MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LAB MANUAL STUDY OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

STUDY OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The measuring instruments can be classified into direct measuring and indirect measuring
instruments. Direct measuring instruments are again classified into graduated and non-
graduated types. Some of the graduated measuring instruments include: Steel rule, Vernier
caliper, Vernier height gauge, Micrometer Dial indicator etc. Non graduated measuring
instruments include Calipers, Wire gauge, Screw pitch gauge, Feeler gauge, slip gauge etc. The
above mentioned instruments are used in linear measurements. Angular measuring
instruments include Combination set, Angle gauges, Sine bar, Autocollimator etc.

LINEAR MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Steel Rule
It is a linear measuring device and is made of hardened steel. It has a series of engraved and
equally spaced lines which are used for measurement.

2. Caliper:
A caliper is a device used to measure the distance between two opposite sides of an object. A
caliper can be as simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points. The tips of the
caliper are adjusted to fit across the points to be measured, the caliper is then removed and the
distance read by measuring between the tips with a measuring tool, such as a ruler.

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TYPES

a) Outside calipers: They are used to measure the external size of an object. The same
observations and technique apply to this type of caliper, as for the above inside caliper. With
some understanding of their limitations and usage these instruments can provide a high degree
of accuracy and repeatability. They are especially useful when measuring over very large
distances, consider if the calipers are used to measure a large diameter pipe. They are made
from high carbon steel.

b) Divider caliper: In the metalworking field, a divider caliper, popularly called a compass,
is used in the process of marking out locations. The points are sharpened so that they act as
scribers, one leg can then be placed in the dimple created by a center or prick punch and the
other leg pivoted so that it scribes a line on the workpiece's surface, thus forming an arc or
circle. A divider caliper is also used to measure a distance between two points on a map. The
two caliper's ends are brought to the two points whose distance is being measured. The
caliper's opening is then either measured on a separate ruler and then converted to the actual
distance, or it is measured directly on a scale.

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c) Odd leg Caliper: Oddleg calipers or Hermaphrodite calipers, as pictured on the left, are
generally used to scribe a line a set distance from the edge of a workpiece. The bent leg is used
to run along the workpiece edge while the scriber makes its mark at a predetermined distance,
this ensures a line parallel to the edge.

d) Vernier Caliper: The vernier, dial, and digital calipers give a direct reading of the
distance measured with high accuracy and precision. They are functionally identical, with
different ways of reading the result. These calipers comprise a calibrated scale with a fixed jaw,
and another jaw, with a pointer, that slides along the scale. The distance between the jaws is
then read in different ways for the three types.

PARTS OF A VERNEIR CALIPER

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1. Outside large jaws: used to measure external diameter or width of an object

2. Inside small jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an object
3. Depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a hole
4. Main scale: scale marked every mm
5. Main scale: scale marked in inches and fractions
6. Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements to 0.1 mm or better
7. Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements in fractions of an inch
8. Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring of a measurement

e) Dial Caliper: Instead of using a vernier mechanism, which requires some practice to use,
the dial caliper reads the final fraction of a millimeter or inch on a simple dial. In this
instrument, a small, precise rack and pinion drives a pointer on a circular dial, allowing direct
reading without the need to read a vernier scale. Typically, the pointer rotates once every inch,
tenth of an inch, or 1 millimeter. This measurement must be added to the coarse whole inches
or centimeters read from the slide. The dial is usually arranged to be rotatable beneath the
pointer, allowing for Digital caliper "differential" measurements. The slide of a dial caliper can
usually be locked at a setting using a small lever or screw; this allows simple go/no-go checks of
part sizes.

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f) Digital Caliper: A new development in vernier caliper is the replacement of the analog
dial with an electronic digital display on which the reading is displayed as a single value. Rather
than a rack and pinion, they have a linear encoder. Some digital calipers can be switched
between centimeters or millimeters, and inches. All provide for zeroing the display at any point
along the slide, allowing the same sort of differential measurements as with the dial caliper.
Digital calipers may contain some sort of "reading hold" feature, allowing the reading of
dimensions even in awkward locations where the display cannot be seen. Many digital calipers
are inexpensive and perform reasonably well. One point worth noting is battery current when
they are turned off. Many calipers do not stop drawing power when the switch is in the off
position; they shut down the display but continue drawing nearly as much current. Digital
calipers offer a serial data output to allow them to be interfaced with a dedicated recorder or a
personal computer. The digital interface significantly decreases the time to make and record a
series of measurements, and it also improves the reliability of the records. A suitable device to
convert the serial data output to common computer interfaces such as RS-232, Universal Serial
Bus, or wireless can be built or purchased. With such a converter, measurements can be
directly entered into a spreadsheet, a statistical process control program, or similar software.

