AN ASSESSMENT INTO PEOPLE`S BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS WASTE MANAGEMENT

IN THE SQUATTER/UNPLANNED SETTLEMENT OF LUSAKA

A case study of Misisi and John Laing Compound in Lusaka Province of Zambia

by

TOMMY SHANCHOLESHA
22011012

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a Diploma in

Occupational Health and Safety Management

In the

School of Natural Sciences

At the

PHOENIX RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Study Leader: MISS NAMUTOWE

2024

i
 DECLARATION

I declare that the thesis hereby submitted for the qualification of a Diploma in Occupational Health
and Safety Management at the Phoenix Research Institute, in the faculty of Natural Sciences, is my
own independent work. I have not previously submitted and do not intend to use the same work for a
qualification at another university or faculty.

Names:

Signature:

Date:

Place:

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I hereby acknowledge with a heart full of gratitude to:

God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit for my life, from which I got the privilege of participating
in postgraduate studies.

Mrs Mercy Namutowe Banda for your professional guidance and sound leadership, I will forever be
grateful.

My lovely mother Pamela Kamanisha and Father Thomas Shancholesha Snr for your continuous
prayers and encouragement, thank you.

My sisters Cynthia, Annie, Victoria, and My Brother Reagan, Ben, Oscar, Vasco and Fred for the
confidence you continue having in me, thank you.

Mudenda Audrix Muzingwani, an all-weather friend, I will forever be grateful for your care and
continuous support. You have become family, thank you for everything.

My friend Mayamba Muimui, thank you for your encouragement.

I cannot end this list without paying tribute to the entire Phoenix Research Institute Lecturers
particularly those from the department of Occupational Health and Safety Management for their
constructive training and the knowledge they have imparted in me throughout the three years training.
May God bless you all.

COPYRIGHT

iii
This is to certify that, I Tommy Shancholesha, hereby concede full copyright of this thesis to the
Phoenix Research Institute.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

iv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Motivation 6

1.3 The problem statement 7

1.4 The main objective 7

1.5 Specific-Objectives 7

1.6 Research hypotheses 8

1.7 Outline of chapters 9

CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND INFORMATION 10

2.1 Introduction 10

2.2 Lusaka and Solid Wastes 13

2.2.1 Impacts of Solid Waste 14

2.2.2 Sustainable livelihood impact 14

2.2.3 Health impact 15

2.2.4 Water and sanitation Impact 16

2.3. Analysis of institutional intervention 17

2.4 Community proposed mitigation measures 17

2. 5 Causes of Unplanned and Community Behavior Towards Waste 17

2.6 Conclusion 18

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1. Steps in Methodology framework 19

3.2 Literature review 19

3.3 Obtaining the required data 20

v
3.3.1 Expert interviews Guides 20

3.3.2 Semi-structured/Community interviews 20

3.4 Characteristics of research participants 22

3.5 Procedures to analyze and interpret the results 33

3.6 Presentation of the Finding 33

3.6 Concluding remarks 34

CHAPTER 4: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICALFRAMEWORK

4.1 Introduction 34

4.2 Approaches to natural Hazards 34

4.2.1 Dominant approach 35

4.2.2 Behavioural approach 30

4.2.3 Structural approach 35

4.3 Vulnerability and its measurement 36

4.4 Vulnerability within the framework of hazard and risk 40

4.5 The pressure and release model 40

4.6 The progression of safety model 43

4.7 The sustainable livelihood framework 45

4.8 The ISDR framework for disaster risk reduction 49

4.9 The resilient community 52

4.10 A community based waste management response 53

4.11 The (Zambian) Environmental Management Act 54

vi
4.12 Concluding remarks 58

CHAPTER 5: APPLICATIONS AND FINDINGS 59

5.1 Characteristics of a peri-urban area Misisi and John Laing community 59

5.2 Applying the modified PAR model 63

5.2.1 Root causes 63

5.2.2 Dynamic pressures 64

5.2.3 Unsafe conditions 64

5.3 Applying the adapted progression of safety model 68

5.4 The Hyogo framework for waste Management 69

5.4.1 Awareness for change in behaviour 69

5.4.2 Knowledge development 70

5.4.3 Public commitment 70

5.4.4 Application for risk reduction measures 71

5.4.5 Effective Ignorance reduction and environmental education promotion framework 72

5.6Analysis of the conducted interviews 74

5.6.1 Expert interviews 74

5.6.2 Semi-structured interviews 75

5.7 Indicators for identification of ignorance and lack of knowledge on waste management 82

5.8 Ignorance, Unawareness resilience indicators 84

5.9 Indicators and outcomes 85

5.9.1 Social indicators and outcomes 85

5.9.2 Ecosystem indicators and outcomes 88

vii
5.9.3 Economic indicators 89

5.9.4 Political indicators 89

5.10 Indicators of resilience 90

5.11 Conclusion 91

CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Overview of Study 104

7.2 Comments on waste management challenges in Lusaka 105

7.3 Summary Discussion of Conceptual Framework 105

7.4 Climate change and land contamination 107

7.5 Recommendations 107

7.6 Conclusion 110

ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

viii
CRS Catholic Relief Services

CDERA Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency

CSO Central Statistics Office

DMMU Disaster Management Mitigation Unit

DRR Disaster Risk Reduction

ECZ Electoral Commission of Zambia

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FNDP Fifth National Development Plan

GIS Geographical Information System

HIV Human Immuno- Deficiency Virus

NSWMS National Solid Waste Management Strategy

IDS Institute of Development Studies

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

ISDR International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

LDC Least Developed Country

EPPCA Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Act

MMD Movement for Multi-Party Democracy

PF Patriotic Front

PAR Pressure and Release

RDC Residence Development Committee

SLF Sustainable Livelihood Framework

SNDP Six National Development Plan

ix
UN United Nations

USAID United States Agency for International Development

UNESCO United Nation Education Scientific Cultural Organization

ZNBC Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation

ZRCS Zambia Red Cross Society

ZVAC Zambia Vulnerability Assessment Committee

x
ANNEXURES

APPENDIX 1 Unstructured Expert Interviews

APPENDIX 2 Semi-Structured Interviews

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

xi
Figure 1: Map of Zambia 2

Figure 2: Population Size by Province, Zambia 2022 3

Figure 3: Population Size by Constituency, Zambia 2022 17

Figure 4: Houses Submerged 18

Figure 5: Summary of Adapted PAR Model 42

Figure 6: Progression of Safety Model 44

Figure 7: The Sustainable Livelihood Framework 48

Figure 8: The ISDR Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 51

Figure 9: Conceptual Framework for Vulnerability Reduction 96

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 10: Community Based Risk Reduction Planning Process 1 02

Figure 11: Phases of Community Based Disaster Management 1 04

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Characteristics of research participants of semi-structured interviews 29

Table 2: Modified PAR Model 66

Table 3: Analysis of semi-structured interviews 78

Table 4: Some definitions of Indicators 83

Table 5: Vulnerability and Resilience Indicators of Kanyama 86

ABSTRACT

xii
The increase of informal settlements in Zambia has not only created need for more services but also
created hazards and potential disasters. In the past five years and more, the community of Kanyama in
the Lusaka district and Lusaka province has continued to experience floods. This has raised many
questions about why most vulnerable people of this community are the most affected. The analysis of
the 2009/ 2010 floods discusses the impact on socio-economic, ecosystems and political variables. The
researcher of this study outlines how different characteristics of these factors have shaped people’s
livelihoods and caused vulnerability to flood hazards and the diseases it comes with.

