FARM MAN AGEMENT AND PRODUCTION ECONOMICS

THEORY

S.No. Topic

Farm management - Meaning – Definitions of Farm Management – Scope of Farm

Management – Relationship with other science
Economic principles applied to the organization of farm business – principles of
variable proportions – Determination of optimum input and optimum output

Minimum loss principle ( cost Principle) – Principle of Factor substitution – principle

of product substitution

Law of Equi-marginal returns – Opportunity cost principle – Principle of

Comparative advantage – Time comparison principle

Type of farming – Specialization, Diversification, Mixed farming, Dry farming and

Ranching – Systems of farming -co-operative farming, Capitalistic farming,
collective farming, State farming and Peasant farming

Farm planning – Meaning – Need for farm planning – Types of Farm plans –
simple farm plan and whole farm plan – characteristics of a good farm plan – basic
steps in farm planning

Farm budgeting – meaning – types of farm budgets – Enterprise budgeting –

Partial budgeting and whole farm budgeting. Linear programming – Meaning-
Assumptions – Advantages and limitations

Distinction between risk and uncertainty – sources of risk and uncertainty –

production and technical risks – Price or marketing risk – Financial risk – methods
of reducing risk

Agricultural Production Economics – Definitions – Nature – Scope and subject

matter of Agricultural Production Economics – Objectives of Production
Economics – Basic Production Problems

Law of Returns – Law of constant returns – law of increasing returns – law of

decreasing returns.
Factor – product relationship – Law of Diminishing returns – Three stages of
production function – Characteristics – Elasticity of Production

Factor – Factor relationship – Isoquants and their characteristics – MRTS – Types

of factor substitution

Iso – cost lines – Characteristics – Methods of Determining Least-cost combination

of resources – Expansion path – Isoclines – Ridge lines

Product – product relationship – product possibility curves – Marginal rate of

product substitution – Types of enterprise relationships – Joint products -
Complementary - Supplementary – Competitive and Antagonistic products

Iso – revenue line and characteristics – Methods of determining optimum

combination of products – Expansion path – Ridge lines

Resource productivity – Returns to scale

 FARM MANAGEMENT
Meaning
Farm Management comprises of two words i.e. Farm and Management.
Farm means a piece of land where crops and livestock enterprises are taken
up under common management and has specific boundaries.
Farm is a socio economic unit which not only provides income to a farmer
but also a source of happiness to him and his family. It is also a decision making
unit where the farmer has many alternatives for his resources in the production of
crops and livestock enterprises and their disposal. Hence, the farms are the micro
units of vital importance which represents centre of dynamic decision making in
regard to guiding the farm resources in the production process.
The welfare of a nation depends upon happenings in the organisation in each
farm unit. It is clear that agricultural production of a country is the sum of the
contributions of the individual farm units and the development of agriculture means
the development of millions of individual farms.
Management is the art of getting work done out of others working in a group.
Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in
which individuals working together in groups accomplish selected aims.
Management is the key ingredient. The manager makes or breaks a business.
Management takes on a new dimension and importance in agriculture which is
mechanised, uses many technological innovations, and operates with large amounts
of borrowed capital.
The prosperity of any country depends upon the prosperity of farmers, which
in turn depends upon the rational allocation of resources among various uses and
adoption improved technology. Human race depends more on farm products for
their existence than anything else since food, clothing – the prime necessaries are
products of farming industry. Even for industrial prosperity, farming industry forms
the basic infrastructure. Thus the study farm management has got prime importance
in any economy particularly on agrarian economy.
DEFINITIONS OF FARM MANAGEMENT.
1. The art of managing a Farm successfully, as measured by the test of
profitableness is called farm management. (L.C. Gray)
2. Farm management is defined as the science of organisation and management
of farm enterprises for the purpose of securing the maximum continuous
profits. (G.F. Warren)
3. Farm management may be defined as the science that deals with the
organisation and operation of the farm in the context of efficiency and
continuous profits. (Efferson)
4. Farm management is defined as the study of business phase of farming.
5. Farm management is a branch of agricultural economics which deals with
wealth earning and wealth spending activities of a farmer, in relation to the
organisation and operation of the individual farm unit for securing the
maximum possible net income. (Bradford and Johnson)
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NATURE OF FARM MANAGEMENT.

Farm management deals with the business principles of farming from the
point of view of an individual farm. Its field of study is limited to the individual
farm as a unit and it is interested in maximum possible returns to the individual
farmer. It applies the local knowledge as well as scientific finding to the individual
farm business.
Farm management in short be called as a science of choice or decision
making.

SCOPE OF FARM MANAGEMENT.

Farm Management is generally considered to be MICROECONOMIC in its

scope. It deals with the allocation of resources at the level of individual farm. The
primary concern of the farm management is the farm as a unit.
Farm Management deals with decisions that affect the profitability of farm
business. Farm Management seeks to help the farmer in deciding the problems like
what to produce, buy or sell, how to produce, buy or sell and how much to produce
etc. It covers all aspects of farming which have bearing on the economic efficiency
of farm.

RELATIONSHIP OF FARM MANAGEMENT WITH OTHER SCIENCES.

The Farm Management integrates and synthesises diverse piece of

information from physical and biological sciences of agriculture.
The physical and biological sciences like Agronomy, animal husbandry, soil
science, horticulture, plant breeding, agricultural engineering provide input-output
relationships in their respective areas in physical terms i.e. they define production
possibilities within which various choices can be made. Such information is helpful
to the farm management in dealing with the problems of production efficiency.
Farm Management as a subject matter is the application of business
principles n farming from the point view of an individual farmer. It is a specialised
branch of wider field of economics. The tools and techniques for farm management
are supplied by general economic theory. The law of variable proportion, principle
of factor substitution, principle of product substitution are all instances of tools of
economic theory used in farm management analysis.
Statistics is another science that has been used extensively by the agricultural
economist. This science is helpful in providing methods and procedures by which data
regarding specific farm problems can be collected, analysed and evaluated.
Psychology provides information of human motivations and attitudes,
attitude towards risks depends on the psychological aspects of decision maker.
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Sometimes philosophy and religion forbid the farmers to grow certain

enterprises, though they are highly profitable. For example, islam prohibits muslim
farmer to take up piggery while Hinduism prohibits beef production.
The various pieces of legislation and actions of government affect the
production decisions of the farmer such as ceiling on land, support prices, food
zones etc.
The physical sciences specify what can be produced; economics specify how
resources should be used, while sociology, psychology, political sciences etc.
specify the limitations which are placed on choice, through laws, customs etc.

ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES APPLIED TO FARM MANAGEMENT.

The outpouring of new technological information is making the farm

problems increasingly challenging and providing attractive opportunities for
maximising profits. Hence, the application of economic principles to farming is
essential for the successful management of the farm business.
Some of the economic principles that help in rational farm management
decisions are:
1. Law of variable proportions or Law of diminishing returns: It solves the
problems of how much to produce ? It guides in the determination of optimum
input to use and optimum output to produce.. It explains the one of the basic
production relationships viz., factor-product relationship
2. Cost Principle: It explains how losses can be minimized during the periods
of price adversity.
3. Principle of factor substitution: It solves the problem of „how to produce?. It
guides in the determination of least cost combinations of resources. It
explains facot-factor relationship.
4. Principle of product substitution: It solves the problem of „what to
produce?‟. It guides in the determination of optimum combination of
enterprises (products). It explains Product-product relationship.
5. Principle of equi-marginal returns: It guides in the allocation of resources
under conditions of scarcity.
6. Time comparison principle: It guides in making investment decisions.
7. Principle of comparative advantage: It explains regional specialisation in the
production of commodities.
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LAW OF VARIABLE PROPORTIONS OR LAW OF DIMINISHING

RETURNS
OR
PRINCIPLE OF ADDED COSTS AND ADDED RETURNS

The law of diminishing returns is a basic natural law affecting many phases
of management of a farm business. The factor product relationship or the amount of
resources that should be used (optimum input) and consequently the amount of
product that should be produced (optimum output) is directly related to the
operation of law of diminishing returns.
This law derives its name from the fact that as successive units of variable
resource are used in combination with a collection of fixed resources, the resulting
addition to the total product will become successively smaller.
Most Profitable level of production
(a) How much input to use (Optimum input to use).The determination of
optimum input to use.
An important use of information derived from a production function is in
determining how much of the variable input to use. Given a goal of maximizing
profit, the farmer must select from all possible input levels, the one which will
result in the greatest profit.
To determine the optimum input to use, we apply two marginal concepts viz:
Marginal Value Product and Marginal Factor Cost.
Marginal Value Product (MVP): It is the additional income received from
using an additional unit of input. It is calculated by using the following
equation. Marginal Value Product = ? Total Value Product/? input level
MVP = ? Y. Py/? X
? Change
Y =Output
Py = Price/unit
Marginal Input Cost (MIC) or Marginal Factor Cost (MFC): It is defined as
the additional cost associated with the use of an additional unit of input.
Marginal Factor Cost = ? Total Input Cost/? Input
level MFC or MIC = ? X Px/? X = ? X .Px / ? x = Px
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X input Quantity
Px Price per unit of input
MFC is constant and equal to the price per unit of input. This
conclusion holds provided the input price does not change with the quantity of
input purchased.
Decision Rules:
1. If MVP is greater than MIC, additional profit can be made by using more input.
2. If MVP is less than MIC, more profit can be made by using less input.
3. Profit maximizing or optimum input level is at the point where MVP=MFC
(? Y/? X) . Py = Px ? Y/? X = Px/ P y

Determination of optimum input level – Example Input

price: Rs.12 per unit, Output price: Rs.2 per unit
Input level TPP MPP TVP (Rs) MVP (Rs) MIC (Rs)
X
0 0 -- -- -- --
1 12 12 24 24 12
2 30 18 60 36 12
3 44 14 88 28 12
4 54 10 108 20 12
5 62 8 124 16 12
6 68 6 136 12 12
7 72 4 144 8 12
8 74 2 148 4 12
9 72 -2 144 -4 12
10 68 -4 136 -8 12
The first few lines in the above table show that MVP to be greater than MIC. In other words,
the additional income received from using additional unit of input exceeds the additional
cost of that input. Therefore additional profit is being made. These relationships exist until
the input level reaches 6 units. At this input level MVP=MFC. Using more than 6 units of
input causes MVP to be less than MFC which causes profit to decline as more input is used.
The profit maximizing input level is therefore, at the point where MVP=MIC. Note that the
profit maximizing point is not at the input level which maximizes TVP. Profit is maximized
at a lower input level.
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(b) How much output to produce (Optimum output): The determination of

optimum output to produce.
To answer this question, requires the introduction of two new marginal
concepts.
Marginal Revenue (MR): It is defined as the additional income from selling
additional unit of output. It is calculated from the following equation
Marginal Revenue = Change in total revenue / Change in Total Physical
Product MR= ?TR/?Y
MR=? Yy / ? Y
= Py
Y = output
Py = price per unit of output
Total Revenue is same as Total Value Product. MR is constant and equal to the
price per unit of output.
Marginal Cost (MC): It is defined as the additional cost incurred from producing an
additional unit of output. It is computed from the following equation.
Marginal Cost=Change in Total Cost / Change in Total Physical
Product MC=? X. P x/? Y
X= Quantity of input
Px= Price per unit of input.
Decision Rules:
1. If Marginal Revenue is greater than Marginal Cost, additional profit can be made
by producing more output.
2. If Marginal Revenue is less than Marginal Cost, more profits can be made by
producing less output.
3. The profit maximizing output level is at the point where
MR=MC ? Y. Py/? Y=? X. Px/? Y
Py = ? X. Px/? Y

? Y. Py = ? X. Px
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Determination of Optimum output to produce: (An example)

Input Price Rs.2 per unit output price Rs.2 per unit
Input level TPP MPP TR (Rs) MR (Rs) MC (Rs)
X
0 0 - - -- --
1 12 12 24 2.00 1.00
2 30 18 60 2.00 0.67
3 44 14 88 2.00 0.86
4 54 10 108 2.00 1.20
5 62 8 124 2.00 1.50
6 68 6 136 2.00 2.00
7 72 4 144 2.00 3.00
8 74 2 148 2.00 6.00
9 72 -2 144 2.00
10 68 -4 136 2.00
In the above table, it is clear that MR is greater than MC up to the output level
62 units. At the output level of 68 units, the MR=MC. This is the optimum output to
be produced. If we produce 72 units of output, additional revenue from additional
output is less than the additional cost of producing output. Therefore profit decline.
COST PRINCIPLE OR MINIMUM LOSS PRINCIPLE:
This principle guides the producers in the minimization of losses.
Costs are divided into fixed and variable costs. Variable costs are
important in determining whether to produce or not . Fixed costs are important in
making decisions on different practices and different amounts of production.
In the short run, the gross returns or total revenue m ust cover the total
variable costs (TVC). To state in a different way that selling price must cover the
avera ge variable cost (AVC) to continue production in the short run.
In the long run, gross returns or total revenue must cover the total cost (TC).
Alternatively stated, that the selling price must cover cost of production (ATC).
In the short run MR = MC point may be at a level of output which may
involve loss instead of profit. The situation of operating the farms when the price of
product (MR) is less than average total cost (ATC) but greater than average variable
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cost (AVC) is common in agriculture. This explains why the farmers keep farming
even when they run into losses.
PROFIT OR DECISION RULES
SHORT RUN:
1. If expected selling price is greater than minimum average total cost (ATC),
profit is expected and is maximized by producing where MR = MC.
2. If expected selling price is less than minimum average total cost (ATC) but
greater than minimum average variable cost (AVC), a loss is expected but the
loss is less than TFC and is minimized by producing where MR = MC.
3. If expected selling price is less than minimum average variable cost (AVC), a
loss is expected but can be minimized by not producing anything. The loss will
be equal to TFC.

