introduction to Data Mining

This unit delves into the world of data mining, equipping you with the
foundational knowledge to extract hidden gems from vast datasets.

Data - The Building Blocks

• Data Types: Data comes in various flavors, each requiring specific
handling:
o Numeric: Numbers (e.g., age, income).
o Categorical: Non-numeric labels (e.g., occupation, hair color).
o Ordinal: Ordered categories (e.g., customer satisfaction rating).
o Textual: Free-form text (e.g., documents, social media posts).
Data Mining Functionalities - What We Can Achieve
• Unearthing Patterns & Trends: Discover hidden relationships,
regularities, and valuable insights within data.
• Knowledge Discovery from Data (KDD): A systematic process for
extracting knowledge:
o Selection: Choosing relevant data.
o Cleaning: Fixing errors and inconsistencies.
o Transformation: Preparing data for mining.
o Mining: Applying algorithms to extract patterns.
o Evaluation: Assessing the quality of discovered patterns.
o Presentation: Communicating the knowledge gained.
Interestingness Patterns - Not All Patterns Are Created Equal
• What Makes a Pattern Interesting? It should be:
o Frequent: Occurs often enough to be statistically significant.
o Novel: Unexpected or surprising, revealing new knowledge.
o Actionable: Provides insights that can be used for decision-making.
 • Measuring Interestingness: Techniques like support, confidence, and lift
help quantify the value of patterns.
Classification of Data Mining Systems - The Tools of the Trade
• Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS): The workhorses
for storing and managing large datasets in tables.
• Online Analytical Processing (OLAP): Analyzes data from multiple
dimensions (e.g., time, product category) to identify trends and patterns.
• Multi-Dimensional Data Warehouse (MDW): A specialized storehouse
designed for efficient OLAP analysis, organizing data for multi-
dimensional exploration.
Data Mining Task Primitives - Breaking Down the Process
• Data Selection: Picking the right subset of data focused on the specific
mining task.
• Data Transformation: Converting data into a format suitable for mining
algorithms (e.g., normalization, scaling).
• Data Mining: Applying algorithms like classification, clustering, or
association rule mining to extract patterns.
• Pattern Evaluation: Assessing the quality, usefulness, and validity of
discovered patterns.
Integration with Data Warehouses - A Match Made in Data Heaven
• Benefits: Data warehouses provide clean, preprocessed data readily
available for mining, streamlining the process.
• Data Warehouses: Store historical data from various sources,
meticulously organized for efficient analysis.
Major Issues in Data Mining - Challenges on the Road to Discovery
• Data Quality: Inaccurate or incomplete data can lead to misleading
patterns. Techniques for handling missing values and outliers are crucial.
• Privacy Concerns: Mining data may raise privacy issues. Techniques like
anonymization can help mitigate these concerns.
• Scalability: Mining algorithms need to handle massive datasets
efficiently. Choosing scalable algorithms is essential.
Data Preprocessing - Preparing the Data for Insights
 • Cleaning: Addressing missing values, inconsistencies, and errors to ensure
data quality.
• Integration: Combining data from multiple sources into a consistent
format for analysis.
• Transformation: Scaling, normalization, or feature selection to improve
data quality and prepare it for mining algorithms.

Unit 2: Association Rule Mining: Mining Frequent Patterns–Associations

and correlations – Mining Methods– Mining Various kinds of Association
Rules– Correlation Analysis– Constraint based Association mining. Graph
Pattern Mining, SPM.

Association rule learning :

Rule-based machine learning method for discovering relations between variables.
Definition:
A rule-based machine learning method intended to identify interesting relations
between variables in large databases.
Purpose:
To discover strong rules in databases using measures of interestingness,
primarily in transaction data.
Origin:
Introduced by Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieliński, and Arun Swami for
discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data.
Example Application:
In supermarket POS systems, an example rule is that buying onions and
potatoes together implies a likelihood of also buying hamburger meat.
Applications:
Used in areas including market basket analysis, web usage mining, intrusion
detection, continuous production, and bioinformatics.
Sequence Mining Distinction:
Does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across
transactions, unlike sequence mining.
Complexity:
The algorithm's parameters and rules can be complex and difficult to
understand without expertise in data mining.
Here are the key points on Association Rule Mining, Graph Pattern Mining, and
Sequential Pattern Mining (SPM):