The issue of vulnerability being associated with poverty, and people with social capital perceived to
be less vulnerable is also investigated. The subject of resilience has been analyzed with reference to
social capital and how much assets one has to be able to build resilience during floods or recover after
floods.

The impact of flooding and measurement of vulnerability and resilience through application of relevant
tools and methodologies have been investigated. These have been derived from the theoretical
frameworks from which there has been a design of an adapted framework on which recommendations
to this study have been made as a follow up on further studies.

Application of the adapted frameworks are based on the framework for vulnerability reduction and
resilience building and outlined as vulnerability assessment, identification of vulnerability and
resilience indicators, Identification of root causes, analysis of capacities, identification and linkages of
key stakeholders, review of legislation and policies, financial resource mobilization and disbursements
and decentralization of strategy formulation.

The core words used are: vulnerability, resilience, preparedness, risk, hazard, disaster, socio-economic,
ecosystems, political systems, disaster management, emergence response, and recovery and
community participation.

The work on the study began in 2011 before Zambia went for her 6th democratic elections and
concluded after the elections had taken place. Some information regarding Zambia may have changed
in line with the new government.

xiii
xiv
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Solid Waste Management (SWM) is one of the major public health concerns worldwide. The problem
is more pronounced in Less Developed Countries (LDCs) of which Zambia is one of them. Poor
management of waste not only leads to declining environmental health conditions but contributes to
disease outbreaks as well. Studies have indicated that solid waste management is a problem in many
developing countries especially in high-density areas. Effluent and other types of solid waste are
dumped either in rivers or in drainages resulting into water and air pollution. Inadequate sanitary
facilities and transport to collect waste in LDCs greatly contributes to pollution levels. Solid waste is
found in every place where there is human activity. Accumulated materials as a result of human
activity, whether from domestic or industrial operations that are deemed unworthy or rejected, require
to be disposed of as they are waste materials. In the United States of America (USA) in spring and
summer of 1987 there was a problem of solid waste disposal as the garbage barge could not find a
place to dispose the garbage. About 254 tons of garbage which include durable and nondurable goods,
containers and packaging, food scraps, yard trimmings and other miscellaneous inorganic waste from
residential, domestic and industrial sources is disposed of every year by Americans. In most countries,
garbage collection is the responsibility of the local government since the late 19th century as at that
time, it was recognized that, because of garbage. Poor Solid Waste Management has crippled many
continents Climatic stability and weather patterns therefore inducing catastrophic disasters on a global
continent. Induced disasters account for the largest number of natural disasters and affect more people
than any other type of natural hazards. Extreme weather and climate events often have severe socio-
economic impacts, such as loss of lives and livelihoods, food, water and energy scarcity, and adverse
impacts on human health and the environment (USAID, 2009).

1
Zambia has not been spared from natural disasters and hazards and disasters for epidemics, drought
and floods occur. Zambia (figure 1) is an irregularly shaped, land-locked country occupying an area
of 752,614 square kilometers. She is surrounded by Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of
Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. It has no coast, but shares vital
water bodies with neighboring countries, as the main river basins of the country are trans-boundary.
The river Zambezi drains about three quarters of the country, and the Congo River in the south about
one-quarter of the country. The country is divided into ten provinces, namely Central, Copperbelt,
Eastern, Luapula, Muchinga, Lusaka, and Northern, North-Western, Southern and Western provinces.

Figure 1: Map of Zambia

Source: Zambia Statistical Agency (2022)

These provinces consist of 72 districts. The population distribution of the ten provinces varies
considerably, with the Lusaka province having the highest population, which is attributable to Business
activities within the capital (CSO, 2022). In terms of socioeconomic development, there are variations
between provinces with respect to the profile. It is clear that there are major differences between rural
and urban provinces in terms of economic and social provisioning. Economic opportunities that tend
to be concentrated in urban centers have encouraged the phenomenal rural-urban migration that has
dire consequences for the urban centers where pressure on infrastructure services such as housing and
sanitation has been great (Fifth National Development Plan, 2006-2010).

2
Lusaka provinces a capital city of Zambia, is facing Solid Waste Management problems with the
increase of population in the province which is caused by rural-urban migration which has since
stretched authorities in waste management and policy development to match rampant increase in
housing and population. Lusaka province with a population of over 3,079,964 million (Central
Statistics Office,2022) covers an area of about 22,000 square km and has 2,190,000 hectares of land
of which 55 percent is arable (Central Statistics Office, 2000).

Figure 2: Population Size by Province, Zambia 2022

Source: Zambia Statistical Agency (2022)

3
Lusaka and North-Western parts of the country experience a lot of rains that led to flooding almost
every rain season. Kanyama and Chawama constituency with a population of 366,170 (Central
Statistics Office, 201, see figure 3) has had the problem of floods for a long time now. Floods in
Kanyama Compound go back to more than thirty years, and this brought a lot of suffering, including
the floods of 1978 that triggered compassion and creation of a Kanyama Disaster Fund, then (Ndhlovu,
2008). The problem of flooding in Kanyama and Chawama Constituency collaborates with the issue
of Solid Waste Management in John Laing and Misisi Compounds of Lusaka, this recurrent problem
usually occurs during the rainy season the period from November to March/April. “Floods have
become an annual phenomenon resulting in thousands of people being displaced while their crops have
been washed away. Infrastructure, such as bridges and roads in some parts of the country has been
damaged and an ailing economy such as Zambia cannot afford to allow such a situation to continue,’’
(Times of Zambia, 2009).

Figure 3: Population Size by Constituency, Zambia 2022

Source: Zambia Statistical Agency (2022)

Based on Lusaka City Council Department of Public Health, the volume of waste as an indicator of
environmental quality in Lusaka stands at 1500 Ton per day and only 55% of collecting efficiency
arriving at Chunga Dump site meaning Lusaka City has 45% out 1500 tons of waste generated on dairy
basis accumulating in residential and CBD centers within the capital Lusaka. John Laing and Misisi
Compounds of Lusaka shares more than a Geological setup, these compounds are one of the most
waste polluted areas of Lusaka and with squatting housing setups. The healthy and environmental

4
implications associated with solid waste management are mounting urgently particularly in the context
of developing countries like Zambia. Since SWM has been a public sector responsibility and activity
over the years, in most developing countries only a small percentage of generated waste is being
collected due to capacity constraints (Heeranum, 1993) and inadequate environmental education
(Navez-Bounchaive, 1993). The waste components are usually mixed and dumped in places that are
not designated for disposal. In Zambia, much of this type of waste is generated from residential areas
and at the moment less than ten percent (10%) on average of residential areas are serviced as regards
to waste management (ECZ, 2004). The scenario however, has been changing in many places, public
private partnership (PPP) has been viewed as being important in addressing the world’s environmental
needs (Hampwaye, 2005).

Although the weaknesses in SWM have been attributed to lack of logistics and financial management,
people’s attitudes towards waste management cannot be ignored. Abrokwah (1998), states that
management of household waste is tied to perceptions and socio-cultural practices of people. He
further states that accumulation of waste in undesignated areas could be reduced through public
awareness among residents to manage household refuse and educating them about the hazards that ill-
disposed waste could pose to the environment and themselves (Abrokwah, 1998). Since cultural
derivatives, beliefs, perceptions and attitudes are learned response sets, they can be changed through
education. This therefore, implies that people’s unconcerned attitudes towards waste management can
be changed for the better through environmental education owing to the fact that people’s behavior is
regarded as a major barrier to the successful implementation of municipal solid waste management
(Evison and Read, 2001).