LONG RUN
1. Production should continue in the long run when the expected selling price is
greater than minimum average total cost (ATC).
2. Expected selling price which is less than minimum ATC result in continuous
losses. In this case, the fixed assets should be sold and money invested in more
profitable alternative.
The following example illustrates the operation of cost principle.
Cos t of cultivation of groundnut (Rs./ha)
Total variable costs 2621.00
Total fixed costs 707.00
Total costs 3328.00
Yield (quintals) 9
Average variable cost 291
Average total cost 369.77
Selling price 18430
Gross returns 3870
Net returns 542
Suppose the price declines to 350
Gross returns 3150
Net income -178
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If the price of groundnut per quintal is Rs. 430, for 9 quintals, farmer gets Rs. 3870
as gross income. The net income is Rs. 542 (Rs. 3870 – Rs. 3328). Suppose the
price decline to Rs. 350 per quintal the net income would be Rs. 178 (Rs 3150 – Rs.
3870). Now the question is whether the farmer should continue the production or
not at the price of Rs. 350.
If the farmer does not operate the farm the loss would be Rs. 707 in the form of
fixed costs. If farm is operated, gross income of Rs. 3150 exceeds the variable costs
(Rs. 2621) by Rs. 529. By this amount the loss of Rs. 707 on account of fixed cots
gets reduced i.e., (Rs. 707-529 = Rs. 178). The loss would be reduced to Rs. 178 by
operating the farm.

PRINCIPLE OF FACTOR SUBSTITUTION

This economic principle explains one of the basic production relationships viz.,
factor factor relationship. It guides in the determination of least cost combination of
resources. It helps in making a manage ment decision of how to produce.
Substitution of one input for another input occurs frequently in agricultural
production. For example, one grain can be substituted for another or forage for grain
in livestock ration, chemical fertilizers can be substitute d for organic manure,
machinery for labour, herbicides for mechanical cultivation etc. the farmer must select that
combination of inputs or practices which will produce a given amount of output for the least
cost. In other words, the problem is to find the least cost combination of resources, as this
will maximize profit from producing a given amount of output.
The principle of factor substitution says that go on adding a resource so long
as the cost of resource being added is less than the saving in cost from the resource
being replaced. Thus if input X is being increased, and input X is being replaced,
1 2

increase the use of X1 so long as.

Decrease in cost > Increase in cost
Quantity saved of the replaced input ? Quantity increased of the added input
>
price per unit of replaced input ? Price per unit of added input
Quantity saved of
Price per unit of added input
the replaced input
i.e., > Price per unit of replaced input
Quantity increasedof
the added input

i.e. MRS > PR

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Profit or Decision rules:

1. If Marginal rate of substitution (MRS) is greater than price ratio (PR) costs can
be reduced by using more of added resource.
? X2 P X1 increase the use of X
 1
? X1 P X2
or
?X 1> PX2increase the use of X 2
? X2 PX1
2. If Marginal rate of substitution (MRS ) is less than price ratio (PR), costs can be
reduced by using more replaced resource.
? X2 P X1 increase the use of X
 2
? X1 P X2
or
? X 1 < Px 2 increase the use oif X1
? X 2 Px1

3. Least cots combination of resources is at the point where MRS=PR

?X2 PX1

?X1 PX2
or
?X1 = PX2
? X2 PX1

Example : Selecting a Least-cost feed ratio :

(Price of grain: Rs.4.40 per kg , price of hay : Rs.3/- per kg)
Grains in Hay in kgs
X1 X2 MRS PR
kgs (X1 ) (X2)
825 1350 - - - -
900 1130 75 220 2.93 1.47
975 935 75 195 2.60 1.47
1050 770 75 165 2.20 1.47
1125 630 75 140 1.87 1.47
1200 520 75 110 1.47 1.47
1275 440 75 80 1.07 1.47
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The least cost combination of grain and hay is a combination of 1200 kgs of grain
and 520 kgs of hay, as the substitution ratio equals price ratio.

LAW OF EQUI-MARGINAL RETURNS

Most of the farmers have limited resources. They have limited land, limited
capital, limited irrigation facilities. Even the labour which is considered to be
surplus becomes scarce during peak sowing, weeding and harvesting periods. Under
such resource limitations, farmers must decide how a limited amount of input should
be allocated or divided among many possible uses or alternatives. For example
farmer has to decide on the best allocation of fertilizer between different crops and
feed between different types of livestock. In addition, limited capital must be
allocated to the purchase of fertilizers, seeds, feed etc.
The equi-marginal principle provides guidelines for the rational allocation of
scare resources.The principle says that returns from the limited resources will be
maximum if each unit of the resource should be used where it brings greatest
marginal returns.
Statement of the law
A limited input should be allocated among alternative uses in such a way that
the marginal value products of the last unit are equal in all its uses.
Example
A farmer has Rs. 3000/- and wants to grow sugarcane, wheat and cotton. What
amount of money be spent on each enterprise to get maximum profits.

Amount (Rs.) Marginal value products from

Sugarcane (Rs.) Wheat (Rs.) Cotton (Rs.)
500 800 (1) 750 (2) 650 (6)
1000 700 (3) 650 (5) 560
1500 650 (4) 580 550
2000 640 540 510
2500 630 520 505
3000 605 510 500

The first Rs. 500 would be allocated to sugarcane as it has the highest MVP. The second
dose of Rs. 500 would be allocated to wheat as its MVP is higher than that of
 16

cotton and sugarcane. In the same way, third would be used on sugarcane, the
fourth, fifth and the sixth on sugarcane, wheat and cotton respectively. Each
successive Rs of 500 is allocated to the crop which has highest marginal value
product remaining after previous allocation.
The final allocation is Rs. 1500 on sugarcane, Rs 1000 on wheat and Rs. 500 on
cotton.

OPPORTUNITY COST
It is an economic concept closely related to the equi-marginal principle. Opportunity
cost recognizes the fact that every input has an alternative use. Once an input is
committed to a particular use, it is no longer available for any other alternative use
and the income from the alternative must be foregone.
Definition : Opportunity cost is defined as the returns that are sacrificed from the
next best alternative.
Opportunity cost is also known as real cost or alternate cost.

PRINCIPLE OF PRODUCT SUBSTITUTION

This principle explains the product-product relationship and helps in deciding the
optimum combination of products. Also, this economic principle guides in making a
decision of what to produce.
It is economical to substitute one product for another product, if the decrease in
returns from the product being replaced is less than the increase in returns from the
product being added.
The principle of product substitution says that we should go on increasing the output of a
product so long as decrease in the returns from the product being replaced is less
than the increase in the returns from the product being added.
Decrease in returns < Increase in returns
Quantity of output reduced of replaced Quantity of output increased of
product ? price per unit of replaced < added product ? Price per unit of
product added product
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Quantity of output reduced Price per unit of

of replaced product added product
i.e. <
Quantity of output increased Price per unit of
of added product replaced product
i.e. MRS < PR
Profit rules or Decision rules:
1. If MRS < PR, profits can be increased by producing more of added product.
? Y2 P Y1
MRSY1, Y2 =  increase Y1
? Y1 P Y2
? Y1 P Y2
MRS Y2, Y1 =  increase Y2
?Y PY
2 1

2. MRS > PR, profits can be increased by producing more of replaced product.
? Y2 P Y1
MRSY1, Y2 =  increase Y2
? Y1 P Y2

MRSY2, Y1 = ? Y1  P Y2 increase Y1
?Y PY
2 1

3. Optimum combination of products is when MRS= PR

? Y2 P Y1

? Y1 P Y2
or
? Y1 P Y2

? Y2 P Y1
Example : Selecting an optimum combination of enterprises
(PY1 = Rs. 280 per quintal; P Y2 = Rs. 400 per quintal)
Increase
Y1 Y2 Decrease
Y1  Y2 MRS PR in
(Quintals) (Quintals) Y1, Y2 in returns
returns
0 60 - - - - - -
20 56 20 4 0.20 0.70 1600 5600
40 50 20 6 0.30 0.70 2400 5600
60 41 20 9 0.45 0.70 3600 5600
80 30 20 11 0.55 0.70 4400 5600
100 16 20 14 0.70 0.70 5600 5600
120 0 20 16 0.80 0.70 6400 5600
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It can be seen from the above table that upto fifth combination MRS is less than PR.
But at the sixth combination MRS is equal to PR. Therefore, the sixth combination
which produces 100 qunitals of corn Y1 and 16 qunitals of wheat Y2 is the optimum
or profit maximizing combination.
PRINCIPLE OF COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE
Certain crops can be grown in only limited areas because of specific soil and
climatic requirements. However, even those crops and livestock enterprises which
can be raised over a broad geographical area often have production concentrated in
one region. Farmers in Punjab specialize in wheat production while farmers in
Andhra Pradesh specialize in paddy production. These crops can be grown in each
state. Regional speciation in the production of agricultural commodities and other
products can be explained by the principle of comparative advantage.
While crops and livestock products can be raised over a broad geographical
area, the yields, produc tion costs, profits may be different in each area. It is relative
yields, costs, and profits which are important for the application of this principle.
Statement of the principle
Individuals or regions will tend to specialize in the production of those
commodities for which their resources give them a relative or comparative advantage.
The following example illustrates the principle of comparative advantages.
Region A Region B
Crop account per acre
Wheat Groundnut Wheat Groundnut
Total Revenue (Rs.) 500 225 225 220
Total Cost (Rs.) 425 200 210 200
Net Returns (Rs.) 75 25 15 20
Returns per rupee 1.18 1.13 1.07 1.10

Region A has greater absolute advantage in growing both wheat and

groundnut than Region B because the net incomes per acre are Rs. 75 and Rs. 25
respectively which are higher than the net incomes from wheat and groundnut in
Region B. Farmers of Region A can make more profits by growing both the crops.
But they want to make the greatest profits and this can be done by having the largest
possible acreage under wheat alone as it is the question of relative advantage.
Similarly farmers of Region B have relative advantage in growing groundnut.
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TIME COMPARISON PRINCIPLE

Many farm decisions involve time. For example, a farmer has to decide
between a cereal crop which would be harvested after about four months or an
orchard which would start giving returns after three years. Further, a farmer has to
decide whether to purchase new farm machinery with 10 years of life or a second
hand one which may have only five years of life. Several other decisions involving
time and initial capital investment could be judiciously taken by compounding or
discounting.
Future value of a present sum:
The future value of money refers to the value of an investment at a specified
date in the future.
This concept assumes that investment will earn interest which is reinvested
at the end of each time period to also earn interest. The procedure for determining
the future value of present sum is called compounding .
The formula to find the future value of present sum in given
n
below FV = P (1 + i)
where,
FV = Future value;
P = the present sum,
i = the interest rate,
n = the number of years.
Example:
Assume you have invested Rs. 100 in a savings account which earns 8% interest
compounded annually and would like to know the future value of this investment
after 3 years.
Value at Value at the
Rate of Interest
Year beginning of end of the
interest earne d (Rs.)
year (Rs.) year (Rs.)
1 100 8% 8.00 108.00
2 108 8% 8.64 116.64
3 116.64 8% 9.33 125.97
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In the example, a present sum of Rs. 100 has a future value of Rs. 125.97 when
invested at 8 per cent interest for 3 years. Interest is compounded when accumulated
interest also earns future interest.
Present value of future sum:
Present value of future sum refers to the current value of sum of money to be
received in the future. The procedure to find the present value of future sum is
called discounting .
The discounting is done because sum to be received in the future is worth somewhat
less now because of the time difference assuming positive interest rate.
The equation for finding the present value of future sum is
P
PV =
(1 i)n
where,
PV = Present value
P = Future sum
i = rate of interest
n = number of years.
Example:
Find the present value of Rs. 1000/- to be received in 5 years using an interest rate
of 8%.
1000
PV = = 681
(1 0.08)5
A payment of Rs. 1000 to be received in 5 years has a present value of Rs. 681 at
8% interest.