Association Rule Mining

• Mining Frequent Patterns: Frequent patterns are sets of items that
frequently appear together. Support is the fraction of transactions that
contain an itemset.
• Associations and Correlations: Associations and correlations are
discovered by analyzing the relationships between items in a dataset.
Correlation analysis measures the strength of the relationship between
itemsets.
• Mining Methods: Association rule mining methods include:
• Apriori algorithm: A popular method that uses level-wise search to
efficiently find frequent itemsets
• FP-Growth algorithm: Constructs a tree-like structure called a FP-
tree to encode frequent itemsets
• ECLAT algorithm: A variation of Apriori that uses a top-down
approach and divides items into equivalence classes
• Mining Various kinds of Association Rules: Association rules can be
mined at different levels of abstraction using concept hierarchies.
• Correlation Analysis: Correlation analysis measures the strength of the
relationship between itemsets.
• Constraint based Association mining: Constraint-based mining allows
mining of rules that satisfy user-specified constraints.

Graph Pattern Mining

• Frequent subgraph mining: Finding subgraphs that satisfy a minimum
support threshold.
• Gspan algorithm: A graph-based approach to mine frequent subgraphs.
• Substructure pattern mining: Mining patterns that are substructures of
graphs.

Sequential Pattern Mining (SPM)

 • Sequential pattern mining: Discovers subsequences that are common to
more than minsup (minimum support threshold) sequences in a sequence
database.
• Apriori-based algorithm: A classic approach that uses level-wise search.
• Pattern-growth algorithms: Avoid candidate generation-and-test.
• Vertical data format: Efficient support counting using vertical data
format.
• Constraint-based mining: Incorporating user constraints to focus the
search.
The key aspects of association rule mining are mining frequent patterns,
discovering associations and correlations, using various mining methods like
Apriori and FP-Growth, analyzing correlations, and constraint-based mining.
Graph pattern mining focuses on finding frequent subgraphs and mining
substructure patterns. Sequential pattern mining discovers frequent
subsequences using Apriori-based and pattern-growth algorithms, vertical data
formats, and constraint-based mining.

Unit II: Unveiling Relationships - Association Rule Mining

Unit I provided the foundation for data mining. Now, we delve into the
fascinating world of association rule mining, where we discover hidden
connections between items in your data.

Mining Frequent Patterns - The Cornerstone of Associations

• The Core Concept: Frequent patterns occur together frequently within
your data. Think "bread -> butter" in grocery transactions.
• Algorithms: Techniques like Apriori identify frequently occurring
itemsets (groups of items) that form the basis for association rules.
Associations vs. Correlations - Understanding the Difference
• Associations: Relationships between items, indicating that the presence
of one item suggests the presence of another (e.g., buying bread is
associated with buying butter).
• Correlations: Statistical relationships showing the strength and direction
of a linear relationship between two variables. Correlation doesn't imply
causation (e.g., ice cream sales and temperature might be correlated, but
temperature doesn't cause ice cream sales).
Mining Methods - Tools for Uncovering Associations
 • Apriori Algorithm: A popular iterative approach to identify frequent
itemsets and generate association rules.
• FP-Growth Algorithm: An alternative to Apriori that uses a frequent
pattern tree for efficient mining, especially for large datasets.
Mining Various Kinds of Association Rules - Beyond the Basics
• Moving Beyond Simple Item-to-Item Associations: We can discover
more complex rules with constraints (e.g., products bought by customers
who also bought X) or multi-level associations (e.g., bread -> butter ->
jam).
Correlation Analysis - Quantifying the Strength of Relationships
• Pearson Correlation Coefficient: A measure of the strength and
direction of a linear relationship between two numeric variables. Values
range from -1 (perfect negative correlation) to +1 (perfect positive
correlation).
• Other Measures: Rank correlation and Spearman's rank correlation
coefficient are used for non-linear relationships.
Constraint-Based Association Mining - Focusing Your Search
• Specifying Constraints: Focus the mining process on specific patterns of
interest. This can involve setting minimum support or confidence
thresholds or including/excluding specific items in the rules.
Graph Pattern Mining & SPM (Optional) - Exploring Advanced Relationships
• Graph Pattern Mining: Discovers frequent patterns in graph-structured
data, useful for social network analysis or biological pathway analysis.
• Sequential Pattern Mining (SPM): Uncovers sequential patterns in
transactional data, like customer purchase sequences (e.g., milk -> bread -
> eggs).