A number of researches have been conducted in Zambia, however, none considered peoples’ behavior
towards solid management and factors influencing the SWM behavior and the role that environmental
education (EE) could play to try and solve the problem. Previous studies instead have focused on
capacity constraints of municipal councils, status of EE in waste management in hospitality industry
and the need for private sector involvement in the management of MSW. But the levels of knowledge
on people’s behavior towards solid waste management and the role that environmental education could
play in John Laing and Misisi Compounds of Lusaka Province is unknown. This present study intends
to address this knowledge gap.

1.2 Motivation
This study will show how improper waste management in Lusaka has been influenced by Individual
behavior interventions and the impact this has had on communities in flood prone areas like Misisi,

5
Kanyama, Chawama and John Laing Compounds. Despite the fact that the government has shown
political will in waste management and plans to redevelop these shanty compounds, there is a lot that
needs to be done to improve waste management in Lusaka and a country Zambia as a whole. Even
though floods are natural events, other inevitable factors like wastes have contributed to the
vulnerability of those that live in flood affected areas. Poverty is also one of the underlying causes and
this will be explored to find out how the behavior of residents in these squatter settlements has been
influenced towards waste management due to high poverty levels. Waste affect areas where people,
who are subjected to different economic, social and cultural constraints, settle. The impact of waste on
society will depend on the effectiveness’s of waste management and environment education (Mwiinga,
LISWMC, 2024).

Different people respond differently to the impacts of Poor Solid Waste Management and this study
will explore the ways communities such as Misisi and John Liang has adopted to handle solid waste
in their locality and the community initiative used to combat this problem. A number of researches has
revealed that improper waste management has resulted in outbreak of disease with varying severities
of which these communities has evidently survived in squatter settlement of Lusaka and the study will
investigate further to find out whether the population truly understands and has considered the health
and environmental risk of improper solid waste management and what makes them adapt and continue
living in such a considerably polluted environment.

The focus of this study is about the role of people`s behavior in waste management using the Misisi
and John Laing compounds as a case study. This study also examines the notion of Ignorance with
regard to the target community. The underlying causes of the community’s perceived negative
behavior towards waste management are examined and why different individuals or groups are less
affected than others shall be investigated. The analysis should provide a clearer and wider
understanding of the underlying causes of individual wasted management behavior and attitudes in a
local setting.

1.3 The problem statement

The problem statement for this research is captured in the following research questions:
≈ What are factors influencing individual waste management practice behavior in the
unplanned/squatter settlement of Lusaka city study areas?

≈ What are different behavioral patterns within squatter settlement of Lusaka city study areas?

6
 ≈ What are the current waste management practices within study areas of Lusaka city unplanned
settlement?

≈ How is the impact of waste management practices employed in these study areas and the
community involvement in these same waste management practices?

1.4 The main objective

The main objective of this study is to assess the people`s behavior towards waste management in the
squatter settlements of Lusaka by using the most applicable and relevant tools and methodologies.

1.5 Sub-objectives
≈ To Assess Current Waste Management Practices; evaluate the existing waste practices within
the squatter settlement of Lusaka including waste collection, disposal, recycling, and
segregation.
≈ To Identify Behavioral Patterns; examine the behavior of residents towards waste management,
including their attitudes, knowledge, and participation in waste related activities.

≈ To Determine Factors Influencing Behavior; investigate the factors influencing people`s waste
management behavior such as socioeconomic status, education, cultural beliefs, and access to
resources.

≈ To Explore community involvement and cooperation in waste management efforts including

the role of local leaders or organizations

≈ assess environmental impact of current waste management practices within these settlements,
including pollution, sanitation and potential health risks

1.6 Research hypotheses

The following hypotheses will give guidance to the research:
≈ The context of this research revolves around the relationship between waste and
environments and social, economic and political systems which contribute to varying levels of
people’s behavior towards waste management in shanty compounds of Lusaka province. The
differences in socio-economic and political characteristics shape people’s livelihoods and
produce unequal exposure to risk, hence the varying level of vulnerability among the
population (Cannon, 1994 and Varley, 1994).

7
 ≈ Ignorance is most associated with luck of Education. It is believed that when people are
not educated, they are vulnerable to ignorance because they luck knowledge to understand
things on wider range view. Vulnerability however, is caused by many factors which mostly
includes poverty. In this study the hypothesis is to determine whether being uneducated and
poor makes a person ignorance and vulnerable the impacts of improper solid management.

≈ Are people only willing to mitigate risks that directly affect them. Rogers (1975)
introduced PMT, proposed a conceptual framework to explain factors predicting risk
preventive behaviors. This theory assumes that an individual’s decision to engage in risk
preventive actions is taken on the basis of their desire or motivation to protect themselves from
a threat that may affect an individual’s environmental awareness and pro-environmental
actions. (Prentice-Dunn & Rogers, 1986). This proves that PMT can be used in pro
environmental behavior analysis including Sustainable Waste Management Behaviors
(SWMBs).

1.7 Outline of chapters

The researcher brings to light experiences of the Misisi and John Laing community that has been
affected by waste and how the community is currently responding to waste in their locality. The issue
of Ignorance reduction and Environmental Education(EE) to building resilience for the people of
Misisi and John Laing is said to be the researcher’s main concern. The study is presented according to
chapters as follows:
≈ Chapter 1 outlined the rationale for objectives and sub objectives of the research, as a
definition and description of the problem statement and its intended solutions.
≈ Chapter 2 is about history and description of the study area, including the physical and socio-
economic factors of the case study. The history of poor solid waste management in the study
area and the extent of it is also discussed.
≈ Chapter 3 addresses methodology and development of indicators regarding Ignorance and
people`s knowledge on solid waste management. A brief description of some types of
qualitative research is mentioned. The methods regarding the data required, the location of the
data, how the researcher collected, analyzed and interpreted the data are explained.
≈ Chapter 4 presents the literature review and theoretical framework of the study

8
≈ Chapter 5 reports findings and analysis of data collected and observations made on Ignorance
and people`s knowledge on solid waste management. Relevant characteristics of the study area
are discussed to assist in determining the extent of people`s Ignorance and knowledge.
≈ Chapter 6 contains some discussions and a review of concepts.
≈ Chapter 7 contains the conclusion, summary and recommendations of the study.

9
 CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

2.1 Introduction
This chapter gives background information for the study. After a brief overview, positioning the study
area in Zambia with regard to location, political dispensation, developmental challenges and the
overall waste management problem, the problem of waste for the study area, Misisi and John Laing
compounds is addressed.

Lusaka, the capital and largest city of Zambia, is one of the fastest developing cities in Southern Africa.
As of 2022, the city’s population was about 3,079,964 million, up from 2,191,225 million in 2010.
Lusaka’s population growth has led to an increase in solid waste coming from the peri-urban areas.
Solid waste management has been a challenge for the Lusaka authorities due to the peri-urban areas’
over-population. According to the LCC, the peri-urban areas generate 70% of the city’s solid waste,
and half of it remains uncollected. Most of these areas are too big for effective collection of solid
waste, and there is a lack of GIS data of these areas that would facilitate developing solutions.

The city lies at the junction of the Great North Road (to Tanzania) and the Great East Road (to Malawi)
and has rail connections to Livingstone and Ndola in Zambia and to Tanzania. The surrounding area
consists mostly of flat grassland that supports ranches and farms. Termite mounds 10 to 20 feet (3 to
6 meters) high are a regular feature of the landscape. Farming and stock raising are the principal
economic activities in the region, and products include corn, beef, hides, dairy products, and tobacco.
The Nyanja and Soli are the major ethnic groups in the area; there are minorities of Europeans and
Asians. Pop. (2000) 1,084,703; (2010 prelim.) 1,742,979.