TYPES OF FARMING
On the basis of similarity in crop production and livestock rearing we have
TYPES OF FARMING.
The type of farming refers to the nature and degree of product or combination of

products being produced and the methods and practices used for them

I. SPECIALIZED FARMING:
When a farm is organized for the production of a single commodity and this
commodity is the only source of income, the farm is said to be specialized.
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The major enterprise contributes more than 50% of the total farm income.
Examples are sugarcane farm, cotton farm, poultry farm, dairy farm, wheat farm etc.
Advantages:
1. Better use of land
2. Better marketing
3. Better management
4. Improved skill and efficiency
5. Economical to maintain costly machinery
6. Less requirement of labour
Disadvantages:
1. Greater risk
2. Soil fertility cannot be maintained
3. By products cannot be fully utilized
4. Income is received once or twice in a year
5. Knowledge about enterprises becomes limited.
II. DIVERSIFIED FARMING:
When a farm is organized to produce several products (commodities), each of which
is itself a direct source of income, the farm business is said to be diversified. In
diversified farming, no single enterprise contributes 50% of the total farms income.
Advantages:
1. Better utilization of productive resources.
2. Reduction of risks .
3. Regular and quicker returns.
4. Proper utilization of by products.
Disadvantages:
1. Supervision will become difficult.
2. Marketing problems.
3. Not economical to maintain costly machinery.
III. MIXED FARMING:
It is the type of farming under which crop production is combined with
livestock raising. At least 10 per cent of gross income must be contributed by the
livestock. T his contribution in any case should not exceed 49%.
Advantages:
1. Maintenance of soil fertility
2. Proper use of by products
 22

3. Facilitates intensive cultivation

4. Higher income
5. Milch cattle provide drought animals.
6. Employment of labour.
IV. RANCHING:
The practice of grazing animals on public lands is called ranching. Ranch land is
not used for raising of crops. Ranching is followed in Australia, America and Tibet
V. A. Dry farming: Cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall of less than 750
mm. Crop failure is most common due to prolonged dry spells during crop period.
B. Dry land farming : Cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall of more than
750mm. Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop production.
C. Rain fed farming : Cultivation of crops in regions with an annual rain fall of
more than 1150 mm.
FACTORS AFFECTING TYPES OF FARMING:
Physical factors : Climate, soils, topography.
Economic factors:
1. Marketing cost
2. Relative profitability of enterprises
3. Availability of capital
4. Availability of labour
5. Land values
6. Cycles over and under production
7. Compe tetion between enterprises
8. Personal likes and dislikes of farmer

SYSTEMS OF FARMING.
The system of farming refers to the organizational set up under which farm
is being run. It involves questions like who is the owner of land, whether resources
are used jointly or individually and who makes managerial decisions.
Systems of farming, which are based on different organisational set up, may
be classified into five broad categories:
a) Capitalistic farming
b) State farming
c) Collective farming
 23

d) Peasant farming
e) Co-operative farming
1. Capitalist or Estate farming: In what is known as capitalistic or estate or
corporate farming, land is held in large areas by private capitalists, corporations or
syndicates. Capital is supplied by one or a few persons or by many, in which case it
runs like a joint stock company. In such farms, the unit of organization is large and
the work is carried on with hired labour; latest technical know how is used and
extensive use of machines are made and hence they are efficient. Examples of this
type of farming are frequently found in USA, Australia, Canada and few in India
too. Such types of farms have been organized in the states of Bombay, Madras and
Mysore for the plantation of coffee, tea and rubber and sugarcane.
The advantages of such farming are good supervision, strong organizational
set up, sufficient resources etc. Their weaknesses are that it creates socio-economic
imbalances and the actual cultivator is not the owner of the farm.
2.State farming: State farming as the name indicates is managed by the
government. Here land is owned by the state. The operation and management is
done by government officials. The state performs the function of risk bearing and
decision making, which cultivation is carried on with help of hired labour. All the
labourers are hired on daily or monthly basis and they have no right in deciding the
farm policy. Such farms are not very paying because of lack of incentive. There is
no dearth of resources at such farms but s ometimes it so happens that they are not
available in time and utilized fully.
3.Collective farming: The name, collective farming implies the collective
management of land where in large number of families or villagers residing in the
same village pool the ir resources eg: land, livestock, and machinery. A general
body having the highest power is formed which manages the farms. The resources
do not belong to any family or farmer but to the society or collective.
Collective farming has come into much promine nce and has been adopted
by some countries notably by the Russia and China. The worst thing with this
system is that the individual has no voice. Farming is done generally on large scale
and thereby is mostly mechanized. This system is not prevalent in our country.
4.Peasant farming: This system of farming refers to the type of organization in
which an individual cultivator is the owner, manager and organizer of the farm. He
makes decision and plans for his farm depending upon his resources which are
 24

genera lly meager in comparison to other systems of farming. The biggest advantage
of this system is that the farmers himself is the owner and therefore free to take all
types of decisions. A general weakness of this system is that the resources with the
individual are less. Another difficulty is because of the law of inheritance. An
individual holding goes on reducing as all the members in the family have equal
rights in that land.
5.Cooporative farming: Co-operative farming is a voluntary organization in which
small farmers and landless labourers increase their income by pooling land
resources. According to planning commission, Co-operative farming necessarily
implies pooling of land and joint management. The working group on co-operative
farming defines a co-operative farming society as “a voluntary association of
cultivators for better utilization of resources including manpower and pooled land
and in which majority of the members participate in farm operation with a view to
increasing agricultural production, employment and income.”
A co-operative farming society makes one of the following four forms
I. Co-operative better farming
II. C-operative Joint farming
III. Co-operative tenant farming
IV. Co-operative collective farming
Co-operative better farming: These societies are based on individual ownership and
individual operation. Farmers who have small holdings and limited resources join to form a
society for some specific purpose eg: use of machinery, sale of product. They are organized
with a view to introduce improved methods of agriculture. Each farmer pays for the services
which he receives from the society. The earnings of the member from piece of land, after
deducting the expenses, his profit.
Co-operative Joint farming: Under this type, the right of individual ownership is
recognized and respected but the small owners pool their land for the purpose of
joint cultivation. The ownership is individual but the operations are collective. The
management is democratic and is elected by the members of the society. Each
member working on the farm receives daily wages for his daily work and profit is
distributed according to his share in land.
Co-operative tenant farming: Such societies are usually organized by landless farmers. In
this system usually land belongs to the society. The land is divided into plots which are
leased out for cultivation to individual members. The society arranges
 25

for agricultural requirements eg: credit, seeds, manures, marketing of the produce
etc. Each member is responsible to the society for the payments of rent on his plot.
He is at liberty to dispose of his produce in such a manner as he likes.
Co-operative collective farming: Both ownership and operations under this system
are collective. Members do not have any right on land and they can not take far
ming decisions independently but are guided by a supreme general body. It
undertakes joint cultivation for which all members pool their resources. Profit is
distributed according to the labour and capitals invested by the members.
Types of Operation
System of farming Type of ownership
ship
I Co-operative farming
a Coop. better farming Individual Individual
b Coop. joint farming Individual Collective
c Coop. tenant farming Collective Individual
d Coop. collective farming Collective Collective
II Collective farming Society/state Society/State
III Capitalistic farming Individual Individual
IV State farming State Paid Management
V Peasant farming Individual Individual

FARM PLANNING
A successful farm business is not a result of chance factor. Good weather and good
prices help but a profitable and growing business is the product of good planning. With
recent technological developments in agriculture, farming has become more complex
business and requires careful planning for successful organisation.
A farm plan is a programme of total farm activity of a farmer drawn up in
advance. A farm plan should show the enterprises to be taken up on the farm; the
practices to be followed in their production ,use of labour , investments to be made
and similar other details
Farm planning enables the farmer to achieve his objectives (Profit maximization or
cost minimization) in a more organized manner. It also helps in the analysis of existing
resources and their allocation for achieving higher resource use efficiency, farm income and
farm family welfare. Farm planning is an approach which
 26

introduces desirable changes in farm organization and operation and makes a farm
viable unit.
TYPE OF FARM PLANS
1. Simple farm planning: It is adopted either for a part of the land or for one
enterprise or to substitute one resource to another. This is very simple and easy to
implement. The process of change should always begin with these simple plans.
2. Complete or whole farm planning: This is the planning for the whole farm.
This planning is adopted when major changes are contemplated in the existing
organization of farm business.
Characteristics of Good farm plan
1. It is should be written.
2. It should be flexible..
3. It should provide for efficient use of resources.
4. Farm plan should have balanced combination of enterprises. Such combination
in turn ensures,
a. Production of food, cash and fodder crops.
b. Maintain soil fertility.
c. Increase in income.
d. Improve distribution of and use of labour, power and water requirement
throughout the year.
5. Avoid excessive risks.
6. Utilize farmer‟s knowledge and experience and take account of his likes and
dislikes.
7. Provide for efficient marketing.
8. Provision for borrowing, using and repayment of credit.
9. Provide for the use of latest technology.
FARM BUDGETING
Budgeting can be used to select the most profitable plan from among a number of
alternatives and to test the profitability of any proposed change in plan. It involves testing a
new plan before implementing it, to be sure that it will improve profit.
Farm budgeting is a method of estimating expected income, expenses and
profit for a farm business.
 27

Types of farm budgets

1. Enterprise budget
An enterprise is defined as a single crop or livestock commodity
being produced on the farm. An enterprise budget is an estimate of all income and
expenses associated with a specific enterprise and estimate of its profitability.
Enterprise budget can be developed for each actual and potential
enterprise in a farm plan such as paddy enterprise, wheat enterprise or a cow
enterprise. Each is developed on the basis of small common unit such as one acre or
one hectare for crops or one head for livestock. This permits easier comparison of
the profit for alternative and competing enterprises.
Enterprise budget can be organized and presented in three sections
income, variable costs and fixed costs.
The first step in developing an enterprise is to estimate the total
production and expected output price. The estimated yield should be an average
yield expected under normal weather conditions given the soil type and input levels
to be used. The output price should be the manager‟s best estimate of the average
price expected during the next year or next several years.
Variable costs are estimated by knowing the quantities of inputs to be
used (such as seed, fertilizer, labour, manures) and their prices.
The fixed costs in a crop enterprise budget are depreciation on
machinery, equipment, implements, livestock, farm building etc., rental value of
land, land revenue, interest on fixed capital.
Example: Enterprise budget for paddy production (one hectare)
I) INCOME
48 quintals @ Rs. 600 per quintal 28,800
II) VARIABLE COSTS
1. Human labour 9,000
a) Owned 3,000
b) Hired 6,000
2. Bullock labour 300
a) Owned 100
b) Hired 200
3. Tractor power 4,000
a) Owned 1,000
b) Hired 3,000
4. Seeds 1,200
5. F.Y.M. 1,800
6. Green leaf manures 700
7. Fertilizers 3,000
8. Plant protection chemicals 500
9. Irrigation charges 500
10. Interest on working capital 1,700
Total variable costs 22,700
 28

III) FIXED COSTS

1. Land revenue 12
2. Depreciation 900
3. Rent on owned land 3,500
4. Interest on fixed capital 450
Total fixed costs 4,862
Total costs 27,562
Gross margin (T.R. - T.V.C.) 6,100
Profit (T.R.-T.C.) 1,238

2. Partial budget
It is used to calculate the expected change in profit for a proposed change in
the the farm business. Partial budget is best adopted to anlysing relatively small
change in the whole farm plan.
Changes in the farm plan or organization adopted to analysis by use of
partial budget are of three types.
1. Enterprise substitution: This includes a complete or partial substitution of one
enterprise for another. For example, substitution of sunflower for groundnut.
2. Input substitution : Example : Machinery for labour, changing livestock rations,
owning a machine instead of hiring, increasing or decreasing fertilizers or
chemicals.
3 . Size or scale of operation: This includes changing in total size of the farm
business or in the size of the single enterprise, buying or renting of additional
land , expanding or decreasing an enterprise.
 29

Partial budget format

Proposed change
……………………………………………………………………………

Additional cost (Rs.) Additional income (Rs.)

Reduced income (Rs.) Reduced costs (Rs.)

A. Total of additional costs B. Total of additional

and reduced income ________________ income and reduced Costs_________

Net cha nge in profit (B -A)

1. Additional costs
A proposed change may cause additional costs because of a new or expanded
enterprise requiring the purchase of additional inputs.
2. Reduced income
Income may be reduced if the proposed cha nge would eliminate an enterprise,
reduce the size of an enterprise or cause a reduction in yield.
3. Additional income
A proposed change may cause an increase in total farm income if a new enterprise is
being added, if an enterprise is being expanded or if the change will cause yield
levels to increase.
4. Reduced costs
Costs may be reduced if the change results in elimination of an enterprise, or
reduction in size of an enterprise or some change in technology which decreases the
need for variable resources.
Partial budgeting is intermediate in scope between enterprise budgeting and
whole farm planning. A partial budget contains only those income and expense
items which will cha nge if the proposed modification in the farm plan is
implemented. Only the changes in income are included and not total values. The
final result is an estimate of the increase or decrease in profit.
3. Complete Budget or Whole farm budget
It is statement of expected income, expenses, and profit of the firm as a whole.
 30

4. Cash flow budget

It is summary of cash inflows and outflows for a business over a given time
period. Its primary purpose is to estimate the future borrowing needs and loan
repayment capacity of the farm business.
BASIC STEPS IN FARM PLANNING AND BUDGETING

I. RESOURCE INVENTORY:

The development of whole plan is directly dependent upon an accurate

inventory of available resources. The resources provide the means for production
and profit. The type and quality of resources available determine the inclusion of
enterprise in whole farm plan.
1) Land: Land resource should receive top priority when completing the
resource inventory. It is one of the fixed resources. The following are some
of the important items to be included in land inventory
a) Total number of acres available
b) Soil types ( slope, texture, depth)
c) Soil fertility levels.
d) Water supply or potential for developing an irrigation system.
e) Drainage problems and possible corrective measures.
f) Existing soil conservation practices
g) Existing and potential pest and weed problems which might
affect enterprise selection and crop yields.
h) Climatic factors including annual rainfall, growing seasons etc.
2) Buildings: Listing of all farm buildings along with their size, capacity and
potential uses. Livestock enterprises and crop storage may be severely limited in
both number and size of the build ings available.

3) Labour: Labour should be analyzed for both quantity and quality. Quantity can
be measured in man days of labour available from the farm operator (farmer),
family members and hired labour. Labour quality is more difficult to measure,
but any special s kills, training and experience should be noted.
4) Machinery: it is also a fixed resource. The number, size and capacity of the
available machinery should be included in the inventory.
5) Capital: The farmer‟s own capital and estimate of amount which can be
borrowed represent the capital available for developing whole farm plan.
6) Management: The assessment of the management resources should include not
only overall management ability but also special skills, training, strengths,
weaknesses of mana ger. Good management is reflected in higher yields and
more efficient use of resources.
 31

II. Identifying enterprises: Based on resource inventory, certain crop and livestock
enterprises will be feasible alternatives. Care should be taken to include all possible
enterprises to avoid missing enterprise with profit potential. Custom and tradition
should not be allowed to restrict the list of potential enterprises.
III. Estimation of co-e fficients : Each enterprise should be defined on small
unit such one acre or hectare for crops and one head for livestock. The resource
requirements per unit of each enterprise or the technical coefficients must be
estimated. The technical coefficients become very important in determining the
maximum size of enterprise and the final enterprise combination.
IV. Estimating gross margins :
A gross margin is estimated for a single unit of each enterprise. Gross margin is the
difference between total income and total variable costs. Calculation of gross margin
requires the farmer‟s best estimate of yields for each enterprise and expected prices for
the output. The calculation of total variable cost requires a list of each variable input
needed, the amount required and the price of each input.
V. Developing the whole farm plan:
All information necessa ry to organize a whole farm plan is now ready for
use. The systematic procedure to whole farm planning is identifying the most
limiting resource and selecting those enterprises with greatest gross margin per
unit of resource.
Gross Margin ____
Returns per unit of resource = Units of resources required

Land will generally be a limiting resource and it provides a good

starting point. At some point in the planning procedure, a resource other than
land may become more limiting and emphasis shifts to identifying enterprises
with greatest return or gross margin per unit of this resource.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Linear programming was developed by George B Dantzing (1947) during
second world war. It has been widely used to find the optimum resource allocation
and enterprise combination.
The word linear is used to describe the relationship among two or more
variables which are directly proportional. For example , doubling (or tripling) the
production of a product will exactly double (or triple) the profit and the required
resources, then it is linear relationship.
Programming implies planning of activities in a manner that achieves some optimal
result with restricted resources.