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3) Micrometer:
Micrometer is a device incorporating a calibrated screw widely used for precise measurement
of components in mechanical engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades,
along with other metrological instruments such as dial, vernier, and digital calipers.
Micrometers are usually, but not always, in the form of calipers (opposing ends joined by a
frame), which is why micrometer caliper is another common name. The spindle is a very
accurately machined screw and the object to be measured is placed between the spindle and
the anvil. The spindle is moved by turning the ratchet knob or thimble until the object to be
measured is lightly touched by both the spindle and the anvil.

TYPES OF MICROMETERS

a) Outside micrometer (also known as micrometer caliper), typically used to measure

wires, spheres, shafts and blocks.

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b) Inside micrometer, used to measure the diameter of holes.

c) Depth micrometer, measures depths of slots and steps.

PARTS OF A MICROMETER

a) Frame

The C-shaped body that holds the anvil and barrel in constant relation to each other. It is thick
because it needs to minimize flexion, expansion, and contraction, which would distort the
measurement.

The frame is heavy and consequently has a high thermal mass, to prevent substantial heating
up by the holding hand/fingers. It is often covered by insulating plastic plates which further
reduce heat transference.

b) Anvil
The shiny part that the spindle moves toward, and that the sample rests against.
c) Sleeve / barrel / stock
The stationary round part with the linear scale on it. Sometimes vernier markings.
d) Lock nut / lock-ring / thimble lock
The knurled part (or lever) that one can tighten to hold the spindle stationary, such as when
momentarily holding a measurement.
e) Screw
The heart of the micrometer, as explained under "Operating principles". It is inside the barrel.
f) Spindle
The shiny cylindrical part that the thimble causes to move toward the anvil.
g) Thimble
The part that one's thumb turns. Graduated markings.
h) Ratchet stop
Device on end of handle that limits applied pressure by slipping at a calibrated torque.

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4. Gauge Blocks/Slip Gauges

Gauge blocks (also known as gage blocks, Johansson gauges, slip gauges, or Jo blocks) are a
system for producing precision lengths. The individual gauge block is a metal or ceramic block
that has been precision ground and lapped to a specific thickness. Gauge blocks come in sets of
blocks with a range of standard lengths. In use, the blocks are stacked to make up a desired
length. An important feature of gauge blocks is that they can be joined together with very little
dimensional uncertainty. The blocks are joined by a sliding process called wringing, which
causes their ultra-flat surfaces to cling together. A small number of gauge blocks can be used to
create accurate lengths within a wide range. They are used as a reference for the calibration of
measuring equipment used in machine shops, such as micrometers, sine bars, calipers, and dial
indicators (when used in an inspection role). Gauge blocks are the main means of length
standardization used by industry. A gauge block is a block of metal or ceramic with two
opposing faces ground precisely flat and parallel, a precise distance apart. Standard grade
blocks are made of a hardened steel alloy, while calibration grade blocks are often made of
tungsten carbide or chromium carbide because it is harder and wears less. Gauge blocks come
in sets of blocks of various lengths, along with two wear blocks, to allow a wide variety of
standard lengths to be made up by stacking them. The length of each block is actually slightly
shorter than the nominal length stamped on it, because the stamped length includes the length
of one wring film, a film of lubricant which separates adjacent block faces in normal use. This
nominal length is known as the interferometric length. In use, the blocks are removed from the
set, cleaned of their protective coating (petroleum jelly or oil) and wrung together to form a
stack of the required dimension, with the minimum number of blocks.

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5. Vernier Height Gauge

It is a precision instrument used to measure the height of a specimen. A robust base supports
the height gauge on which a beam is mounted upon. It has a slider which slides on the beam
and scale arrangement. A scriber fixed on the depth measuring jaw measures the height of the
object. The slider has vernier graduations, which is used in conjunction with the main scale
similar to that of the vernier caliper.

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ANGLE MEASURING DEVICES

1. Combination set
A combination square is a tool used for multiple purposes-It is composed of a ruled blade and
one or more interchangeable heads that may be affixed to it. The most common head is
the standard or square head which is used to lay out or check right and 45° angles.