10
Figure 4: Map of Zambia Indicating Location of Lusaka
Source: Locator Map Lusaka (23rd June, 2022)
The city has its own major problems of lack of serviced land, speculation on land, complex procedures
and lack of correct information of land use and land ownership, lack of human resources, the slow
pace of issuing security of land tenure, the failure of effective master planning, increase in illegal
settlements and political inference in land allocation and poor waste management systems. There are
also problems of population growth, urban migration and unemployment. The city seems to have
limited capacity to provide services to its people. Misisi and John Compounds are both affected as
they are some of the biggest informal settlements in Lusaka. These townships are characterized by lack
of shelter, lack of essential infrastructure, poor access to clean water and good sanitation facilities and
services, making the residents vulnerable to flood and epidemics hazards or disasters (UN-Habitat for
Humanity, 2007).

His Excellency the president of Zambia Dr. Hakainde Hichilema addressing the issue of flooding in
Lusaka on 27th February, 2023 called for urgent measures to address the flood situation in Lusaka and
since emphasized the need for proper city planning, the redesigning of the drainage system, and the
relocation of people to safer areas. He also urged residents to play their part in mitigating the impact

11
of the heavy rains by avoiding the indiscriminate disposal of waste and taking care of the city’s
infrastructure.

The late Republican President of Zambia, Rupiah Bwezani Banda (2010), in his opening speech in the
National Assembly of Zambia said, “Despite Zambia following in the category of Least Developed
Countries (LDCs), the country’s economy until after 1991 depended on copper mining. Now there has
been diversification from copper mining to agriculture. The agriculture sector has grown so much that
Zambia is able to export its maize. There has also been an emphasis on livestock farming and a
department of livestock was established in 2008. The country at the moment looks economically viable
for foreign investment. Some new mines have been opened such as Lumwana copper mines in the
North-Western part of the country. The construction industry is also coming up very well with most
investors coming from South Africa. The financial sector is also expanding and the period between
2009/2010 saw the opening of more than five commercial banks and many microlending institutions,
even with the recent economic crisis which hit most of the United States, Europe and many countries
in the world. The growth rate of 6.6% is being driven by the mining, agriculture, tourism and
construction sectors. The inflation rate of a single digit of 9% has been achieved as well and this is
expected to decline further to 8% within a one year period. Zambia’s macroeconomic objectives for
2010 were to sustain positive growth and maintain stability. In addition the government wants to set
out to accelerate diversification programme, enhance competitiveness of economy and pursue
infrastructure development’’.

Despite the achievement in sectors, Zambia still suffers from one of inevitable challenges of waste
management and has since being negatively affected by climate change. According to its Zambia
Eighth National Development Plan (8NDP 2022-2026), Unsustainable exploitation of natural
resources in Zambia is evidenced through deforestation and forest degradation, land degradation,
encroachment of protected areas, unsustainable fishing, loss of biodiversity, unsustainable production
and consumption patterns, and uncontrolled human settlements, among others. Land cover maps for
the years 2000 to 2015 show that human activities such as expansion of settlements and land under
agriculture reduced forest cover from 47.05 million hectares in 2000 to 45.94 million hectares in 2015.
As of 2018, estimates indicate that the country has been losing in excess of 172,000 hectares of forest
cover per annum. In addition, the country’s wetlands and aquifers have come under severe pressure
from development as the demand for housing and water increases. The country has also suffered from
biodiversity loss due to mining operations, agricultural expansion, illegal exploitation of forest,
fisheries and wildlife resources as well as the advent of invasive species of plants and organisms.

12
Additionally, the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources and poor environmental management
have contributed to increased incidences of adverse climate change effects such as droughts, floods
and extreme temperatures. The impacts of these effects have primarily affected the agriculture, energy
and water sectors. This has resulted in decreased hydroelectricity generation capacity, food insecurity
and limited access to clean drinking water for people and animals.

Further, the 2020 University of Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative index ranked Zambia as the
41st most vulnerable country to the impacts of climate change out of 182 countries. Climate change
and variability have led to adverse effects such as droughts, floods and extreme temperatures on key
sectors including energy, agriculture and water.

These adverse impacts of climate change that Zambia and the global community is currently facing,
the good percentage of its causes are humanly induced. The management of various types of waste has
over the years been having it difficult and challenging issue to effectively execute their agendasS. This
difficulty has manifested itself in the perennial outbreak of diseases such as cholera, dysentery and
pollution of water resources, air, soil or land contamination, proliferation of pests and vermin, and the
loss of aesthetic beauty, NSWMS (2004).

2.2 Zambia and Waste Management

Solid waste is defined under the EPPCA as garbage, refuse, sludge, and other discarded substances
resulting from industrial and commercial operations and from domestic and community activities. This
includes such classes of waste as hazardous including waste oils, and wastes arising from mining
activities excluding gaseous waste and wastewater.
Solid Waste Management (SWM) is a major public health concern worldwide as poor management of
waste not only leads to declining environmental health conditions but also contributes to disease
outbreaks (Zulu 2019). This creates the challenge of how to handle waste, especially after disposal
(Guerrero et al. 2013), making sustainable solid waste treatment a vital area of engagement for future
city development. It is important that effective and sustainable waste management practices are
developed to ensure that all generated waste is well disposed of and treated thereafter.

UN-Habitat (2010) highlighted that Zambia’s waste generation rates were approximately 0.52 kg per
person daily. While this may seem modest compared to the 1.2 kg per person generated in most
developed countries, most garbage in the developed states is not collected by municipal collection
systems because of poor management, equipment failure, or inadequate garbage management budgets,

13
thereby worsening waste management and sustainable disposal and treatment, such as the case of
Zambia. Zambia Environmental Management Agency (2011) argues that despite the existence of a
national SWM strategy, the growth of the urban population and increased economic activity had
resulted in an accumulation of waste. This study did further investigation to prove the validity and
depth of the cited claim. Even though equipment failure and inadequate budgets was a known problem
at the time of the study, the UN-Habitat statement on worsening waste management was since further
investigated in this report.

2.2.1 Impacts of Solid Waste

The poor solid waste management is a global problem that has adversely impacted the global
community Zambia included. However, lack of environmental awareness especially in Africa where
the impacts of climate change are just starting surface is very come and this makes it difficult to track
environmental, economic, social and health impact of our poor solid waste management behaviors.
The researcher did analysis of local health reports regarding cholera in the study areas including a
Zambia Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ZVAC) Rapid Assessment Report (2010), which was
done following the 2010 floods in Lusaka. The review of these reports reviewed a number of
challenges associated with poor handling of waste on Sustainable livelihood, health, water and
sanitation, in the following ways:

2.2.2 Sustainable livelihood impact

Kanyama constituency, one of Zambia’s large high-density areas with lots of unplanned communities
including Misisi and John Laing. Kanyama comprises of people whose main source of livelihood is
entrepreneurship. People sell vegetables, groundnuts and other food stuffs. Some have small shelters
turned into shops/stalls to sell their merchandizes, which also includes washing detergents, soaps and
other domestic household items. During the rainy seasons, the suburb areas of Kanyama constituency
experiences flooding and most of people’s small shops becomes waterlogged and the roads become
impassable, the waste that members of communities in discriminatively dump results in the outbreaks
of lots of disease including cholera and other waterborne disease, this triggers the closure and stoppage
of trading in this communities by Public Health Practitioners. The little income for basic needs was no
longer there, making it very difficult to survive.