Definition of L.P.
 32

Linear programming is defined as the optimization (Minimization or maximization)

of a linear function subject to specific linear inequalities or equalities.

Max z cj xj
j=1
St

aij < bii=1to m

j=1

xj = 0
th
cj = Net income from j activity
th
xj = Level of j activity
th th
aij = Amount of i resource required for j activity
th
bi = Amount of i resource available.

Assumptions of Linear Programming

1. Linearity: It describes the relationship among two or more variables which are
directly proportional.
2. Additivity: Total input required is the sum of the resources used by each activity.
Total product is sum of the production from each activity.
3. Divisibility: Resources can be used in fractional amounts. Similarly, the output
can be produced in fractions.
4. Finiteness of activities and resource restrictions: There is limit to the number
of activities and resource constraints.
5. Non negativity: Resources and activities cannot take negative values. That means
the level of activities or resources cannot be less than zero.
6. Single value expectations: Resource supplies, input-output coefficients and
prices are known with certainty.
Advantages of L.P
1. Allocation problems are solved.
2. Provides possible and practical solutions..
3. Improves the quality of decisions.
 33

4. Highlights the constraints in the production.

5. Helps in optimum use of resources.
6. Provides information on marginal value products (shadow prices).
Limitations
1. Linearity
2. Considers only one objective for optimization.
3. Does not consider the effect of time and uncertainty
4. No guarantee of integer solutions
5. Single valued expectations.
Complete budgeting Partial budgeting
1. It is adopted when drastic changes 1. Adopted when minor changes are
in the existing organization are introduced on the farm.
contemplated
2. All the available alternatives are 2. Considers few or only two
considered alternatives
3. It is a method of estimating 3. It is used to calculate expected
expected income, expenses and change in profit for a proposed
profit for the farm as a whole minor modification

Farm budgeting Linear programming

1. Method of estimating expected 1. Optimization of linear function
income, expenses and profit for the subject to linear inequalities or
farm business equalities.
2. Non mathematical tool 2. Mathematical programming mode ls
3. It is a trial and error method 3. It offers a mechanical process of
calculations in the selection of
products
4. Computation become tedious and 4. Computations are easy. .
cumbersome.

RISK AND UNCERTAINTY

Farmers must make decisions on crops to be planted, seeding rates, fertilizer
levels and other input levels early in the cropping season. The crop yield obtained as
a result of these decisions will not be known with certainty for several months or
even several years in the case of perennial crops. Changes in weather, prices and
other factors between the time the decision is made and the final outcome is known
can make previously good decision very bad.
Because of time lag in agricultural production and our inability to predict the
future accurately, there are varying amounts of risk and uncertainty in all farm
 34

management decisions. If everything was known with certainty, decision would be

relatively easy. However, in the real world more successful manager are the ones
with the ability to make the best possible decisions, and courage to make them when
surrounded by risk and uncertainty.
Definition of risk and uncertainty
Risk is a situation where all possible outcomes are known for a given management
decision and the probability associated with each possible outcome is also known.
Risk refers to variability or outcomes which are measurable in an empirical or
quantitative manner. Risk is insurable.
Uncertainty exists when one or both of two situations exist for a management
decision. Either all possible outcomes are unknown, the probability of the outcomes
is unknown or nether the outcomes nor the probabilities are known. Uncertainty
refers to future events where the pa rameters of probability distribution (mean yield
or price, the variance, range or dispersion and the skew and kurtosis) cannot be
determined empirically. Uncertainty is not insurable.
Sources of risk and uncertainty
The most common sources of risk are.
1. Production risk: Crop and livestock yields are not with certainty before harvest or

final sale weather, diseases, insects, weeds are examples of factors which can not be
accurately predicted and cause yield variability.
Even if the same quantity and quality of inputs are used every year, these and other
factors will cause yield variations which cannot be predicted at the time most input decision
must be made. The yield variations are examples of production risk.
Input prices have tended to be less variable than output prices but still
represent another source of production risk. The cost of production per unit of
output depends on both costs and yield. Therefore , cost of production is highly
variable as both input prices and yield vary.
2. Technological risk: Another source of production risk is new technology. Will
the new technology perform as expected? Will it actually reduce costs and increase
yields? These questions must be answered before adopting new technology.
3. Price or marketing risk: Variability of output prices is another source of risk.
Commodity prices vary from year to year and may have substantial seasonal
variation within a year. Commodity prices change for number of reasons which are
beyond the control of individual farmer.
 35

4. Financial risk: Financial risk is incurred when money is borrowed to finance the
operation of farm business. There is some chance that future income will not be
sufficient to repay the debt. Changes may take place in the interest rates, scale of
finance, and ability of the business to generate income.
METHODS OF REDUCING RISK AND UNCERTAINTY
The various methods which can be used to reduce risk are discussed
hereunder.
1. Diversification: Production of two or more commodities on the farm may reduce
income variability if all prices and yields are not low or high at the same time.
2. Stable enterprises: Irrigation will provide more stable crop yields than dry land
farming. Production risk can be reduced by careful selection of the enterprises with
low yield variability. This is particularly important in areas of low rainfall and
unstable climate.
3. Crop and livestock insurance: For phenomena, which can be insured, possible
magnitude of loss is lessened through converting the chance of large loss into
certain cost.
4. Fle xibility: Diversification is mainly a method of preventing large losses. Flexibility is
a method of preventing the sacrifice of large gains. F lexibility allows for
changing plans as time passes, additional information is obtained and ability to
predict the future improves.
5. Spreading sales: Instead of selling the entire crop output at one time, farmers
prefer to sell part of the output at several times during the year. Spreading sales
avoids selling all the crop output at the lowest price of the year but also prevents
selling at the highest price.
6. Hedging: It is a technical procedure that involves trading in a commodity futures
contracts through a commodity broker.
7. Contract sales: Producers of some specialty crops like gherkins, vegetables often
sign a contract with a buyer or processor before planting season. A contract of this
type removes the price risk at planting time.
8. Minimum support price: The government purchases the farm commodity from
the farmers if the market price falls below the support price.
9. Net worth: It is the net worth of the business that provides the solvency, liquidity
and much of the available credit.
 36

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION ECONOMICS

 37

BASIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS USED IN AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTION ECONOMICSAND FARM MANAGEMENT
1. FARM : It means a piece of land where crops and livestock enterprises are taken
up under a common management and has specific boundaries.
2. AGRICULTURAL HOLDING: The area of the land for cultivation as a single
unit held by an individual or joint family or more than one farmer on joint basis.
The land may be owned, taken on lease or may be partly owned and partly rented.
3. OPERATIONAL HOLDING: It refers to the total land area held under single
management for the purpose of cultivation. It excludes any land leased to another
person.
4. UNITS OF ACCOUNTING: Application of inputs or measurement of output
relate to technical unit, plant or an economic unit.
a) TECHNICAL UNIT: Single, convenient unit in production for which technical
coefficients (input-output coefficients) are calculated. Examples are an acre, a
hectare, a cow etc.
b) PLANT: Generally refers to a group of technical units such as dairy enterprise or
say 15 acre farm.
c) FARM FIRM : Aggregation of resources for which costs and returns ar e worked
out as a whole. Farm-firm is also known as economic unit. Example: a farm holding.
5. RESOURCES AND RESOURCE SERVICES:
Resources Resource services
1. Any commodity or goods used by 1. A services is any act or
the firms in production performance that one party can
offer to another
2. Physical products (material) and 2.Neither material nor tangible.
tangible
3. Resources get consumed or 3.Only services are available which
physically enter the production are tra nsformed into products.
process so as to be transformed
into products.
4. Resources being physical 4.Services cannot be
products can be stored. stored(Perishable).
5. Ex: Seeds, manures, fertilizers, 5.Ex: Services of land, labour,
 38

plant protection chemicals, machinery, equipment, implements,

herbicides, irrigation water, feeds, livestock, farm buildings etc.,
veterinary medicines, fuel etc.,
Resources and resource services are called factors of production. They are
needed to produce any commodity.

6. FIXED RESOURCES:
a) The resources whose use remains the same regardless of the level of
production are called fixed resources.
b) Volume of output does not directly depend up on these resources. c)
Costs corresponding to these resources are known as fixed costs.
d) Fixed resources exist only in the short run and in the long run
they are zero
Example: land, machinery, farm buildings , equipment, implement, livestock
etc. ,

7. VARIABLE RESOURCES:
a) The resources whose use vary with the level of production are known
as variable resources.
b) Volume of output directly depends on these resources.
c) Costs corresponding to these resources are known as variable costs.
d) Variable resources exist both in the short run and in the long run.
Seeds, Fertilizers, Plant protection chemicals, FYM, feeds, medicines
etc., are examples of variable resources.
8.FLOW AND STOCK RESOURCES:
Flow Resources: There are some resources which should be used as and when they
are available. They cannot be stored or stocked for a future use. Services are
forthcoming like a flow. Examples are labour, Sunshine, land, farm buildings,
machinery, equipment etc.
Stock Resources: The resources which are not used in one period of production can
be stored for a later period. Examples are seeds, fertilizers, feeds, manures, plant
protection chemicals etc.
 39

Some factors of production are both flow and stock services. Whether
a service should be defined as flow or stock depends on the length of the time period
under consideration.
Examples are land, machinery, buildings etc.
A building lasts for 50 years provides a flow of services in each of the
individual years, still it provides a stock of services for 50 years period. Similarly a
tractor gives flow of services for each year, but a stock service over 10 years.

9. PRODUCTION: It is a process whereby some goods and services called inputs

are transformed into other goods called output is known as production.
(Or)
Production is a process of transformation of certain resources (inputs) into products.

10. PRODUCT: It is the result of the use of resources. Product is any good or
service that comes out of the production process.
11. TRANSFORMATION PERIOD (OR) PRODUCTION PERIOD:
The time required for a resource to be completely transformed into a
product is referred to as transformation period.
The production period varies with the type of resource. Some resources are
transformed into products in short time period (seeds, feed, fuel, fertilizers, manures, plant
protection chemicals etc.,). Others over a long period of time (machines, buildings etc) and
still others are never completely transformed (land). The variations in production period
give rise to complexities in decision making.
12. CHOICE INDICATOR:
It is a yardstick, or an index or a criterion indicating which of two or
more alternatives is optimum or will maximize a given end.
The choice indicator as a yardstick by which selection between
alternatives is made, indicates the relative value which is attached to one as
compared to another alternative.
Choice indicators can be applied to problems in physical production
as well as to those of profit maximization and consumer welfare. Choice indicators
in economics are almost always given as ratios: examples are substitution ratios and
price ratios.
 40

13. SHORT RUN AND LONG RUN: These are time concepts but they are not
defined as fixed periods of calendar time.
The short run is that period of time during which one or more of the
production inputs is fixed in amount and cannot be changed.
The level of production can be varied to a little extent by intensive use
of fixed resources or by using more amounts of variable resources. During the short
period, demand and supply change a little but not much.
For example, at the beginning of the planting season, it may be too late
to increase or decrease the amount of crop land owned or rented. The current crop
production cycle would be a short run period as land is fixed in amount.
The long run is defined as that period of time during which the quantity
of all necessary productive inputs can be changed.
The level of production can be varied to a greater extent by varying all
the factors of production. Demand and supply conditions have plenty of time to
adjust themselves.
In the long run, a business can expand by acquiring additional inputs
or go out of existence by selling all inputs.
Depending on which input(s) are fixed, the short run may be
anywhere from several days to several years. One year or one crop or livestock
production cycle are common short run periods in agriculture.
The distinction between fixed and variable resources holds true only in
the short run. In the long run, all resources are variable .