By understanding association rule mining, you can leverage the power of

relationships within your data to gain valuable insights into customer behavior,
market trends, and more.
Unit-3: Classification: Classification and Prediction – Basic concepts–
Decision tree induction–Bayesian classification, Rule–based classification,
Lazy learner.

Classification: Classification and Prediction – Basic

concepts–Decision tree induction–Bayesian
classification, Rule–based classification, Lazy learner
• Classification and Prediction: Classification involves finding a model that
describes data classes or concepts to predict the class of objects with
unknown labels. Prediction, on the other hand, is about finding numerical
outputs based on training data.
• Basic Concepts: Classification is the process of categorizing new
observations into classes based on training data. It involves building a
model or classifier from the training dataset, which can be a decision
tree, mathematical formula, or neural network. Prediction, on the other
hand, involves finding numerical outputs based on training data without
class labels.
• Decision Tree Induction: Decision tree induction is a method for building
decision trees from data. It involves recursively partitioning the data
based on attribute values to create a tree-like structure for
classification.
• Bayesian Classification: Bayesian classification is a probabilistic approach
that uses Bayes' theorem to predict the class of an object based on the
features observed. It calculates the probability of each class given the
input data and selects the class with the highest probability.
• Rule-based Classification: Rule-based classification involves creating
rules that determine the class of an object based on its attributes.
These rules are derived from the training data and can be used to
classify new, unlabeled data.
• Lazy Learner: Lazy learning is a type of learning where the model is not
built during the training phase but instead waits until a query is made. It
involves storing the training data and making predictions based on
similarity to stored instances.

In summary, UNIT - 3 covers the fundamental concepts of classification and

prediction in data mining, including decision tree induction, Bayesian
classification, rule-based classification, and lazy learning. These techniques are
essential for building models to classify data into predefined categories or
predict numerical outputs based on training data.

Unit 3: Unveiling Categories - Classification and Prediction

Unit 2 explored how to find associations between items. Now, we delve into Unit
3, where we tackle classification and prediction, equipping you with techniques
to categorize data points and even forecast future outcomes.

Classification and Prediction - Unveiling the Unknown

• Classification: Assigning data points to predefined categories (e.g.,
classifying emails as spam or not spam).
• Prediction: Forecasting future outcomes based on historical data (e.g.,
predicting customer churn or stock prices).
Basic Concepts - Building Blocks of Classification
• Supervised Learning: Classification algorithms learn from labeled data
where each data point has a known category.
• Feature Selection: Choosing the most relevant features (attributes)
from the data for effective classification.
• Evaluation Metrics: Techniques like accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-
score to assess the performance of a classifier.
Decision Tree Induction - A Tree-mendous Approach
• Concept: Decision trees are flowchart-like structures where internal
nodes represent tests on features, and branches represent the outcome
of those tests. Leaves represent the final classification.
• Example: A decision tree for classifying loan applications might ask
questions about income, credit score, and debt-to-income ratio, ultimately
classifying the loan as approved or rejected.
Bayesian Classification - Leveraging Probabilities
• Foundation: Based on Bayes' Theorem, a statistical method for reasoning
with probabilities.
• Approach: Calculates the probability of a data point belonging to a
particular class based on its features and prior probabilities of each
class.
Rule-Based Classification - Defining the Rules of the Game
• Concept: Uses a set of pre-defined rules that specify conditions for
assigning data points to categories.
• Example: A rule-based system for classifying emails might include rules
like "if the email contains the word 'urgent' and has an attachment, then
classify as important."
Lazy Learners - A Different Approach to Classification
• Concept: Unlike eager learners (e.g., decision trees) that process all data
points upfront, lazy learners delay processing data points until
classification is needed.
• Example: K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) is a popular lazy learner that
classifies a data point based on the majority vote of its K nearest
neighbors in the training data.