2.2.3 Health impact

Indiscriminate dumping of waste in flood prone areas like Misisi and John Laing communities of
Kanyama constituency in Lusaka province has over the years resulted in number of diseases especially

14
during the rainy season. The flooding incidences especially in poorly planned urban residential areas
with poor sanitation and water supply has been observed to causes increase in coli form count levels
in groundwater resources leading to high incidences of water borne diseases.

Figure 5: Houses surrounded by wastes

Source: Researcher`s own field photos (2024)

During the rain seasons the floods brought about a number of health problems. This study area is very
vulnerable to cholera and other waterborne diseases such as dysentery and diarrhea. Cholera cases had
been reported. The stagnant water was a breeding place for mosquitoes leading to high cases of malaria.
There were cases of skin infection on people’s feet due to the contaminated water.

15
Figure 6: Houses submerged
Source: Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU) National Contingency Plan for
2010/2011

2.2.4 Water and sanitation impact

According to ZVAC Rapid Assessment Report (2010), it was reported that there was a shortage of
piped water and the community relied on shallow wells and this led to lack of clean water, as shallow
wells was submerged. The Zambian government have made some progress in reference to the 2010
cited reported, however, the challenge still existing mostly of community`s behavior towards these
developmental initiatives. Nonetheless the problem remains in existence and absence of clean and safe
drinking water is a causes outbreaks of water borne diseases such as cholera and dysentery as discussed
in the previous paragraph.

2.3 Analysis of institutional intervention

The outlined impacts of SWM above entails that there is still work to be done regarding SWM and
reducing community susceptibility human induced disaster like floods and cholera epidemics in
Lusaka squatter communities. Direct message from municipals needed. There was an attempt by
government and other key stakeholders such as Care International (Zambia), the Zambia Red Cross

16
Society and the Catholic Relief Services (CRS) to build community resilience through its mitigation
and response actions to the floods through community redevelopment plans.

There is more that should be done, however, to reduce vulnerability and build resilience to floods in
this community. The starting point for reducing climate change impacts and promoting a positive
behavior and attitudes towards SWM. The success of this lies in the knowledge of the hazards and the
physical, social, economic and environmental conditions and to disseminate the results to decision
makers, the public and populations at risk (UN, 2005).

2.4 Community proposed mitigation measures

In 2010, the Kanyama Constituency community recommended to government and relevant
stakeholders such as Care International (Zambia) and Catholic Relief Services (CRS-Zambia) that they
wanted portable toilets, worst affected families are to be relocated, stagnant water be disinfected and
flood water be pumped out. Other recommended measures included building of more clinics, planned
house constructions and rehabilitation and upgrading of roads.
A community to be successful in addressing the problem needs to be empowered in all the core spheres
of development, of socio-economic and environmental matters. The community must also have
knowledge of how political systems and civic functions in country operations.

2.5 Cause of Unplanned settlements and Community Behavior Towards Waste

There is always a reason as to why people behave the way they do and the focus of this to understand
why the people of Misisi and John Laing behave the way they do towards SWM initiative and practices.
There are several factors that influences human behavior and some of these comes back as a crossmatch
to those outlined as reasons for relatively high impacts of flooding in Kanyama constituency, these
factors correspond with author`s and ZVAC`s reasons and these includes urbanization, high poverty
levels, illiteracy, and lack of education, lack of employment, poor governmenance, land use
management policies and population growth Impact.

All these variables should be further explored and analyzed, to find out whether indeed they are the
root causes of unplanned settlements and negative behavior towards SWM which exacerbates the
impacts of floods and disease. The rapid growth of Lusaka, as a city has also caused great social and
economic impacts on townships, like Misisi and John Laing. People from rural areas of Zambia come
to Lusaka in the hope of finding jobs for a better livelihood. Because of low earned income or lack of

17
it, the chances of most people in this community of renting decent accommodation or construction it
is limited.

2.6 Conclusion
In this Chapter, the author discussed the background information to SWM in Zambia. The focus on
poor solid waste management and reflecting on 2010 floods in Kanyama Constituency which reflected
issues to do with lack of physical planning of land use and unplanned settlements. The situation shows
the Ignorance and vulnerability of people to waste and its impact on human life sustainable livelihood,
health and water and sanitation. The people that were affected do not have adequate spending power,
savings or meaningful investment to engage proper waste management practices which involves
paying waste collector late alone recover from any negative impact of flood disasters or hazards. Some
people may have the knowledge of poor solid waste management but will only react when the impact
affects them directly.
In the subsequent chapters, theoretical perspectives on waste management approaches, ignorance,
awareness and vulnerability frameworks relating to this research are presented and applied. ignorance
and awareness indicators are expressed qualitatively and discussed in analyzing the findings of the
study.

18
 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.0 Introduction

In chapter one, the background to the study together with aims and objectives were discussed. In this
chapter, the theoretical framework which was used in the study is described in more depth.

A theory is simply defined as a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that explains
or predicts events or situations by specifying the relations among the variables. A theoretical
framework on the other hand refers to how the researcher or writer of the report not only questions,
but ponders and develops thoughts or theories on what the possible answers could be, then these
thoughts and theories are grouped together into themes that frame the subject. Theorizing is the process
of identifying a core set of connectors within a topic and showing how they fit together,
http://www.ask.com/question/what-is-the-meaning-oftheoreticalframework. Theoretical framework
plays an important role in guiding the entire process of the research study. This research uses Protection
Motivation Theory that explains the reason why people will choose to engage in combating waste
management risks and socio-ecological theory that explains people’s perceptions and behaviors in
solid waste management.

3.1 Socio-ecological theory

The term ecology originates in the biological sciences and refers to the interrelationships between
organisms and their environments. Ecological and socialecological theory of human behavior have
evolved over a number of decades in the fields of sociology, psychology, education and health and
focus on the nature of people’s interactions with their environments. Environmental health behaviors,
including proper waste disposal, are thought to be improved when environments and policies support
healthy choices, and individuals are motivated and educated to make those choices (World Health
Organization 1986). Educating people to make environmentally healthy choices when environments
are not supportive will not be effective in making behavioral change. The social-ecological theory
acknowledges that it takes a combination of both individual level and environmental/policy level
interventions to achieve substantial changes in health behaviors, including proper waste disposal
behavior.

Human behavior is difficult to change, especially in an environment that does not support change. In
order to increase residents’ participation in solid waste management, efforts need to focus not only on
the behavior choices of each individual but also on factors that influence those choices. The social-

19
ecological theory helps to identify opportunities to promote participation of individuals in solid waste
management by recognizing the multiple factors that influence an individual’s behavior. Efforts to
change behavior are more likely to be successful when the multiple levels of influence are addressed
at the same time, www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/documents/vce/pdf.

The social-ecological model developed out of the work of a number of prominent researchers. These
include:

≈ Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (1979), which focused on the relationship
between the individual and the environment.
≈ Kenneth McLeroy’s Ecological Model of Health Behaviors (1988), which classified five
different levels of influence on health behavior.
≈ Daniel Stokols’s Social Ecology Model of Health Promotion (1992, 2003), identified the core
assumptions which underpin the social-ecological model (Glanz 2008, pp. 468–469).

The work of these and other researchers has been used and modified and has evolved into what is
referred to as the social-ecological model.

Components of the social-ecological model

There are four major components of the socio-ecological model as discussed below:

The individual - is at the centre of the social-ecological model. This level includes personal factors
that increase or decrease the likelihood of an individual being physically active. Individual factors
which influence people’s participation include: knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, perceived
barriers, motivation, level of education, socioeconomic status. Strategies which bring change at the
individual level tend to focus on changing an individual’s knowledge, attitudes and behaviors. They
include education and awareness programs.