14. COST OF CULTIVATION : It refers to the cost of various inputs and input
services used for raising a particular crop. It includes all the operations from land
preparation to threshing, cleaning and taking the product from the field to home.
Cost of cultivation always refers to unit area (acre or hectare).
15. COST OF PRODUCTION: It refers to the cost of various inputs and input
services used to produce a unit quantity of output of a commodity.
16. ECONOMY: It is a system which provides people with means to work and earn a
living. Economy consists of all sources of employment and production such as
firms, factories, workshops, mines etc.
17. ECONOMIC SYSTEM: It is an institutional framework within which society
carries the economic activities.
 41

18. EFFICIENCY: it means absence of waste or using the economy‟s resources as

effectively as possible to satisfy people‟s needs and desir es.
19. TECHNIOCAL EFFICIENCY: It refers to the amount of output with given
amounts of factors of production. In other words, technical efficiency is the ratio of
output to input (Average physical product).
Technical efficiency = Y/X, Where Y= Total output and X= Quantity of input
20. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY: It is a ratio of value of output to value of
input. Economic efficiency = Y.Py / X.Px
21. OPTIMUM : It is the ideal condition in which the costs are minimum and
profits are maximum.
22. MONOPERIOD RESOURCES: The resources which can be used in a single
production period are called mono period resources. Seeds, feeds, fuel, fertilizers,
manures, plant protection chemicals are some of the examples of mono period
resources.
23. POLYPERIOD RESOURCES: The resources which provide their services for
several years in production are known as poly period resources. Examples are land,
livestock, machinery, equipment, buildings etc.
24. ENTERPRISE: It is defined as a single crop or livestock commodity being
produced on a farm.
25. FARM ENTERPRENEUR: He is the person who thinks of, organizes and
operates the business and is responsible for the losses and gains from the business.
He is a pioneer in organizing and developing the farm firm.
26. FARM MANAGER: He is a person who manages or supervises the business
according to instructions of the entrepreneur. He is hired to manage the business. He
is not generally responsible for any gain or loss to the business.
27. PRODUCTION FUNCTION (PF):
It is the systematic way of showing the relationship between different
amounts of inputs that can be used to produce a product and the corresponding
output of that product.
Definition : Production function is a technical and mathematical relationship
describing the manner and the extent to which a particular product depends upon the
quantities of inputs or input services, used at a given level of technology and in a
given period of time.
In short, the relationship between input and output is termed as production function.
 42

Types of Production Functions:

1. Continuous Production Function: This is obtained for those inputs which can
be split up in to smaller units. All those inputs which are measurable give raise to
continuous production function.
Example: Fertilizers, Seeds, Plant protection chemicals, Manures, Feeds etc
2. Discontinuous or discrete Production Function: Such a function is obtained for
resources or work units which are used or done in whole numbers. In other words,
production function is discrete, where inputs cannot be broken in to smaller units.
Alternately stated, discrete production is obtained for those inputs which are counted.
Example: Ploughing, Weeding, Irrigation etc.,

3. Short Run Production Function (SRPF): Production Function in which some

inputs or resources are fixed.
Y= f ( X1 / X2, X2,…………..,Xn)
Eg: Law of Diminishing returns or Law of variable proportions

4. Long Run Production Function (LRPF): Production function which permits

variation in all factors of production.
Y = f( (X1, X2 , X3, ……………., Xn)
Eg: Returns to scale.
The production function can be expressed in three ways:
1. Tabular form : Production function can be expressed in the form of a table, where
one column represents input, while another indicates the corresponding total output
of the product. The two columns constitute production function.

Input (x) Output (y)

0 2
10 5
20 11
30 18
40 25
 43

2. Graphical Form : The production function can also be illustrated in the form of
a graph; where horizontal axis (X axis) represents input and the vertical axis (Y
axis) represents the output.

3. Algebraic Form: Algebraically production function can be expressed

as Y= f(X)
Where , Y represents dependent variable, output (yield of crop, livestock enterprise)
and X represents independent variable, input (seeds, fertilizers, manure etc),
f = denotes function of
When more number of inputs is involved in the production of a
product, the equation is represented as
Y=f(X1 , X2 , X3, X4 ……… Xn)
In case of single variable production function, only one variable is
allowed to vary, keeping others constant, can be expressed as
Y=f(X1 | X2 , X3 ………. Xn)
The vertical bar is used for separating the variable input from the fixed
input. The equation denotes that the output Y depends upon the variable input X1,
with all other inputs held constant.
If more than one variable input is varied and few others are held
constant, the relationship can be expressed as
Y=f(X1 , X2 | X3, X4 …….. Xn)
Production function can also be expressed as Y=a+bX
_____________ Linear production function
 44

Where Y is dependent variable,

a is constant,
b is coefficient,
X is independent variable
The constant a represents the amount of product obtained from the fixed factor if
none of the variable input is applied, while b is the amount of output produced for
each unit of X (input) applied.
b
Y = aX
Is an exponential equation and is known as Cobb-Douglas production function.
2
Y = a+bX±cX is quadratic equation

Production function depends on the following factors:

1. Quantities of inputs used
2. Technical knowledge of the producer.
3. Possible processes in production
4. Size of the firm
5. Nature of firm‟s organization
6. Relative prices of factors of production.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
ECONOMICS Meaning, Nature and Scope

Agricultural production economics is a field of specialization within

the subject of agric ultural economics. It is concerned with the choice of production
patterns and resource use in order to maximize the objective function of farmers,
their families, the society or the nation within a framework of limited resources.
Production economics is concerned with two broad categories of
decisions in the production process.
1. How to organize resources in order to maximize the production of a single
commodity? i.e, Choice making among various alternative ways of using resources.
2. What combination of different commodities to produce?
 45

Goals of Production Economics

1. To provide guidance to individual farmers in using their resources most efficiently.
2. To facilitate the most efficient use of resources from the stand point of economy
Definition: Agricultural Production Economics is an applied field of
science wherein the principles of choice are applied to the use of capital, labour,
land and management resources in the farming industry.
Subject matter of Agricultural Production Economics
With a view to optimizing the use of farm resources on an individual
farm level and to rationalize the use of resources from a national angle, production
economics involves analysis of relationships and principles of rational decisions.
Production Economics is concerned with productivity i.e use and
incomes from productive inputs (land, labour, capital and management). As a study
of resource productivity, it deals with
a) Resource use efficiency
b) Resource combination
c) Resource allocation
d) Resource management
e) Resource administration
The subject matter of Production Economics includes such topics as
methods or techniques of production, combination of enterprises, size of the farm, return to
scale, leasing, production possibilities, farming efficiency, soil conservation, use of credit
and capital, risks and uncertainty which effect decision making.
Any agricultural problem that falls under the scope of resource
allocation and marginal productivity analysis is the subject matter of the production
economics. The production economist is therefore, concerned with any phenomena
which have a bearing on economic efficiency in the use of agricultural resources.
Objectives
The main objectives of Agricultural production economics are:
1. To determine and define the conditions which provide for optimum use
of resources.
2. To determine the extent to which the existing use of resources deviates from
the optimum use.
3. To analyze the factors or forces which are responsible for the existing
production pattern and resource use and
 46

4. To explain means and methods for changing existing use of resources to

the optimum level.

Basic production problems

The producer or manager is faced with five basic production
problems on which they have to make decisions.
1. WHAT TO PRODUCE?
This problem involves selecting the combination of crops and livestock
enterprises to be produced. Should the business produce only crops, only livestock
or some combination? Which crop or rotations? Which livestock? The farmer must
select from among many alternatives that combination which will maximize profits.
2. HOW TO PRODUCE?
Many agricultural products can be produced in a number of ways. Crops can
be produced with more capital and less labour (capital intensive technology) or
more labour and less capital (labour intensive technology). A manager must select
the appropriate combination of inputs which will minimize the cost of producing a
given quantity of some commodity.
3. HOW MUCH TO PRODUCE?
The level of production and profit will be determined by the input levels
selected. A manager is faced with the problems of how much fertilizer and irrigation
water to use, seed rates, feeding levels, labour and machinery use etc.
4. WHEN TO BUY AND SELL?
The seasonality of supply conditions in factor and product market results in
variations in the prices. The manager must consider these things in determining
when to sell or buy.
5. WHERE TO BUY AND SELL?
Farmers generally purchase a number of inputs for a production. Attempt is
always to purchase at the least cost. The producer must decide whether to sell in the
village market or in the regulated market or other alternative market.
 47

Laws of Returns
Production is the result of cooperative working of various factors of
production viz ., land , labour, capital and management. The laws of returns operate
on account of variability in the proportion in which the various factors can be
combined for the purpose of production.
In the production of a commodity where one input is varied,
keeping all inputs fixed, the nature of relationship between single variable input and
output can be either of the one or a combination of the following:
1. Law of increasing returns
2. Law of constant returns
3. Law of decreasing returns
Law of increasing returns (Increasing marginal productivity)
Each successive unit of variable input when applied to the fixed factor
adds more and more to the total product than the previous unit .
The marginal physical product is increasing and hence known as law of
increasing returns.
Increasing returns means lower costs per unit of output. Thus the law of
increasin g returns signifies that cost per unit of additional product falls as more and
more output is produced. Hence law of increasing returns also called law of
decreasing costs.
Input(X) Output(Y) ?X ?Y ? Y/?X=MPP
1 2 1 2 2/1=2
2 6 1 4 4/1=4
3 12 1 6 6/1=6
4 20 1 8 8/1=8
5 30 1 10 10/1=10
As shown in the above table, the first unit of variable input adds 2
units, while the second add 4 units to the total output, the third add 6 units and so on
 48

When production function is graphed with output on vertical axis and input on
horizontal axis, the resulting curve is convex to the origin.

Algebraically increasing returns is expressed as

? 1Y/? 1X < ? 2Y/? 2X < ………… < ? nY/? nX
Law of constant returns (constant marginal productivity)
Each additional unit of variable input when applied to the fixed
factors produces an equal amount of additional product. The amount of product
(TPP) increases by the same magnitude for each additional unit of input.
The marginal physical product remains the same for each additional unit of
input and hence it is called law of constant marginal productivity.
Regardless of the scale of production, the cost of additional unit of
product remains the same and hence it is also called law of constant costs.
Linear production function or constant returns is not a common relationship in
agriculture.

Input(X) Output(Y) ?X ?Y ? Y/?X=MPP

1 10 1 10 10/1=10
2 20 1 10 10/1=10
3 30 1 10 10/1=10
4 40 1 10 10/1=10
5 50 1 10 10/1=10
As shown in the table, each unit of input adds 10 units. The shape of the total
product curve is linear. Linear production indicates constant returns.
 49

Algebraically constant returns is expressed as

? 1Y/? 1X = ? 2Y/? 2X = ………… = ? nY/? nX

Law of Decreasing returns (Decreasing marginal productivity)

Each additional unit of variable input when applied to the fixed

factors adds less and less to the total product than the previous unit.
The marginal physical product is declining , hence the name law of decreasing
returns.
Input X Input Y ?X ?Y ? Y/?X=MPP
1 25 1 25 25/1=25
2 45 1 20 20/1=20
3 60 1 15 15/1=15
4 70 1 10 10/1=10
5 75 1 5 5/1=5

As shown in the table, the first unit of input adds 25 units, the second adds 20 units
and the third adds 15 units and so on.
The production function which exhibits diminishing returns is concave to the origin.
Law of diminishing returns is very common in agriculture.
 50

The cost of each additional unit of output increases as we produce more and more
output and hence it is called Law of increasing costs.
Algebraically , it can be expressed as
? 1Y/? 1X > ? 2Y/? 2X > ………… > ? nY/? nX

BASIC PRODUCTION RELATIONSHIPS

Production of farm commodities involves numerous relationships
between resources and products. Some of these relationships are simple, others are
complex. Knowledge of these relationships is essential as they provide the tools by
means of which the problems of production or resource use can be analyzed.

Major production relationships are:

1. Factor -Product relationship
2. Factor -Factor relationship
3. Product-Product relationship

Factor-Product Relationship

1. It deals with the production efficiency of resources.

2. The rate at which the factors are transformed in to products is the study of
this relationship.
3. Optimization of production is the goal of this relationship.
4. This relationship is known as input-output relationship by farm
management specialists and fertilizer responsive curve by agronomists.
5. Factor -Product relationship guides the producer in making the decision „how
much to produce?‟.
 51

6. This relationship helps the producer in the determination of optimum input to use
and optimum output to produce.
7. Price ratio is the choice indicator.
8. This relationship is explained by the law of diminishing returns.
9. Algebraically, this relationship can be expressed as
Y = f (X1 / X 2 ,X3………………Xn)
Law of Diminishing Returns

The factor - product relationship or the amount of a resource that

should be used and consequently the amount of output that should be produced is
directly related to the operation of law of diminishing returns.
This law explains how the amount of product obtained changes as the amount
of one of the resources is varied while the amount of other resources is fixed.
It is also known as law of variable proportions or principle of added
costs and added returns.

Definitions:
 An increase in capital and labour applied in the cultivation of land causes in
general less than proportionate increase in the amount of produce raised,
unless it happens to coincide with the improvements in the arts of agriculture
(Marshall)

 If the quantity of one of productive service is increased by equal increments,
with the quantity of other resource services held constant, the increments to
total product may increase at first but will decrease after certain point
(Heady)
Limitations:
The law of diminishing returns fails to operate under certain situations.
They are called limitations of the law.
1. Improved methods of cultivation
2. New soils and
3. Insufficient capital.
 52

Why the law of diminishing returns operates in agriculture:

The law of diminishing returns is applicable not only to agriculture
but also manufacturing industries. This law is as universal as the law of life itself. If
the industry is expanded too muc h and becomes unwidely, supervision will become
difficult and the costs will go up. The law of diminishing returns, therefore set in.
The only difference is that in agriculture it sets in earlier and in industry much later.
There are several reasons for the operation of law of diminishing returns in
agriculture. The reasons are:
1. Excessive dependence on weather.
2. Limited scope for mechanization.
3. Limited scope for division of labour.
4. Agriculture uses larger proportion of land resource.
5. Soil gets exhausted due to continuous cultivation.
6. Cultivation is extended to inferior lands.

Concepts of production:

1. Total product (TP): Amount of product which results from different quantities of
variable input. Total product indicates the technical efficiency of fixed resources.
2. Average Product (AP): It is the ratio of total product to the quantity of input used
in producing that quantity of product.
AP= Y/X where Y is total product and X is total input.
Average product indicates the technical efficiency of variable in put.
3. Marginal product (MP): Additional quantity of output resulting from an
additional unit of
input.
MP= Change in total product / Change in input level (?Y/? X)
4. Total Physical Product (TPP): Total product expressed in terms of physical units
like kgs, quintals, tonnes is termed as total physical product.
Similarly if AP and MP are expressed in terms of physical units, they
are called Average Physical Product (APP) and Marginal Physical Product (MPP).
5. Total Value Product (TVP): Expression of TPP in terms of monetary value, it is
called Total Value Product.
TVP = TPP ? Py or Y? Py
 53

6. Average Value Product (AVP): The expression of Average Physical Product in

money value.
AVP = APP ? Py
7. Marginal Value Product (MVP): When MPP is expressed in terms of money value,

it is called Marginal Value Product.