By mastering these classification and prediction techniques, you can unlock the
power to categorize data points, forecast future trends, and make informed
decisions in various domains.

Unit-4: Clustering and Applications: Cluster analysis–Types of Data in

Cluster Analysis–Categorization of Major Clustering Methods– Partitioning
Methods, Hierarchical Methods– Density–Based Methods, Grid–Based
Methods, Outlier Analysis.

Cluster analysis
• Cluster analysis is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that
objects in the same group (called a cluster) are more similar to each
other than to those in other groups (clusters).
• The goal of cluster analysis is to identify natural groupings of data from a
large data set to produce a concise representation of a system's
behavior.

Types of Data in Cluster Analysis

 • Cluster analysis can be applied to various types of data, including:
• Numerical data (e.g., measurements, scores)
• Categorical data (e.g., labels, categories)
• Binary data (e.g., true/false, 0/1)
• Ordinal data (e.g., rankings, ratings)
• Interval data (e.g., dates, times)
• Ratio data (e.g., percentages, ratios)

Categorization of Major Clustering Methods

The major clustering methods can be categorized as follows:
1. Partitioning Methods:
• Divide the data into k partitions, where each partition represents a
cluster
• Examples: K-means, K-medoids
2. Hierarchical Methods:
• Create a hierarchy of clusters, where clusters are merged or split
based on a proximity measure
• Examples: Agglomerative clustering, Divisive clustering
3. Density-Based Methods:
• Identify clusters based on the density of data points in the
feature space
• Examples: DBSCAN, OPTICS
4. Grid-Based Methods:
• Quantize the feature space into a finite number of cells and
perform clustering on the grid
• Examples: STING, CLIQUE
5. Model-Based Methods:
• Assume that the data is generated by a mixture of probability
distributions and find the best fit model
• Examples: EM algorithm, Gaussian Mixture Models
6. Constraint-Based Methods:
 • Perform clustering by incorporating user-specified or application-
specific constraints
• Examples: Constrained K-means, Constrained Agglomerative
Clustering

Partitioning Methods
• Partitioning methods divide the data into k partitions, where each
partition represents a cluster.
• The most popular partitioning method is K-means clustering, which aims
to minimize the sum of squared distances between data points and their
assigned cluster centroids.
• Other partitioning methods include K-medoids, which uses medoids
(representative objects) instead of centroids, and CLARANS, which is a
randomized search algorithm.

Hierarchical Methods
• Hierarchical methods create a hierarchy of clusters, where clusters are
merged or split based on a proximity measure.
• Agglomerative clustering starts with each data point as a separate
cluster and iteratively merges the closest clusters until a stopping
criterion is met.
• Divisive clustering starts with all data points in one cluster and iteratively
splits clusters until a stopping criterion is met.

Density-Based Methods
• Density-based methods identify clusters based on the density of data
points in the feature space.
• DBSCAN is a popular density-based algorithm that groups together data
points that are close to each other based on density, and marks as
outliers the data points that lie alone in low-density regions.
• OPTICS is an extension of DBSCAN that produces a cluster ordering for
variable-density datasets.

Grid-Based Methods
 • Grid-based methods quantize the feature space into a finite number of
cells and perform clustering on the grid.
• STING (Statistical Information Grid) divides the data space into
rectangular cells at multiple levels and calculates statistical information
for each cell.
• CLIQUE (Clustering In QUEst) is a subspace clustering algorithm that
finds dense units in subspaces of the data space.

Outlier Analysis
• Outlier analysis is the task of identifying data points that are
significantly different from the rest of the data.
• Outliers can be detected using distance-based methods (e.g., k-nearest
neighbors), density-based methods (e.g., DBSCAN), or model-based
methods (e.g., Gaussian Mixture Models).
• Outlier detection is useful for fraud detection, intrusion detection, and
anomaly detection in various domains.
In summary, UNIT - IV covers the different types of clustering methods,
including partitioning, hierarchical, density-based, grid-based, and model-based
methods, as well as their applications in various domains. The notes also discuss
outlier analysis and its importance in data mining.