Social environment- Surrounding the individual in the social-ecological model is the social
environment. The social environment comprises the relationships, the culture and the society with
whom the individual interacts. The social environment has a significant influence on waste
management behavior. The social environment include cultural background, socioeconomic status of
the community, institutions and organizations, such as schools, workplaces and community
organizations, access to social support networks versus social isolation etc.

20
Strategies which bring change at the social environment level include community education, support
groups, awareness programs, workplace incentives and social marketing campaigns. These are used to
promote positive community attitudes and awareness to participation in proper waste disposal.

Physical environment - environmental activities take place in physical environments. Physical

environment includes the natural environment and the built (or man-made) environment. The physical
environment includes: natural factors such as availability and access to facilities such as waste bins,
www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/documents/vce/pdf.

The built environment provides opportunities for intervention, such as provision of waste collection
services. Strategies focusing on the physical environment usually should be put in place before
educational or community awareness initiatives are attempted. Sometimes educational initiatives
encourage impossible or unrealistic behavior. For example, media campaigns that encourage people to
exhibit proper waste disposal behaviors will be ineffective in communities where there are no waste
bins. In this scenario, education and awareness programs are more likely to be effective when preceded
by programs for the development of community facilities (Sallis et al, 1998).

Policy - This refers to legislation, regulatory or policy making actions that have the potential to affect
waste management. These are often formal legal actions taken by local or state governments but also
can be informal local policies or rules in settings such as communities or workplaces. Policy includes
education policies such as mandating time for environmental education classes, health policies,
environmental policies and funding policies.

Figure 7: Structure of Socio-ecological Model

Source: www.wikispaces.com/weeks+3%264+-+components+social-ecological+models.

21
The social-ecological model is based on four core principles:

a) Multiple factors influence behaviors- efforts to change behavior, including solid waste
management behavior, should be based on the understanding of the interrelationship between the four
levels of the social-ecological model: individual, social environment, physical environment and policy.
Solid waste management interventions are more likely to be successful when they target multiple
components of the social-ecological model, www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/documents/vce/pdf.

b) Environments are multidimensional and complex - Social or physical environments can be

described as containing a variety of features or attributes. Environments can also be described in terms
of their actual or perceived qualities. The variable nature of environments has a direct implication on
the design of initiatives to promote residents participation in solid waste management. For example, a
community may have disposal waste bins in place; however their perceptions/ understanding about
health effects of ill disposed waste may prevent them from using this (waste bins) aspect of their
physical environment.

c) Human-environment interactions can be described at varying levels of organization. Human

interactions with the environment can occur at individual, small group, organizational, community or
population levels. The social-ecological model does not just focus on the individual but includes
multiple levels of human interaction with environments. For example, interventions promoting proper
waste disposal activity can be large such as whole population mass media campaigns or may focus on
organizations such as a school or workplace settings or may be based around a local community which
they are tailored to. The effectiveness of campaigns to promote proper waste management is enhanced
when they target differing levels of the human-environment interaction
www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/documents/vce/pdf.

The interrelationships between people and their environment are dynamic. There is a reciprocal
relationship between people and their environments. The social, physical and policy environments
influence the behavior of the individual, while at the same time behavior of the individual, group or
organization also impact on the wellbeing of their environments. The environment can control or set
limits to proper waste disposal behavior that occurs within it. Making a change in the environment can
result in a modification of behavior (Stokols 1992). Example of this reciprocal relationships include:

22
 ≈ Lack of environmental education and access to facilities such as waste collection services and
waste bins limits the number of people who will exhibit proper waste disposal methods
(environment influencing behavior).
≈ Increasing numbers of people who are knowledgeable about the health effects of ill disposed
solid waste may influence governments to provide facilities such waste bins in strategic places
and to offer environmental education to people that may not be aware of the environmental
effects of their behaviors (behavior influencing the environment).

The social-ecological theory needs to be tailored to suit particular behaviors and population groups.
While the components of the social-ecological model will remain the same and can be used in a range
of populations, the specific examples within each component will vary depending on the population
group (Elder 2007, p. 156). This theory was deemed relevant to this study in that it outlines a number
of factors that are at play in the way people behave and perceive solid waste management. It also
highlights the importance of education in behavioral change. In this study the specific aspects of the
social ecological theory used include the individual factors, policy and the physical environment. The
study sought to establish how attitudes and knowledge influence residents’ participation in SWM and
how EE could be used to bring about change in attitudes and behavior. The policy environment is said
to influence the behavior of individuals, this study therefore wanted to establish how solid waste
management policy influences waste disposal behaviors in Choma. The physical environment such as
availability of waste bins is important to shape individual behavior. This study also sought to establish
how the physical environment provided opportunity for intervention in waste disposal practices.

3.2: Protection Motivation Theory

Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) is a theory explaining the impact of persuasive communication
on protective behaviour with an emphasis on cognitive mechanisms mediating fear appeals and
behaviour change. PMT is based on Expectancy-Value Theory (Rogers, 1975). Expectancy Value
Theory postulates that expectancy and value are the two factors determining the likelihood of a person
engaging in behaviour (Vroom, 1964). Expectancy concerns the probability that behaviour will result
in the desired outcome, while value refers to the utility that an individual assigns to that outcome. It is
believed that motivation is the result of the multiplicative impact of value and expectancy. That means
that strong motivation is possible when people score high on both constructs. If either of the factors is
equal to zero, motivation falls to zero too (Vroom, 1964). While PMT does not incorporate expectancy
and value factors in the model, the theory postulates that people behave in a certain manner due to the

23
expectancy of the consequences of their actions, which have a certain value (Floyd, Prentice-Dunn &
Rogers, 2000;Prentice-Dunn & Rogers, 1986;Rogers, 1975).

Protection Motivation Theory considers the motivation to adopt the recommended behaviour as an
attitudinal state (attitude change) predicted by cognitive processes mediating the effect of fear appeals
(Rogers, 1975) (Figure 1). In line with expectancy-value theories (Atkinson, 1964;Edwards,
1954;Rogers, 1975) broke down fear appeals into three crucial stimuli, namely magnitude of the
noxiousness of an event, the probability of event occurrence, and efficacy of recommended response
reducing the stimuli of the noxious event. For example, studies in health psychology examine fear
stimuli, such as the strength and the probability of cardiac attacks, and the efficacy of a healthy diet
and lifestyle in reducing the likelihood of cardiac diseases (Plotnikoff & Higginbotham, 1998).

Fear appeals could present communication about one and the combination of two or three of the
mentioned components that may trigger cognitive processes. These cognitive processes represent
appraisals of the communicated information about the noxiousness of a negative event, its probability
of occurrence and efficacy of response. The cognitive processes reflect the appraisal of the severity of
a threatening event, the expectancy of exposure to the threat and the efficacy of a coping response
(Rogers, 1975). Appraisal of the severity of the threat concerns the evaluation of the degree to which
the event can cause harm and damage. Expectancy of exposure refers to the assessment of the extent
to which a person is susceptible to the threatening event, while the efficacy of a coping response is a
belief that the adaptive behaviour would be effective in mitigating the threat. Each appraisal process
corresponds and is roughly proportional to the fear appeal component, e.g. the strength of threat
severity appraisal is similar to the strength of the magnitude of the noxious event (Rogers, 1975). For
the cognitive processes to lead to protective behaviour, their effect should be multiplicative, meaning
that all beliefs should be sufficiently salient to lead to adaptive behaviour – i.e. belief that the threat is
serious and individuals are vulnerable to it, as well as the belief that the suggested action is feasible to
carry out and will be effective against the imminent threat (Rogers, 1975). This assumption is in line
with the principle of Expectancy Value Theory (Vroom, 1964), which means that a zero score on any
of the cognitive processes would reduce motivation to zero.