MVP = MPP ? Py or (?Y/?X) ? Py ? Y. P y / ? X
Relationship between Total Product (TP) and Marginal Product (MP):
 When Total Product is increasing, the Marginal Product is positive.

 When Total Product remains constant, the Marginal Product is zero.

 When Total Product decreases, Marginal Product is negative.

 As long as Marginal Product increases, the Total Product increases at
increases at increasing rate.

 When the Marginal Product remains constant, the Total Product increases at
constant rate.
 When the Marginal Product declines, the Total Product increases at
decreasing rate.

 When Marginal Product is zero, the Total Product is maximum.

 When marginal product is less than zero (negative), total physical product
declines at increasing rate.
Relationship between Marginal and Average Product
 When Marginal Product is more than Average Product, Average Product
increases.

 When Marginal Product is equal with the Average Product, Average Product
is Maximum.
 When Marginal Product is less than Average Product, Average Product
decreases.
 54

Relationship between TP, AP and MP

Input Total Product Average Marginal Remarks
(X) (Y) Product Product
AP=Y/X (? Y/? X)
0 0 - -
1 2 2 2 Increasing
2 5 2.5 3 returns
3 9 3.0 4
4 14 3.5 5 Constant
5 19 3.8 5 returns
6 23 3.83 4
7 26 3.71 3
8 28 3.5 2 Decreasing
9 29 3.22 1 returns
10 29 2.9 0
11 28 2.54 -1
12 26 2.16 -2 Negative
returns

Elasticity of Production (Ep):

It is a measure of responsiveness of output to changes in input. The
elasticity of production refers to the proportionate change in output as compared to
proportionate cha nge in input.
Ep = Percentage change in output/Percentage change in input.
Ep = ((change in output / initial output)*100) / ((change in input / initial input)*100)
i.e., ((? Y/Y)*100)/((? X/X)*100)
= (? Y/Y) / (? X/X) = (? Y/Y)*(X/? X) = (? Y/? X) *
(X/Y) By rearranging we have,
(? Y/?X) * (X/Y) = (?Y/? X)/(Y/X) = MPP/APP
The elasticity of production is the ratio of Marginal Physical Product to Average
Physical Product.
Ep = 1 ,Constant Returns. Ep is one at MPP = APP (At the end of I stage)
Ep > 1 , Increasing Returns (I Stage of Production)
Ep < 1 , Diminishing returns (II Stage of Production)
 55

Ep = 0 , When MPP is zero or TPP is Maximum (At the end of II stage)

Ep < 0, Negative Returns (III Stage of Production)
Three Regions of Production Function
The production function showing total, average and marginal product can be
divided into three regions, stages or zones in such a manner that one can locate the
zone of production functio n in which the production decisions are rational.
The three sages are shown in the figure.

First Stage or I Region or Zone 1:

 The first stage of production starts from the origin i.e., zero input level.

 In this zone, Marginal Physical Product is more than Average Physical Product and
hence Average Physical Product increases through out this zone.

 Marginal Physical Product (MPP) is increasing up to the point of inflection
and then declines.

 Since the marginal Physical Product increases up to the point of inflection,
the Total Physical Product (TPP) increases at increasing rate.

 After the point of inflection, the Total Physical Product increases at
decreasing rate.

 Elasticity of production is greater than unity up to maximum Average
Physical Product (APP).
 Elasticity of production is one at the end of the zone (MPP = APP).

 In this zone fixed resources are in abundant quantity relative to variable
resources.

 The technical efficiency of variable resource is increasing throughout this
zone as indicated by A verage Physical Product.

 The technical efficiency of fixed resource is also increasing as reflected by
the increasing Total Physical Product.
 Marginal Value Product is more than Marginal Factor Cost (MVP >MFC)

 Marginal revenue is more than marginal cost (MR > MC )

 This is irrational or sub-optimal zone of production.

 This zone ends at the point where MPP=APP or where APP is Maximum.
 56

Second Stage or II Region or Zone II:

1. The second zone starts from where the technical efficiency of variable
resource is maximum i.e., APP is Maximum (MPP=APP)
2. In this zone Marginal Physical Product is less than Average Physical
Product. Therefore, the APP decreases throughout this zone.
3. Marginal Physical Product is decreasing throughout this zone.
4. As the MPP declines, the Total Physical Product increases but at decreasing
rate.
5. Elasticity of production is less than one between maximum APP and
maximum TPP.
6. Elasticity of production is zero at the end of this zone.
7. In this zone variable resource is more relative to fixed factors.
8. The technical efficiency of variable resource is declining as indicated by
declining APP.
9. The technical efficiency of fixed resource is increasing as reflected by
increasing TPP.
10. Marginal Value Product is equal to Marginal Factor Cost (MVP=MFC).
11. Marginal Revenue is equal to Marginal Cost (MR= MC)
12. This is rational zone of production in which the producer should operate to
attain his objective of profit maximization.
13. This zone ends at the point where Total Physical Product is maximum or
Marginal Physical Product is zero.
Third Stage or III Region or Zone III:
 This zone starts from where the technical efficiency of fixed resource is
maximum (TPP is Max).

 Average Physical Product is declining but remains positive.

 Marginal Physical Product becomes negative.

  The Total Physical Product declines at faster rate since MPP is negative.
 Elasticity of production is less than zero (Ep < 0)

 In this zone variable resource is in excess capacity.

 The technical efficiency of variable resource is decreasing as reflected by
declining APP.
 The technical efficiency of fixed resource is also decreasing as indicated by
declining TPP.
 57

 Marginal Value Product is less than Marginal Factor Cost (MVP < MFC)

 Marginal Revenue is less than Marginal Cost ( MR < MC)

 This zone is irrational or supra-optimal zone.

 Producer should never operate in this zone even if the resources are
available at free of cost.
Three Regions of Production-Economic decisions
Stage I: It is called irrational zone of production. Any level of resource use
falling in this region is uneconomical. The technical efficiency of variable
resource is increasing throughout the zone (APP is increasing). Therefore, it is
not reasonable to stop using an input when its efficiency is increasing.
In this zone, more products can be obtained from the same resource by
reorganizing the combination of fixed and variable inputs. For this reason, it is
called irrational zone of production.
Stage II: It is rational zone of production. Within the boundaries of this region
is the area of economic relevance. Optimum point must be somewhere in this
rational zone. It can, however, be located only when input and output prices are
known.
Stage III: It is also an area of irrational production. TPP is decreasing at
increasing rate and MPP is negative. Since the additional quantities of resource
reduces the total output, it is not profitable zone even if the additional quantities
of resources are available at free of cost. In case if a farmer operates in this zone,
he will incur double loss. i.e.,
1. Reduced Production
2. Unnecessary additional Cost of inputs.

Factor-Factor Relationship
1. This relationship deals with the resource combination and resource
substitution.
2. Cost minimization is the goal of factor -factor relationship.
3. Under factor-factor relationship, output is kept constant, input is varied in
quantity.
4. This relationship guides the producer in deciding „How to produce‟.
5. This relationship is explained by the principle of factor substitution or
principle of substitution between inputs.
 58

6. Factor -Factor relationship is concerned with the determination of least cost

combination of resources.
7. The choice indicators are substitution ratio and price ratio.
8. Algebraically, it is expressed as
Y = f(X1 X2 / X3 X4 ….. Xn )
In the production, inputs are substitutable. Capital can be substituted for
labour and vice versa, grain can be substituted for fodder and vice versa. The
producer has to choose that input or inputs, practice or practices which produce
a given output with minimum cost. The producer aims at cost minimization i.e.,
choice of inputs and their combinations.
Isoquants:
The relationship between two factors and output can not be
presented with two dimensional graph. This involves three variables and can be
presented in three dimensional diagram giving a production surface.
An isoquant is a convenient method for compressing three
dimensional picture of production into two dimensions.
Definition :
An isoquant represents all possible combinations of two resources
(X1 and X2) physically capable of producing the same quantity of output.
Isoquants are also known as isoproduct curves or equal product curves
or product indifference curves.

Isoquant Map or Iso product Contour

If number of isoquants are drawn on one graph, it is known as isoquant map.
Isoquant map indicates the shape of production surface which in turn indicates the
output response to the inputs.
 59

Characteristics of Isoquants
1. Slope downwards from left to right or negatively sloped.
2. Convex to the origin.
3. Nonintersecting
4. Isoquants lying above and to the right of another represents higher level of output.
5. The slope of isoquant denotes the marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS).

Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (MRTS)

It refers to the amount by which one resource is reduced as another resource is
increased by one unit.
Or
The rate of exchange between some units of X1 and X2 which are equally preferred.
MRTSX1X2 = ? X2/? X1
MRTSX2X1 = ? X1/ ? X2

Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution= Number of units of replaced resource

Number of units of added resource
The slope of Isoquant indicates MRTS.
Substitutes: A range of input combinations which will produce a given level of
output. When one factor is reduced in quantity, a second factor must always be
increased MRTS is always less than zero.
Perfect Substitutes: When two resources are completely interchangeable, they are
called perfect substitutes.
The isoquants for perfect substitutes is negatively sloped straight lines.
The MRTS is constant.
Ex: Family labour and hired labour, Farm produced and purchased seed etc,
 60

Complements: Two resources which are used together are called complements.
In the case of complements reduction in one factor can not be replaced by an
increase in another factor.
MRTS is zero .
Perfect Complements: Two resources which are used together in fixed proportion
are called perfect complements. It means that only one exact combination of inputs
will produce a particular level of output.
The isoquant in this case is of a right angle.
Ex: Tractor and driver, Pair of bullocks and labourer
Types of factor substitution
The shape of isoquant and production surface will depend up on the manner in
which the variable inputs are combined to produce a particular level of output.
There can be three such categories of input combinations. They are:
1. Fixed Proportion combination of inputs
To produce a given level of output, inputs are combined together in fixed proportion.
Isoquants are „L‟ shaped.
It is difficult to find examples of inputs which combine only in fixed proportions in
agriculture. An approximation to this situation is provided by tractor and driver
combination. To operate another tractor, normally we need another driver.
 61

2. Constant rate of Substitution:

For each one unit gain in one factor, a constant quantity of another factor must be
sacrificed.
When factors substitute at constant rate, isoquants are linear, negatively sloped.

X1 X2 ? X1 ? X2 MRTSX1X2=
? X2/? X1
0 50 -- -- --
5 40 5 10 10/5=2
10 30 5 10 10/5=2
15 20 5 10 10/5=2
20 10 5 10 10/5=2
25 0 5 10 10/5=2
The above table shows that the six combinations of resources X2 and X2 can be used
in producing a given level of output. As X1 input is increased from 0 to 5 units ,10
units of X2 are replaced. Similarly addition of another 5 units of X 1 replaces another
10 units. The MRS of X1 for X2 is 2. That means if we want to obtain one unit of
X1, we have to forego 2 units of X2.
Ex:, family labour and hired labour,
When inputs substitute at constant rate, it is economical to use only one
resource, and which one to use depends up on relative prices.

Algebraically, constant rate of factor substitution is expressed

as ? 1X2/? 1X1 = ? 2X2/? 2X1 = ……. = ? nX2/? nX1
3. Decreasing Rate of substitution:
Every subsequent increase in the use of one factor replaces less and less of other
factor. In other words, each one unit increase in one factor requires smaller and
smaller sacrifice in another factor.
 62

Ex: Capital and labour, concentrates and green fodder, organic and inorganic
fertilizers etc.
X1 X2 ? X1 ? X2 MRTSX1X2=
? X2/? X1
1 18 -- -- --
2 13 1 5 5/1=5
3 9 1 4 4/1=4
4 6 1 3 3/1=3
5 4 1 2 2/1=2
The MRS of X1 for X2 becomes smaller and smaller as X1 replaces X2.
Isoquants are convex to the origin when inputs substitute at decreasing rate.

Algebraically, decreasing rate of substitution is expressed

as ? 1X2/? 1X1 > ? 2X2/? 2X1 > ……. > ? nX2/? nX1
Decreasing rate of factor subs titution is more common in agricultural production.
Isocost Line (price line, budget line, iso outlay line, factor cost line)
Isocost line defines all possible combinations of two resources (X1 and X2) which
can be purchased with a given outlay of funds.