Unit 4: Unveiling Groups - Cluster Analysis and Applications

Unit 3 focused on classifying data points into predefined categories. Now, we

enter Unit 4, where we explore cluster analysis, a powerful technique for
grouping data points based on similarities.

Cluster Analysis - Birds of a Feather...

• Concept: Groups data points into clusters such that data points within a
cluster are more similar to each other than those in different clusters.
• Applications: Customer segmentation, market research, anomaly
detection, image segmentation (grouping pixels with similar colors).
Types of Data in Cluster Analysis - One Size Doesn't Always Fit All
• Numeric Data: Numbers (e.g., customer age, income).
• Categorical Data: Non-numeric labels (e.g., customer state, product
category).
• Textual Data: Free-form text (e.g., documents, social media posts).
 o May require specific techniques for measuring similarity (e.g., TF-
IDF).
Categorization of Major Clustering Methods - A Buffet of Choices
• Choosing the Right Method: The best method depends on the data type,
desired outcome, and computational resources.
Partitioning Methods - Dividing and Conquering
• Concept: Divide the data points into a fixed number of clusters. Popular
methods include:
o K-Means Clustering: A simple and efficient method that
iteratively assigns data points to the nearest cluster centroid
(mean) and recomputes the centroids until convergence (a stable
state is reached).
Hierarchical Methods - A Top-Down or Bottom-Up Approach
• Concept: Build a hierarchy of clusters, either in a top-down (divisive)
fashion by splitting clusters or a bottom-up (agglomerative) fashion by
merging similar clusters.
• Example: Hierarchical clustering can be used to create a product
hierarchy based on customer purchase patterns.
Density-Based Methods - Finding Clusters Based on Density
• Concept: Identify clusters as regions of high data point density,
separated by regions of low density. Useful for datasets with clusters of
irregular shapes.
• Example: Density-based clustering can be used to identify anomalies in
sensor data that deviate significantly from the norm.
Grid-Based Methods - Imposing a Grid Structure
• Concept: Divide the data space into a grid and count the number of data
points in each cell. Clusters are identified as areas with high
concentrations of data points.
• Example: Grid-based clustering can be used to analyze customer
demographics in a specific geographic region.
Outlier Analysis - Identifying the Odd Ones Out
• Concept: Identify data points that deviate significantly from the
majority of the data. Outliers can be interesting or indicate errors.
 • Techniques: Statistical methods (e.g., z-scores) or distance-based
measures can be used to identify outliers.

By understanding these clustering techniques, you can effectively group data

points based on inherent similarities, unlocking valuable insights for various
applications.

Unit-5: Advanced Concepts: Basic concepts in Mining data streams–

Mining Time–series data––Mining sequence patterns in Transactional
databases– Mining Object– Spatial– Multimedia–Text and Web data – Spatial
Data mining– Multimedia Data mining–Text Mining– Mining the World Wide
Web.

Data Stream Mining:

Process of extracting knowledge structures from continuous, rapid data records
Examples:
Computer network traffic, phone conversations, ATM transactions, web
searches, sensor data
Challenges:
Partially and delayed labeled data, recovery from concept drifts, temporal
dependencies
Goal:
Predict the class or value of new instances in the data stream based on
previous instances
Techniques:
Machine learning methods, incremental learning, online learning
Important Field:
Subfield of data mining, machine learning, and knowledge discovery

Mining Data Streams

• Data streams are continuous, high-speed, time-varying data sequences.
Examples include sensor data, network traffic, and stock tickers.
• Challenges in mining data streams include handling concept drift,
processing data in real-time, and working with limited memory and
computational resources.
 • Some popular algorithms for mining data streams include Frequent
Pattern Mining (FPM), clustering, decision trees, and neural networks.

Mining Time-series Data

• Time-series data consists of sequences of values or events obtained
over repeated measurements of time. Examples include stock prices,
weather data, and sensor readings.
• Techniques for mining time-series data include similarity search, motif
discovery, anomaly detection, and prediction.