Uses
 Measuring angles.
 Determining flatness
 Measuring the center of a circular bar or dowel.
 Protractor head allows angles to be set and measured between the base and ruler.
 A rudimentary level for approximating level surfaces is incorporated in the protractor
and also the 45° holder.
 By moving and setting the head, it can be used as a depth gauge or to transfer
dimensions.
 Marking the work surface; with the included Scribe Point stored in a drilled hole in the
Square Base.

2. Sine Bar
A sine bar consists of a hardened, precision ground body with two precision ground cylinders
fixed at the ends. The distance between the centers of the cylinders is precisely controlled, and
the top of the bar is parallel to a line through the centers of the two rollers. The dimension
between the two rollers is chosen to be a whole number (for ease of later calculations) and
forms the hypotenuse of a triangle when in use. When a sine bar is placed on a level surface the

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top edge will be parallel to that surface. If one roller is raised by a known distance, usually using
gauge blocks, then the top edge of the bar will be tilted by the same amount forming an angle
that may be calculated by the application of the sine rule. The hypotenuse is a constant
dimension—(100 mm or 10 inches in the examples shown). The height is obtained from the
dimension between the bottom of one roller and the table's surface. The angle is calculated by
using the sine rule. Some engineering and metalworking reference books contain tables
showing the dimension required to obtain an angle from 0-90 degrees, incremented by 1
minute intervals.

Angles may be measured or set with this tool.

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3. Auto Collimator
The autocollimator combines optical tools, the collimator and the telescope into one
instrument using a single objective lens. Both beam paths are separated by using a beam
splitter. The autocollimator is a very sensitive angle measuring device and is thus used for the
precise angular adjustment of optical or machine components. Due to the collimated beam
(infinity adjustment) the measurement results are independent from the distance to the object
under test.

Operating Principle
The image of the illuminated object reticle is projected by the objective lens to infinity. In some
distance, the collimated beam is reflected back from a mirrored surface. If the mirror surface is
tilted by an angle α with respect to the optical axis, the reflected beam will enter the objective
lens with an angle 2α. This leads to a shift d of the image in the image plane which can be
calculated with the objective focal length f giving d = 2α x f or α = d/(2f ). Thus, the sample
angle is directly proportional to the measured shift in the image plane (small angles assumed).
The resolution of an autocollimator increases proportionally and the angular field of view
reciprocally with the focal length of the objective lens.

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PRECISION MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS

1. Dial Gauge
A dial gauge is a precision measurement instrument commonly used to measure machined
parts for production tolerances or wear. Dial gauges are capable of producing extremely fine
measurement values; increments of 0.00005 inch (0.001mm) may be possible with some
gauges. Measurement inputs are transferred to the gauge via a plunger, hinged lever, or the
jaws of a Vernier. Plunger instruments are generally used in conjunction with a clamp or stand
which holds the gauge in a fixed position in relation to the workpiece. The workpiece is then
rotated or moved to take the measurements. Dial gauges are available with analog needle and
dial indicators or digital liquid crystal displays (LCDs).
There are two basic dial gauge formats; the first is the plunger or lever type gauge. In this case,
a spring loaded plunger or lever at the bottom of the gauge transfers workpiece surface height
deviations to the gauge. The second type is the Vernier dial gauge which receives its
measurement input from the movement of the jaws of a conventional Vernier.

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TOLERANCE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Go/No Go Gauge
A Go-No gauge (or Go/no go) refers to an inspection tool used to check a workpiece against its
allowed tolerances. Its name derives from its use: the gauge has two tests; the check involves
the workpiece having to pass one test (Go) and fail the other (No Go). It is an integral part of
the quality process that is used in the manufacturing industry to ensure interchangeability of
parts between processes, or even between different manufacturers. A Go No Go gauge is a
measuring tool that does not return a size in the conventional sense, but instead returns a
state. The state is either acceptable (the part is within tolerance and may be used) or it is
unacceptable (and must be rejected). They are well suited for use in the production area of the
factory as they require little skill or interpretation to use effectively.

a) Plug Gauge

They are used in the manner of a plug. They are generally assembled from standard parts
where the gauge portion is interchangeable with other gauge pieces (obtained from a set of pin
type gauge blocks) and a body that uses the collet principle to hold the gauges firmly. To use
this style of gauge, one end is inserted into the part first and depending on the result of that
test, the other end is tried.[1] In the right hand image, the top gauge is a thread gauge that is

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screwed into the part to be tested, the labeled GO end will enter into the part fully, the NOT GO
end should not. The lower image is a plain plug gauge used to check the size of a hole, the
green end is the GO, red is the NO GO.

b) Snap Gauge

Snap gauges (or snap gage) are often used when a large quantity of work pieces must be
inspected. The snap gauge has four anvils or jaws, the first one or pair (outermost) are set using
the upper limit (tolerance) of the part and the inner set adjusted to the lower limit of the part.
A correctly machined part will pass the first set of jaws and stop at the second — end of test. In
this manner a part may be checked in one action, unlike the plug gauge that needs to be used
twice and flipped to access the second gauge.

OPTICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Metallurgical Microscope
A metallurgical microscope uses a different lighting method than a conventional microscope
and can illuminate solid specimens to identify, inspect, and measure them. They are like other
optical microscopes with the exception of the lighting orientation.

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A conventional microscope illuminates a transparent specimen from below the stage, making it
visible through the eyepiece. Since light cannot penetrate opaque or solid objects, this is not a
suitable method for observing these samples under magnification. Metallurgical microscopes
illuminate objects from above, either with an external light source or with that light travels
through the magnification objectives using beam splitters. This lighting technique illuminates
the entire object without creating distracting or unnecessary reflections.
The illumination technology may include color filters or filters designed to change polarization
and light intensity. These options allow viewing objects in bright or dark field applications. The
filters may be contained in a removable cartridge within the microscope body.
The eyepiece on a metallurgical microscope may be singular or binocular, and most
microscopes can link directly to a computer for specimen observation on a screen. Field of view
(FOV) varies with microscope brand and model with some offering FOVs of up to 0.787 inches
(20 millimeters) in diameter. The microscopes may have three to four objective lenses with a
range of magnifying capacity. Some versions are capable of magnifying up to 1,250 times.
Another type of microscope used for industrial purposes is the inverted metallurgical
microscope. This type of instrument has the objective under the stage, which allows viewing of
specimens that vary in size. As individuals typically use a metallurgical microscope for observing
surface structure, large items can be placed on the stage without anyone coming into contact
with the objectives.
Electronics manufacturers often use a metallurgical microscope as a quality control instrument,
inspecting parts for microscopic defects. Metal foundries use metallurgic optical microscopes
for grain analysis and to determine the structure of manufactured metals. Scientists use the
microscopes for analyzing and identifying metal components.

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2. Tool Makers Microscope

The tool maker’s microscope is a versatile instrument that measure by optical means with no
pressure being involved, thus very useful for measurement on small and delicate parts. It is
designed for:
a) Measurement on parts of complex form e.g. - profile of external thread, tool,
templates, gauges, etc.
b) Measuring centre to centre distance of holes in any plane.
c) A variety of linear measurements.
d) Accurate angular measurements.

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Tool maker’s microscope is shown in fig. The optical head can be moved up or down the vertical
column and can be clamped at any height by means of clamping screw. The table which is
mounted on the base of the instrument can be moved in two mutually perpendicular horizontal
directions (longitudinal and lateral) by means of accurate micrometer screw having thimble
scale and venires.
Principle of measurement: -
.

A ray of light from a light source fig. b is reflected by a mirror through 90’ It then passes
through a transparent glass plate (on which flat parts may be placed). A shadow image of the
outline or counter of the workspaces passes through the objective of the optical head and is
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projected by a system of three prisms to a ground glass screen. Observations are made through
an eyepiece. Measurements are made by means of cross lines engraved on the ground glass
screen. The screen can be rotated through 360o; the angle of rotation is read through an
auxiliary eyepiece.

3. Profile Projector
A profile projector is also referred to as an optical comparator, or even known as a
shadowgraph, a profile projector is an optical instrument utilized for measuring. It is a valuable
item in a small parts machine shop or manufacturing line for the quality control assessment
staff. The projector magnifies the profile of the specimen, and shows this on the built-in
projection screen. From this screen there is usually a grid that could be rotated 360 degrees
therefore the X-Y axis of the screen could be aligned correctly using a straight edge of the
machined part to analyze or measure. This projection screen shows the profile of the sample
and is zoomed for better ease of computing linear dimensions. An edge of the sample to
analyze could be aligned using the grid on the screen. After that, basic measurements could be
obtained for distances along with other points. This is being carried out on a zoomed profile of
the specimen. It could be easier and also lessen mistakes by measuring on the magnified
projection screen of a profile projector.
The conventional way of illumination is by diascopic illumination, and that is illumination from
behind. This kind of illumination is also known as transmitted illumination when the sample is
transparent and light can go through it. When the specimen is solid, then the light won’t go
through it, but can form a profile of the sample. Measuring of the sample can be achieved on
the projection screen.
A profile projector could also have episcopic illumination which happens to be light shining
from above. This is convenient in exhibiting bores or inner areas that needs to be measured.