Characteristics of Isocost line:

1. As the total outlay increases, the isocost line moves farther away from the origin.
 63

2. Isocost line is a straight line because input prices do not change with the
quantity purchased.
3. The slope of isocost line indicates the ratio of factor prices.
Least Cost Combination of inputs
There are innumerable possible combinations of factors which can be used to
produce a particular level of output. The problem is to find out a combination of
inputs which should cost the least, a cost minimization problem. There are three
methods to find out the least cost combination of inputs. They are:
1. Simple Arithmetical calculations:
One possible way to determine the least cost combination is to compute the cost of
all possible combinations of inputs and then select one combination with minimum
cost. This method is suitable where only a few combinations produce a particular
level of output.
X1 X2 [email protected] [email protected] Total cost
10 3 30 6 36
7 4 21 8 29
5 6 15 12 27
3 8 9 16 25
2 12 6 24 30
The above table shows five combinations of inputs which can produce a given level
of output. The price per unit of X1 is Rs.3/ - and of X 2 is Rs.2/-. The total cost of
each combination of inputs is computed.Out of five combination, 3 units of X 1 and
8 units of X2 is the least cost combination of inputs i.e., Rs.25/-
2. Algebraic method:
a) Compute Marginal Rate of technical substitution
MRS = Number of units of replaced resource / Number of units of added
resource MRS X1X2 = ? X2/ ? X1
MRSX2X1 = ? X1/ ? X2
b) Compute Price Ratio (PR)
PR=Price per unit of added resource/Price per unit of replaced
resource PR=PX1/PX2 if MRSX1 X2
Or
PR= PX2/ PX1 if MRSX2X1
 64

c) Workout least cost combination by equating MRS and PR

i.e., ?X2/ ? X1= P X1/PX2 MRSX1X2
? X1/ ? X2= PX2/ PX1 MRSX2X1
The same can be expressed as
? X2. PX2= PX1. ? X1

? X1.PX1 =? X2. PX2

The least cost combination is obtained when Marginal Rate of substitution is equal
to Price Ratio.
3. Graphical Method:
Since the slope of isoquant indicates MRTS and the slope of isocost line
indicates factor price ratio, minimum cost for given output will be indicated by the
tangency of these isoclines. For this purpose, isocost line and isoquant are drawn on
the same graph for different levels of production. The least cost combination will be
at the point where isocost line is tangent to the isoquant i.e., slope of isoquant=slope
of isocost line i.e., MRS=PR

Iso-cline
There can be number of possible output levels as shown in the figure and the
least cost combination can be found out for these various output levels. A line or
curve connecting the least cost combination of inputs for all output levels is called
isocline.
 65

The isocline passes through all the isoquants at points where they
have the same slope. Isoclines can be drawn at different sets of price ratio. All
isoclines of course converge at the point of maximum output. Though all the points
on isocline represent least cost combination, only one point represents the maximum
profit output.
Expansion Path : Of many isoclines, the isocline which is considered to be the
most appropriate over a production period is known as expansion path or scale line.
At any particular time, only one expansion path is possible.
Ridge lines or Border or Boundary lines
Ridge lines represent the points of maximum output from each input, given a
fixed amount of another input. Also they represent limits of substitution. Ridge lines
reflect the limits of economic relevance, the boundaries beyond which isoquant map
ceases to have economic meaning. The portions of isoquants which lie between the
lines are suited for economic production (Where MPP of both inputs are positive but
decreasing and isoquants are negatively sloped). Portions of is oquants outside the
ridge lines are not suitable for production in economic terms (outside the ridge lines,
MPP of both factors are negative and methods of production are inefficient).
 66

Product-Product Relationship
 Product-Product relationship deals wit h resource allocation among
competing enterprises.
 The goal of Product-Product relationship is profit maximization.

 Under Product-Product relationship, inputs are kept constant while products
(outputs) are varied.

 This relationship guides the producer in deciding „What to produce‟

 This relationship is explained by the principle of product substitution and
law of equi marginal returns.
 This relationship is concerned with the determination of optimum
combination of products (enterprises).

 The choice indicators are substitution ratio and price ratio.

 Algebraically it is expressed as
Y1=f (Y2 Y3, ……. Yn )
Production Possibility Curve (PPC)
Production Possibility Curve is a convenient device for depicting two
production functions on a single graph.
Def: Production Possibility Curve represents all possible combinations of two
products that could be produced with given amounts of inputs.
Production Possibility Curve is known as Opportunity Curve because
it represents all production possibilities or opportunities available with limited
resources.
It is called Isoresouce Curve or Iso factor curve because each output
combination on this curve has the same resource requirement.
It is also called Transformation curve as it indicates the rate of
transformation of one product into another.
How to draw Production Possibility Curve
Production Possibility Curve can be drawn either directly from
production function or from total cost curve.
The method of drawing Production Possibility Curve from Production
Function is explained below:
A farmer has five acres of land and wants to produce two products Viz
cotton (Y1 ) and Maize (Y2). Assume all other inputs are fixed. Now the farmer
has to decide how much of land input to use on each product.
 67

The amount of land that can be used to produce Cotton (Y1) depends
upon the amount of land used to produce Maize (Y 2)
Therefore Y 1= f (Y2)
The allocation of land resource between the two products and the output
from different doses of land input are presented below
Allocation of land in acres Output in quintals
Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2
0 5 0 60
1 4 8 48
2 3 15 36
3 2 21 24
4 1 26 12
5 0 30 0
As evident from the above data, if all 5 acres of land are used in the production of
Y2 we obtain 60 quintals of Y2 and do not get any Y1. On the other hand, if all the
five acres of land are used in the production of Y1 we can obtain 30 quintals of Y1

and do not get any Y2. But these are the two extreme production possibilities. In
between these two, there will be many other production possibilities. Plotting these
two points on a graph, we get the Production Possibility Curve.

Production Possibility Curve

Types of Product-Product Relationships or Enterprise Relationship
Farm commodities bear several physical relationships to one
another. These basic product relationships can be
1) Joint Products: These are produced through single production process. As a rule
the two are combined products. Production of one (main product) without the other
 68

(by-product) is not possible. The level of production of one decides the level of
production of another. All farm commodities are mostly joint products.
Ex: Wheat and Straw, paddy and straw, groundnut and hulms , cotton seed and lint,
cattle and manure, butter and buttermilk, beef and hides, mutton and wool etc.

Graphically the quantities of Y1 and Y2 that can be produced at different

levels of resources will be shown as points AB in the figure.
2) Complementary enterprises: Complementarity between two enterprises exists
when with a change in the level of production of one, the other also changes in the
same direction. That is when increase in output of one product, with resources held
constant, also results in an increase in the output of the other product. The two
enterprises do not compete for resources but contribute to the mutual production by
providing an element of production required by each other. The marginal rate of
product substitution is positive ( > 0). Ex: Cereals and pulses, crops and livestock
enterprises.

As shown in the figure, range of complementarities is from point A to point B when

production of Y1 expands beyond zero level. On the other end of the curve, the products
again are complementar y as production of Y2 expands beyond zero. This
 69

means Y1 must be produced up to B and Y2 up to point C , up to these points

increase in one product increases the production of other.
All complementary relationships should be taken advantage by producing both
products up to the point where the products become competitive.
3) Supplementary enterprises: Supplementarity exists between enterprises when
increase or decrease in the output of one product does not affect the production level
of the other product. They do not compete for resources but make use of resources
when they are not being utilized by one enterprise. The marginal rate of product
substitution is zero.
For example, small poultry or dairy or piggery enterprise is supplementary on the
farm.
All supplementary relationships should be taken advantage by producing both
products up to the point where the products become competitive.
Production of Y1 can be increased without affecting the production of Y2 in the
range AB. From C to D, production of Y2 ca n be increased without affecting the
production of Y1.
4) Competitive enterprises: This relationship exists when increase or decrease in the
production of one product affect the production of other product inversely. That is
when increase in output of one product , with resources held constant, results in the
decrease of output of other product.Competitive enterprises compete for the same
resources. Two enterprises are competitive in the use of given resources if output of
one can be increased only through sacrifice in the production of another. The
marginal rate of product substitution is negative (<0)

5) Antagonistic products: Two products may be detrimental to each other because

of disease or similar factors. When this is true ,only one of the products should be
produced. Eg: Aqua culture and paddy cultivation.
Marginal rate of product substitution
 70

The term marginal rate of product substitution has the same meaning
under the product-product relationship as under the factor-factor relationship.
Marginal rate of the product substitution refers to the absolute change
in one product associated with a change of one unit in competing product.
The quantity of one product to be sacrificed so as to gain another
product by one unit is called MRPS.

MRPS = Number of units of replaced product / Number of units of added

product MRPSY1Y2 = ? Y2/? Y1
MRPSY2Y1 = ? Y1/? Y2
Types of Product Substitution
When two products are competitive, they substitute either at constant
rate, or increasing rate or at decreasing rate.
1) Constant rate of Substitution:
For each one unit increase or gain in one product, a constant
quantity of another product must be decreased or sacrificed .
When products substitute at constant rate, the Production Possibility
Curve is linear negatively sloped.
Constant rate of substitution occurs when
a) One of the production function has an elasticity greater than one (increasing
returns), the other has an elasticity of less than one (decreasing returns)
Or
b) Both the production functions have stages of increasing and decreasing returns.

The Production Possibility Curve is linear when products substitute at constant rate.
When two products substitute at constant rate, only one of the two products will be
economical to produce depending on their relative prices. This is to say that
 71

specialization is the general pattern of production under constant rate of product

substitution.
Y1 Y2 ? Y1 ? Y2 MRS
0 40 -- -- --
10 30 10 10 10/10=1
20 20 10 10 10/10=1
30 10 10 10 10/10=1
40 0 10 10 10/10=1
This relationship can be expressed as
? 1Y2/? 1Y1 = ? 2Y2/? 2Y1 = ……. = ? nY2/? nY1
2) Increasing rate of product substitution:
Each unit increase in the output of one product is accompanied by
larger and larger sacrifice (decrease) in the level of production of other product.
Increasing rates of substitution holds true when the production for
each independent commodity is one of decreasing resource productivity (decreasing
returns) and non-homogeneity in quality of limited resource.
The production Possibility Curve is concave to the origin when
product substitutes at the increasing rate. Increasing rate of the product substitution
is common in agricultural production. The general pattern of production is
diversification i.e., profits are maximized by producing both the products.
? 1Y2/? 1Y1 <? 2Y2/? 2Y1 < ……. < ? nY2/? nY1
 72

Y1 Y2 ? Y1 ? Y2 MRSY1Y2
0 60 -- -- --
8 48 8 12 1.50
15 36 7 12 1.71
21 24 6 12 2.00
26 12 5 12 2.40
30 0 4 12 3.00

3) Decreasing rate of Product Substitution:

Each unit increase in the output of one product is accompanied lesser and
lesser decrease in the production of another product.
This type of product substitution holds good under conditions of increasing
returns.
Production Possibility Curve is convex to the origin when products
substitute at decreasing rate. It is economical to produce only one of the products
depending on the relative prices, when products substitute at constant rate i.e.,
specialization is the general pattern of production.

Y1 Y2 ? Y1 ? Y2 MRSY1Y2
1 18 -- -- --
2 13 1 5 5
3 9 1 4 4
4 6 1 3 3
5 4 1 2 2

This relationship is algebraically expressed as

? 1Y2/? 1Y1 >Y 2/? 2Y1 > ……. >? nY2/? nY1
 73

Summary of basic Enterprise Relationships

MRPS
Relationship

1 ? Y2/Y1 or ? Y1/Y2 > 0 (Positive)

Complementary
2 ? Y2/Y1 or ? Y1/Y2 =0 Supplementary
3 ? Y2/Y1 or ? Y1/Y2 <0 (Negative) Competitive
IsoRevenue Line
It represents all possible combination of two products which would yield an equal
(same) revenue or income.
Characteristics:
1) Isorevenue line is a straight line because product prices do not change with
quantity sold.
2) As the total revenue increases, the isorevenue line moves away from the origin
since the total revenue determines the distance of it from the origin.
3) The slope indicates ratio of product (output) prices. As long as product prices
remaining constant, the isorevenue line show ing different total revenues are parallel.
But change in either price will change the slope.
 74

Determination of optimum combination of products:

1) Algebraic Method:
There are three steps to determine the optimum product combination
through algebraic method.
a) Compute Marginal Rate of Product Substitution
MRPS =Number of units of replaced products/Number of units of added
product
MRPSY1Y2 = ? Y2/? Y1
MRPSY2Y1 = ? Y1/? Y2
b) Workout price ratio (PR)
Price Ratio (PR) = Price per unit of added product/Price per unit of replaced

product
PR= P y1/Py2 if it is MRSY1Y2
Py2/ Py1 if it is MRSY2Y1
c) Optimum combination of enterprises is at where MRS=PR

Number of units replaced product = Price per unit of added product

Number of units of added product Price per unit of replaced product

? Y2/?Y1= Py1/Py2
Or
? Y1/?Y2 = Py2/ Py1
For profit maximization, a rational producer should operate in the range
where two products are competitive and within the range, the choice of products
should depend upon the MRS and PR.
2) Graphic Method:
 75

Draw production possibility curve and isorevenue line on one graph. Slope of
production possibility curve indicates MRPS and the slope of isorevenue line
indicates price ratio of products. The point of optimum combination of products is at
where the isorevenue line is tangent to the production possibility curve. At this
point, slope of the isorevenue line and the slope of the production possibility curve
will be the same. In other words, the MRPS=PR.
3) Tabular Method:
Compute total revenue for each possible output combination and then select that
combination of outputs which yields maximum total revenue. This method is useful
only when we have few combinations.

Y1 Y2 [email protected] P [email protected] Total revenue

8 2 400 160 560
5 3 350 240 490
6 4 300 320 620
4 5 200 400 600
3 7 150 560 710

3 units of Y1 and 7 units of Y2 yield maximum revenue

Expansion path in Product-Product relationship

Several isorevenue lines are shown each indicating a different level of revenue. Prices are
assumed constant and hence the slope of isorevenue lines remains the same. All the
isorevenue lines are tangent to the production possibility curve at different points m,and n.
The line connecting the points of optimum combination of the products is
 76

called expansion path. The points of tangency specify the most profitable enterprise
combination for different possibility cur ves with the prices indicated by isorevenue
line.
Ridge lines or border lines
Line OA intersects the each production possibility curve where the production
possibility curve is horizontal. Line OB intersects each production possibility curve
where it is vertical. The portions of production possibility curve falling within the
ridge lines have negative slope indicating competition (MRS< 0). Portions of
production possibility curve outside ridge line have positive slope indicating
Complementarity (MRS> 0). On the ridge lines MRS is zero. Therefore ridge lines
are used to separate ranges of product competition from ranges of product
complementarity.