24
Figure 8: Protection Motivation Theory

Source: Marikyan, D. & Papagiannidis, S. (2023) Protection Motivation Theory: A review. In S.

Papagiannidis (Ed), TheoryHub Book. Available at https://open.ncl.ac.uk / ISBN: 9781739604400

Concepts

Response Efficacy (Independent): The belief that the adaptive response will work, that taking the
protective action will be effective in protecting the self or others. (Floyd, Prentice-Dunn & Rogers,
2000)

Self-efficacy (Independent): The perceived ability of the person to actually carry out the adaptive
response. (Floyd, Prentice-Dunn & Rogers, 2000) TheoryHub Book: Protection Motivation Theory

Response Cost (Independent): The costs (e.g. monetary, personal, time, effort) associated with taking
the adaptive coping response (Floyd, Prentice-Dunn & Rogers, 2000)

25
Fear (Independent): A negatively valenced emotion representing a response that arises from
recognizing danger. This response may include any combination of apprehension, fright, arousal,
concern, worry, discomfort, or a general negative mood, and it manifests itself emotionally,
cognitively, and physically (Boss et al., 2015)

Perceived Threat Severity (Independent): How serious the individual believes that the threat would
be to him- or herself (Milne, Sheeran & Orbell, 2000)

Perceived Threat Vulnerability (Independent): How personally susceptible an individual feels to the
communicated threat (Milne, Sheeran & Orbell, 2000)

Maladaptive Rewards (Independent): The general rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic) of not protecting
oneself, contrary to the fear appeal. (Boss et al., 2015)

Adaptive Behaviour (Dependent): A purposeful choice of a danger-control response in response to a

fear appeal and choosing a behaviour that protects against the danger raised in the fear appeal (Boss et
al., 2015)

3.3: Summary

In this chapter, the theoretical perspectives on people’s perceptions and behaviors in solid waste
management were discussed. A number of factors that affect people’s behavior towards the
environment such as physical environment and the policy were also discussed. The conclusion that can
be drawn from this chapter is that the social, physical and policy environments influence the behavior
of the individual, while at the same time behavior of the individual can also be determined by the
magnitude of stimuli and the need to protect oneself. The environment can control or set limits to
proper waste disposal behavior that occurs within it.

Chapter three gives an overview of the literatures relevant to this study.

26
 CHAPTER 4: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The factors that affect human behavior in terms of physical environment and policy were also
discussed. However, this particular chapter captures the literatures relevant to the study subject and
are since described in more details in terms of different behavioral patterns regarding waste
management practices. The reviewed literature show that the process of living, eating and dying all
use consumer products whose production and use generate waste (Tammemagi, 1993: 3, in Ddungu,
2004). With the progress of civilization, the waste generated became of a more complex nature. At the
end of the 19th century the industrial revolution saw a rise of the world of consumers. Not only did the
air become more polluted but the land itself became more polluted with the generation of non-
biodegradable solid waste (Karpagam, 1999).

Rampant waste generation is trending globally and regionally, Zambia inclusive, varying significantly
due to factors such as population density, economic development, industrialization, urbanization,
waste management infrastructure, and cultural practices. Waste generation, both domestic and
industrial, continues to increase world-wide in line with growth in consumption. A study carried out
by Richard (2002) entitled “study on solid waste management options for Africa” revealed that in
developed countries, per capita waste generation increased nearly 3-fold over the last two decades,
reaching a level five to six times higher than that in developing countries. With increases in population
and living standards, waste generation in developing countries is also increasing rapidly, and may
double in volume in the decade (Richard, 2002). Richard (2002) further states that if current trends
continue, the world may see a five-fold increase in waste generation by the year 2025. The high
generation of waste entails that source reduction as a waste management strategy is important hence
the need to change peoples’ attitudes through EE. As a result, environmental education and awareness
in the areas of pollution control and waste management became increasingly important from a global
perspective of resource management (Agunwamba, 1998). It is for this reason that, Mamatha, (2011),
states that without proper education, orientation and

public awareness at all levels of society; it would be difficult to manage solid waste. This creates the
need to develop integrated approach where the public, private and community sectors work together
to develop local solutions in promoting sustainable solid waste management.

4.1 Solid Waste Management in Developed Countries

27
Urban authorities the world over are facing increasing problems in the collection and difficulties of
solid waste (Robert, 1996). In developed countries solid waste problems usually centre on the high
costs of disposing the large quantities of waste generated by household and businesses. The United
States, with only 4.7% of the world’s population, produces about 33% of the world’s solid waste
(Miller, 2003). About 97.5% of this solid waste comes from mining, oil and natural gas production,
agriculture and industrial activities used to produce goods and services to consumers. Another 1.5%
of solid waste produced is municipal solid waste (MSW) from homes and businesses in or near urban
areas. The amount of MSW, currently produced in the United States each year amounts to about 200
million metric tonnes, almost twice as much as in 1970 (Miller, 2003). This is the world’s highest per
capita solid waste production and many times the rate in developing countries. The solid waste
generated is managed in different ways. Examples of waste handling systems include:

• Reuse – is a form of waste reduction that extends resource supplies. It keeps high-quality matter
resources from being reduced to low matter-quality waste. Two examples for reuse are refillable glass
beverage bottles and refillable soft drink bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastics.

• Recycling- is another waste management strategy in developed countries. In 1999, about 28% of
United States’ municipal solid waste was recycled or composted. The US has more than 8,800
municipal curb side recycling programmes serving 51% of the population. One advantage of recycling
and composting is that they are land serving and pollution reducing strategies (Miller, 2003). Studies
have shown that one of the best ways to encourage recycling is pay- as- you throw programme that
bases garbage collection on the amount of waste a household generates for disposal; materials sorted
out for recycling are hauled away free. In Australia, for instance the recycling rate is high and is
increasing, with 99% of households reporting that they had recycled or reused some of their waste
within the year 2002, up from 85% in 1992 (Miller, 2003). This suggests that Australians are in favour
of reduced or no land filling and the recycling of waste. The advantage of recycling and reuse is that
they prevent creation of waste at source and reduce amount of waste thrown into community dustbins
or disposal sites.

• Incineration- This method involves the burning of waste in well-designed confined container at a
high temperature. In the United States, about 16% of the mixed trash in municipal solid waste is
combusted in about 170 mass-burn incinerators (Miller, 2003). However, since 1985, there has been a
decrease in the use of incineration for treating wastes in some parts of the world because of high costs,
health threats from air pollution and intensive citizen opposition. Incineration is carried out both on a
small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. Incineration is common in countries such

28
as Japan where land is scarcer, as these facilities generally do not require as much land as landfills.
Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy from waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a
furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam and/or electricity. Incineration is a controversial method of
waste disposal, due to such issues as emission of gaseous pollutants. On the other hand, this method
produces heat that can be used as energy, (http://en.wikipedia.org).