Mining Sequence Patterns in Transactional Databases

• Sequential pattern mining discovers frequent subsequences in a sequence
database. It has applications in customer behavior analysis, web click-
stream analysis, and bioinformatics.
• Algorithms for sequential pattern mining include Apriori-based methods,
pattern-growth methods, and vertical data format methods.

Mining Object, Spatial, Multimedia, Text and Web

Data
• Object data consists of complex objects with attributes and
relationships. Mining object data involves techniques like graph mining and
relational learning.
• Spatial data consists of objects with spatial attributes like location and
shape. Spatial data mining involves techniques like spatial clustering and
spatial classification.
• Multimedia data consists of images, audio, and video. Multimedia data
mining involves techniques like content-based retrieval and concept
detection.
• Text data consists of unstructured text. Text mining involves techniques
like sentiment analysis, topic modeling, and information extraction.
• Web data consists of web pages, hyperlinks, and user interactions. Web
mining involves techniques like web page ranking, web usage mining, and
web structure mining.

Real-Time Analytics Platform (RTAP) Applications

 • RTAP enables real-time analysis of data streams for applications like
fraud detection, network monitoring, and targeted advertising.
• Case studies of RTAP applications include real-time sentiment analysis on
social media and stock market predictions based on news and tweets.
In summary, UNIT - 5 covers advanced concepts in data mining, including mining
data streams, time-series data, sequence patterns, and various types of
complex data like objects, spatial data, multimedia, text, and web data. It also
discusses real-time analytics platforms and their applications in domains like
sentiment analysis and stock market prediction.

Unit 5: Unveiling the Secrets Beyond - Advanced Data Mining Concepts

Unit 1 to 4 provided a foundation for core data mining techniques. Now, Unit V
delves into advanced concepts that explore specialized data types and domains.

Basic Concepts in Mining Data Streams - Capturing the Flow

• Data Streams: Continuously generated data streams require real-time or
near-real-time processing due to their massive volume and velocity.
• Challenges: Traditional data mining algorithms may not be suitable for
handling the continuous nature of data streams.
• Examples: Sensor data, financial transactions, social media feeds.
Mining Time-Series Data - Unveiling Trends Over Time
• Time-Series Data: Data points collected at regular intervals over time
(e.g., stock prices, temperature readings).
• Goals: Identify trends, seasonality, and patterns within time-series data
for forecasting and anomaly detection.
• Techniques: ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average) models,
exponential smoothing.
Mining Sequence Patterns in Transactional Databases - Understanding
Sequential Relationships
• Concept: Discover frequent sequences of events or items within
transactional data (e.g., customer purchase sequences).
• Example: Identifying product sequences frequently bought together can
inform product placement strategies.
• Techniques: Sequential pattern mining algorithms like PrefixSpan or GSP
(Generalized Sequential Patterns).
Mining Object, Spatial, Multimedia, Text, and Web Data - A Multifaceted
Approach

Data mining extends beyond traditional numerical data. Here's a glimpse into
specialized techniques for various data types:

• Spatial Data Mining: Extracts knowledge from data with spatial

components (e.g., geographic location data).
• Example: Identifying clusters of high-crime areas or analyzing traffic
patterns.
• Multimedia Data Mining: Discovers patterns and trends from multimedia
data like images, videos, and audio.
o Techniques involve feature extraction to convert multimedia data
into a format suitable for mining.
• Text Mining: Uncovers hidden knowledge from textual data like
documents, emails, and social media posts.
o Techniques involve natural language processing (NLP) to understand
the meaning and relationships within text data.
• Mining the World Wide Web: Extracts knowledge from the vast amount
of data available on the web.
o Techniques involve web crawling, information extraction, and link
analysis to navigate and analyze web content.

Remember, this unit provides a high-level overview of these advanced concepts.

Further exploration of specific techniques is recommended for in-depth
understanding.

By venturing into these advanced areas, you can unlock the potential of diverse
data sources, leading to richer insights and groundbreaking discoveries.