Summary of basic production relationships

Factor – Product Factor – Factor Product – Product
Deals with resource use Deals with resource Deals with resource
efficiency combination and resource allocation among
substitution enterprises
Optimization of the Cost minimization is the Profit optimization is the
production is the goal goal goal.
How much to produce How to produce What to produce
Considers single variable Inputs or resources varied Output of products are
production function keeping the output varied keeping the
constant resource constant
Guides in the Concerned with the Helps in the determination
 77

determination of optimum determination of Least cost of optimum combination

input to use and optimum combination of resources of products
output to produce
Price ratios are choice Substitutionratioand Substitution ratio and price
indicator choice ratio are the choice ratios are choice indicators
indicators.
Explained by the law of Explained by the principle Explained by the principle
diminishing returns of factor substitution of product substitution and
law of equimarginal
returns.
Y=f(X1 | X2 , X3 ………. Y = f(X1 X2 / X3 X4 ….. Y1=f(Y 2 Y3 , ……. Yn)
Xn) Xn)

Returns To Scale
By returns to scale, it is meant the behaviour of production when all
factors (inputs) are increased or decreased simultaneously in the same proportion.
Scale relationship refers to simultaneous change in all the resources in
the same proportion. In other words, in returns to scale, we analyze the effect of
doubling, trebling and so on of all inputs on the output.
In returns to scale, all the necessary factors of production are increased
or decreased to the same extent so that what ever the scale of production, the
proportion among the inputs remain the same.
When all inputs are increased, in unchanged proportions, the scale of
production is expanded, the effect on output shows three stages:
Firstly, returns to scale increase because the increase in total output is more
than proportional to increase in all inputs.
Secondly, returns to scale become constant as the increase in total product is
an exact proportion to the increase in inputs.
Lastly, returns to scale diminish because the increase in output is less than
proportionate to increase in inputs.
 78

Returns to scale -Example

SNO Scale of inputs Total Physical Marginal Remarks
Product in Physical
Quintals Product in
Quintals
1 1 Worker+3 2 2
acres
2 2 Workers+6 5 3
acres Increasing
3 3 Workers+9 9 4 Returns
acres
4 4 Workers+12 14 5
acres
5 5 Workers+15 19 5
acres
6 6 Workers+18 24 5 Constant
acres Returns
7 7 Workers+21 28 4
acres
8 8 Workers+24 31 3 Decreasing
acres Returns
9 9 Workers+27 33 2
acres
 79

In the above example, we see that when we employ one worker on three acres of
land, the total product is 2 quintals. Now to increase the output, we double the scale,
but the total product increases to more than double (5 quintals instead of 4 quintals).
When the scale is trebled, the total product increases from 5 quintals to 9 quintals-
the increase this time being 4 quintals as against 3 quintals. In other words, returns
to scale have been increasing. If the scale of production is further increased, the
Marginal Physical Product remains constant up to certain point and beyond it starts
diminishing.
Returns to scale are more theoretical interest than being relevant to actual
practice. In practice, it is the law of variable proportions which has universal
applications.
Returns to scale can also be explained by using the knowledge of scale line
and that of isoquant map. In the case of constant returns to scale , the distance
between successive isoquants is constant i.e., AB = BC = CD (Fig-A). The distance
goes on widening between the successive isoquants and diminishing returns operate
i.e., AB<BC< CD (Fig-B). Finally, in the case of increasing returns to scale, the
distance between the successive isoquants becomes smaller and smaller as we move
away from the origin on the isoquant map i.e., AB> BC> CD .(Fig -C)
Returns to scale is frequently measured by fitting the least square
Cobb-Douglas production function and then adding the exponents which are
production elasticities of the inputs.
b b2 b3 bn
Y= a x1 1 x2 x3 ………. Xn
Where Y= Total output
X1, X2 , X 3 …… Xn: variable inputs
b1, b2 , b3……….bn: elasticity coefficients
Returns to scale from this production function are given by the summation of
individual elasticities of coefficients.
Returns to scale: ? bi where i=1 to n
n
? bi < 1 Decreasing returns to scale
i=1
n

? bi = 1 Constant returns to scale

i=1
 80

n
? bi > 1 increasing returns to scale
i=1

Differe nces between Law of variable Proportion and Returns to scale

Law of Variable Proportion Returns to Scale

Describes the response in output when a Examines the response in output when all
single input is varied inputs are varied in equal proportions
At least one factor is kept constant or All factors are varied
fixed
Factors are combined in different Proportion among factors remains the
proportions same
Short run production function Long run production function
Y=f(X1 | X2 , X3 ………. Xn) Y=f (X1,X2,X3,…..Xn)
Output exhibits three stages: increasing, Output exhibits three stages: increasing,
constant, diminishing constant and diminishing returns to scale.
Increasing returns are due to better use of Increasing returns are due to the
fixed factors appeara nce of internal economics
Maximum output is due to the best Maximum output is due to the optimum
proportion between fixed and variable size of production.
factors
Diminishingreturnsaredueto Diminishing returns to scale are due to
inefficiency arising out of over utilization internal dis economies of scale.
of fixed factor s beyond the optimum
point.
 81

Formulae
1. Production function: y = f (x1, x2, x3,…..xN)
where y is output of a crop, x1, x2, x3,…..xN are inputs, f denotes function of
2. Linear production function y = a + bx
where y is dependent variable (output), a is constant, b is coefficient, x is
independent variable (input)
b
3. Cobb-douglas (non linear production function) y = ax
where y = dependent variable, a constant, b coefficient, x independent variable

2
4. Quadratic function y = a + bx – cx
where y = output or yield dependent variable, a constant, c & b coefficient, x input
(independent variable)
? Y1 ? Y2 ? Yn
5. Law of increasing returns: < <LL <
? X1 ? X2 ? Xn

6. Law of constant returns:

? Y1
=
? Y2 ? Yn
=LL =
? X1 ? X2 ? Xn

> ? Y2 >LL > ? Yn

? Y1
7. Law decreasing returns:
? X1
? X2? Xn
8. Marginal physical product (MPP)

MPP = Change in total physical product

Change in input level

MPP= ?TPP = ?Y
?X ?X

9. Average products (AP) = Total output =y

Quantity of input x
10. Marginal value product (MVP)
Change in total value product
MVP =
Change in input level
?T×P
MPP = y

?X
11. Marginal fac tor cost (MFC) or marginal input cost (MIC)
 82

MVP = Change in total input cost = ?X× PX = PX

Change in input level ?X
12. Marginal Revenue (MR)
MR = Change in total revenue = ?Y P  P
Change in output level ?Y y y

13. Marginal Cost (MC)

MC = Change in total cost = ?X× PX

Change in output level ?y

14. Marginal Rate of technical substitution (MRTS)

or Marginal Rate of substitution (MRS)

MRS = Number of units of replacedresource

Number of units of Added resource
?X2
MRSx x = ?X1
1 2

MRS ?X1
x2 x1 = ?X2
15. Marginal Rate of product substitution (MRPS) or
Marginal Rate of substitution (MRS)
Number of units of replaced product
MRPS =
Number of units of Added product

?Y2
MRSy1 y2 
?Y1

?Y1
MRSy2 y1 =
?Y2

16. Price ratio of factor (PR)

Price per unit of added resource
PR =
Price per unit of replaced product

PR = P X2 or P X1
PX PX
1 2

17. Product price ratio (PR)

PR = Price per unit of added product

Price per unit of replaced product
 83

P Y2 P Y1
PR = or
PY PY
1 2

18. Constant rate of factor substation

?1 X2 ?2 X2 ? n X2
 LL
? X ? X ? X
1 1 2 1 n 1

19. Decreasing rate of factor substitution

?1 X2 ?2 X2 ? n X2
 LL
? X ? X ? X
1 1 2 1 n 1

20. Increasing rate of product substitution

?1 Y2 ?2 Y2 ? n Y2
 LL
? Y ? Y ? Y
1 1 2 1 n 1

21. Constant rate of product substitution

?1 Y2 ?2 Y2 ? n Y2
 LL 
? Y ? Y ? Y
1 1 2 1 n 1

22. Decreasing rate of product substitution

?1 Y2 ?2 Y2 ? n Y2
 LL 
? Y ? Y ? Y
1 1 2 1 n 1

23. Short run production function y = f (x1 / x2, x3 … … xn)

24. Long run production function y = f (x1, x2, x3 …… xn)
25. Least cost combination of resources.
Number of units of replacedresource  Price per unit of added resource
Number of units of added resource Price per unit of replaced resources

LCC = ? X2  P X1 or ? X1  P X2
?X PX ?X PX
1 2 2 1

26. Optimum combination of products

Number of units of replaced product Price per unit of added product

Number of units of added product Price per unit of replaced product

? Y1  P Y2 or ? Y2 / ? Y1 = PY1 / PY2
? Y2 P Y1
27. Optimum input or profit maximizing level of input
 84

Marginal value product (MVP) = Marginal factor cost (MFC)

? Y P = ? X P or ? Y = Px
?X y ?X x ?X Py
28. Optimum output or profit maximizing level of output
Marginal Revenue (MR) = Marginal cost

?YP =?XP
y x
?Y ?Y
?X .P
Py = x

DY.Py = DX.P x
29. Future value of present sum
n
(compounding) FV = P (1 + i)
FV: Future value; P: present sum (original investment); i : rate of interest;
n : number of years.

30. Present value of Future sum (Discounting)

P
PV =
1+in
where PV: Present value; P: sum to be received in future); i : rate of interest;
n : number of years.
31. Variable cost (TVC) = P x1×X1
Px1 = price per unti of X1, X1 = Quantity of X1 input
n

32. Total fixed cost (TFC) = åPxy X j (j = 2, 3, … w)

j 1

33. Total cost (TC) = Total variable cost + Total fixed

cost TC = TVC + TFC

34. Average variable cost (AVC) = Total variable cost

output

TVC
AVC =
Y

35. Average fixed cost (AFC) = Total fixed cost

output

TFC
AVC =
Y
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36. Average total cost (ATC) = Total cost

output
or
Average total cost (ATC) = Average variable cost + Average fixed cost
TC
? TC = AVC + ATC or
Y
37. Cost A2 = Cost A1 + Rent on leased in land
38. Cost B = Cost A1 / A2 + Rent on owned land + Interest on owned fixed capital
39. Cost C = Cost B + Value of family labour
40. Farm business income = Gross incom e – Cost A1 / A2
41. Family labour income = Gross income – Cost B
42. Net income = Gross income – Cost C
43. Farm investment income = (Gross income – Cost C) + (Cost B – Cost A)

44. Net cash income = Total cash income – Total cash operating expenses
45. Net Farm income = Net cash income + Change in inventory and depreciation
46. Farm earning = Net farm income + Value of farm products consumed in home

47. Family labour earnings =Farm earnings – Interest on capital

48. Returns to management = Family labour earnings - Value of family labour

49. Operating cost ration (OCR) = Operating expenses

Gross income

50. Fixed cost ratio (FCR) = Total fixed costs

Gross income
Total costs
51. Gross cost ratio (GCR) =
Gross income
Gross income
52. Rate of capital turnover =
Total capital invested
Total assets
53. Net capital ratio (NCR) =
Total liabilities
Current assets  Working assets
54. Working ratio (WR) =
Current liabilites Working liabilities
Current assets
55. Current ratio (CR) =
Current liabilites
Total liabilites
56. Debt/equity ratio =
Owner's equity or net woth
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57. Production efficiency =

Yield of a crop on the farm
x 100
Average yield of the same crop in the locality

58. Cropping intensity = Gross cropped area x

100 Net sown area
59. Productive man work units per mar equivalent
Total productive man work units
Number of man equivalents

60. Straight line method = Original cost - Junk value

Useful life
61. Diminishing balance method = (Book value at the biginning) x R
where R is rate of depreciation
RL
62. Sum of the years digits method = (Original cost – Junk value) X
SoYD
RL : Remaining years of useful life
SoYD : Sum of the years digits
63. Income capitalization V = R / r
where V = capitalized value, R = Net income per unit of land per annum, r = rate of
interest
64. Break-even output =
TotalFixedcosts
Seeling price per unit  Variable costs per unit (AVC)
ABBREVIATIONS
1. PF : Production Function
2. EP : Elasticity of production
3. SRPF : Short run production function
4. LRPF : Long run production function
5. TP : Total Product
6. MP : Marginal product
7. AP : Average Product
8. TPP : Total physical product
9. APP : Average physical product
10. MPP : Marginal physical product
11. TVP : Total value product
12. AVP : Average value product
13. MVP : Marginal value product
14. MFC : Marginal factor cost
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15. MIC : Marginal input cost

16. MC : Marginal cost
17. MRS : Marginal rate of substitution
18. MRTS : Marginal rate of technical substitution
19. MRPS : Marginal rate of product substitution
20. PR : Price ratio
21. TFC : Total fixed cost
22. TVC : Total variable cost
23. TC : Total cost
24. AFC : Average fixed cost
25. AVC : Average variable cost
26. ATC : Average total cost
27. PPC : Production possibility curve
28. LCC : Least cost combination of resources
29. LDR : Law of diminishing returns
30. LEMR : Law of equi-marginal returns.
31. CYI : Crop yield index
32. CI : Cropping intensity
33. GI : Gross income
34. NI : Net income
35. PMWC : Productive man work unit
36. BEO : Break-even output
37. BEP : Break-even point
38. NCR : Net capital ratio
39. WR : Working ratio
40. CR : Current ratio
41. MR : Marginal revenue
42. OCR : Operating cost ratio
43. FCR : Fixed cost ratio
44. GCR : Gross cost ratio
45. FBI : Farm business income
46. FLI : Family labour income
47. LP : Linear programming