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CALIBRATION INSTRUMENTS
1. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical signals
is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). The basic construction of LVDT is shown in
fig.

The transformer consists of a single primary P and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on
a cylindrical former. The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically
placed on either side of primary windings. A moveable soft iron core is placed inside the
transformer. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the soft iron
core. In practice the soft iron core is made of high permeability, nickel iron which is hydrogen
annealed. This gives low harmonics, low null voltage and high sensitivity. This is slotted
longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses. The assembly is placed in stainless steel housing
and the end leads provide electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding. The frequency of AC
applied to primary windings may be between 50Hz to 20 kHz.
Since the primary windings are excited by an alternating source, it produces an alternating
magnetic field which in turn introduces alternating current voltage in the two secondary
windings S1 and S2. The output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages
of the secondary windings.

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When the core is at its normal (NULL) position, the flux linking with both the secondary
windings are equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Therefore the output voltage of
the transducer is zero at null position.
Now if the core is moved to the left of the NULL position, more flux links with the windings S1
and less with windings S2. Similarly if the core is moved to the right of the NULL position, more
flux links with windings S2 and less with windings S1.
The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount of
movement of the core. Hence we have an indication of the amount of linear motion. By noting
which output voltage is increasing or decreasing, we can determine the direction of motion. In
other words, any physical displacement of the core causes the voltage of one secondary
winding to increase while simultaneously reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding.
The difference in the two voltages appears at the output terminals of the transducer and gives
the measure of the physical position of the core and hence the displacement.

2. Thermocouple
Thermocouple is one of the simplest and most commonly used methods of measuring process
temperature. The operation is based upon Seebeck effect. Seebeck discovered that when heat
is applied to a junction of two dissimilar metals, an emf is generated which can be measured at
the other junction (cold junction). The two dissimilar metals form an electric circuit and a
current flows as a result of the generated emf.

CONSTRUCTION OF THERMOCOUPLE
Pair of dissimilar metals that are in physical contact with each other form a thermocouple.
These metals may be twisted, screwed, clamped or welded together. The most commonly used
method for fabricating is to weld the metals together.
Thermocouples do not use bare conductors except in applications where atmospheric
conditions permit their use. These conditions obtained when temperature is to be measured
are low and atmosphere is non-corrosive. Industrial thermocouples use protective sheathing
surrounding the junction and a portion of the extension leads.

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PRECISION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Screw Pitch Gauge

A thread pitch gauge, also known as a screw pitch gauge or pitch gauge, is used to measure the
pitch or lead of a screw thread. The uppermost gauge in the image is an ISO metric pitch gauge,
the larger gauge in the center is for measuring the Acme thread form, and the lower gauge is
for Whitworth screws. Thread pitch gauges are used as a reference tool in determining the
pitch of a thread that is on a screw or in a tapped hole. This tool is not used as a precision
measuring instrument. This device allows the user to determine the profile of the given thread
and quickly categorize the thread by shape and pitch. This device also saves time, in that it
removes the need for the user to measure and calculate the thread pitch of the threaded item.

2. Feeler Gauge
A feeler gauge is a tool used to measure gap widths. Feeler gauges are mostly used in
engineering to measure the clearance between two parts. They consist of a number of small
lengths of steel of different thicknesses with measurements marked on each piece. They are

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flexible enough that, even if they are all on the same hinge, several can be stacked together to
gauge intermediate values. It is common to have two sets for imperial units (typically measured
in thousandths of an inch) and metric (typically measured in hundredths of a millimetre)
measurements. A similar device with wires of specific diameter instead of flat blades is used to
set the gap in spark plugs to the correct size; this is done by increasing or decreasing the gap
until the gauge of the correct size just fits inside the gap.

3. Wire Gauge
Wire gauge is a measurement of how large a wire is, either in diameter or cross sectional area.
This determines the amount of electric current a wire can safely carry, as well as its electrical
resistance and weight per unit of length. Wire gauge is applicable to both electrical and non-
electrical wires, being important to electrical wiring and to structural cable

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