• Landfill- disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying waste, and this remains a common practice
in most countries today developed, developing and or, under-developed. In a sanitary landfill, solid
wastes are spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered daily with a fresh layer of clay or plastic
foam. About 54% by weight of the MSW in the US is buried in sanitary landfills compared to 90% in
the UK, 80% in Canada, 15% in Japan, and 12% in Switzerland (Miller, 2003). In Canadian urban
centres curb side collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collects waste
and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their
waste by hauling it to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional land fill,
(http://en.wikipedia.org). European Union (2010) literature revealed that most developed countries are
implementing solid waste management strategies based on ‘waste hierarchy’ by emphasizing re-use
and improving the quality of products that can be recycled. The hierarchy of MSWM is said to be an
internationally accepted and practical concept in many countries throughout the world especially in
developed countries (EU, 2010). The concept is used as a guideline for planning modern MSWM
facilities. EU (2010) defines waste hierarchy order as a waste management behavior which relates to
recycling, reusing and reduction. The EU waste policy legislation aims to move waste management up
the waste hierarchy, through public education.

Waste management hierarchy

Good waste management begins with preventing waste being produced. Waste prevention is closely
linked to improving manufacturing methods and influencing consumers so that they demand greater
products and less packaging, (EU, 2010). This can only be achieved by running awareness- raising
campaigns to educate the public and encourage consumers to demand goods that produce less waste
and drive the creation of a more resource-efficient market. Therefore environmental education is
necessary in raising awareness programs. The need for having stronger environmental programs
increases with rising preference for more environmentally friendly methods such as prevention, re-use
and recycling as indicated in the waste hierarchy above. Thus EE plays a critical role in enhancing
movement upward along the waste management hierarchy, from mere disposal through recycling and
re-use to prevention (Kamara, 2006). Waste prevention can take many different forms including re-

29
using or donating items, buying in bulk, reducing packaging, re-designing products and reducing
toxicity.

It includes any activity that reduces or eliminates the generation of waste. Waste reduction can be
achieved at several levels, such as reduction of per capital waste generation through environmental
education and government policy initiatives, www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers/mega10.htm.

4.2 Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries

The reviewed literature observes that in most developing countries solid waste management is still a
problem. The problems are more to do with collection (Roberts, 1996). Solid waste management is a
municipality’s responsibility in nearly all developing countries. A lot of solid waste is however,
uncollected due to municipalities’ financial and administrative capacity constraints. It is for this reason
that Heeramum (1993) argues that waste collection and disposal in developing countries has been left
to individuals or communities. This has led to garbage pilling up almost everywhere in townships,
urban centers and along the roadsides (Heeramum, 1993). Heeramum (1993) further observed that less
than 50% of solid waste is collected and the common land disposal method is the open dumping. In
developing countries where there are a lot of capacities constraints, costs of collecting waste tend to
be high compared to income, in comparison to collection costs in developed countries.

The involvement of the private sector has been seen as the only way forward in the improved delivery
of public services (Hampwaye, 2005). Roberts (1996) also states that more rigid environmental
standards and increased costs often make private involvement the only solution available for
governments. The public private partnership (PPP) enhances community participation in planning and
operation, protecting users’ rights and even considers community groups as contractors in the delivery
of infrastructure and services. Hampwaye (2005) highlights a number of success stories concerning
PPPs in the delivery of solid waste, such as the increased amount of solid waste collected in Kuala
Lumpur by 2.8 tonnes more per vehicle per day. In this study lessons about waste management
practices were drawn from major municipalities in some developing countries. Among them were:

South Africa (Thohoyandou , Tshwane and Cape town)

A case study conducted by Ddungu (2004) in South Africa revealed that EE reduced the problem of
solid waste in the central business district of Thohoyandou. The study revealed that in this area, the
EE desk visited schools, youth clubs and conducted weekly radio talks on solid waste issues. In
addition to this, the environmental health services played an active role in reducing solid waste as well
as educating the vendors about the dangers of solid waste (Ddungu, 2004). Another research done in

30
Tshwane Metropolitan Area by Kamara (2006) revealed that the low level of awareness in issues of
solid waste translates into a low level of participation in domestic solid waste management, such as
sorting, recycling and disposal of domestic waste.

The study also revealed that availing waste management services without adequate EE may in itself
not succeed in ensuring mass participation from the public. These studies brought out the roles of EE
but did not deal with peoples’ perception of SWM and the views of people on their roles in SWM. The
Nshimirimana (2004) study in Cape Town (Tafelsig area) revealed that several impressions of the area
was one of urban decay, environmental degradation and social disorganization. The open spaces and
green areas, intended for recreation, parks and gardens were observed to be dumping areas for domestic
waste. The study focused on existing SWM practices and perceptions of households regarding these
practices, Nshimirimana (2004) showed that attitudes of people towards waste management were
negative. The majority showed low level of concern towards SWM due to lack of enough information.
The study concluded that the level of environmental awareness and waste generation and community
participation in environmental activities were influenced by the level of education, size of population
and income of households.

Indonesia (Jakarta)

The studies done in Jakarta revealed that with an average of 1400m3 of rubbish being thrown into
Jakarta’s Rivers every day it was evident that, the problem of waste management was not simply a
matter of garbage collection but also of environmental awareness. Realizing the importance of
environmental education, Jakarta bay project embarked on environmental awareness programs among
the people living in the area. After a number of awareness programs, people in Jakarta started carrying
out some composting, although not in large quantities since they prefer to recycle and sell paper,
www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers/mega10.htm. Careless dumping due to lack of EE was observed in
this study and the role EE played in source reduction of waste through recycling but did not bring out
the views of people on the roles they were supposed to play in SWM.

Myanmar

The study done by Minn et al (2010) found out that, the participatory approach which mainly focused
on raising awareness or imparting EE was carried out to maximize people’s participation in SWM.
The study discovered that promoting people’s participation in its ultimate form is more effective when:
the municipality develops the knowledge and skills to fulfill the new role of service partner and when
the people understand (rather than merely being aware of the problems) the harmful effects of their

31
behavior and realize their roles and responsibilities (Minn et al, 2010). This study revealed that changes
in people’s attitude and behavior were essential in SWM. Even so, the effects of peoples’ views on
their role in SWM were not covered in this study.

Nigeria

The survey by Shekwo (2012) in Nasarawa revealed that there was no proper waste management
system put in place in the area. The Shekwo study observed that there were no proper waste
management services in the area. Peoples’ attitudes were seen to play an important role in determining
their waste disposal culture. Shekwo went to an extent of linking SWM and peoples’ perceptions to
the levels of public education and awareness of the subject matter. He also indicated that the state/local
government had not done well in educating the people in sanitary hazards of indiscriminate solid waste
dumping and management. This study was very informative although it did not bring out peoples’
views on their role in solid waste management.

Another study carried out by Nze (1978) in Nigeria, revealed that urban waste were regarded as ‘non
resources’ having at best a nuisance value resulting into an equally negative posture in managing waste
from urban concentrations in the country. He states that lack of reliable collection services was as a
result of inadequate and deficient infrastructure, inadequate structure for environmental
administration, lopsided planning pastures and disregard for basic aesthetics, industrial and
commercial growth and other human factors. He also noted that people’s attitude towards waste was
equally a major factor in waste management (Nze, 1978) although the study did not deal with attitudes
of people in SWM and the role EE would play to reduce the problems of solid waste.

Kenya- Nairobi

The Karanja (2005) study revealed that in Nairobi waste management was a problem as waste was
found all over urban areas. He states that the main fractions in the waste comprise plastic bags of all
sizes and colours. He further states that these were found dotting the landscape in Nairobi. Karanja
(2005) observed that fragile and thin plastic bags used lend them to inadvertent littering which has
become a serious problem in the urban centres the world over. Increasing food packaging, bottling and
the use of tins are common phenomenon today in the cities and beyond (Karanja 2005). The current
general trend towards increasing non-biodegradable materials is attributed to the growing tendencies
towards globalization of the economy (Karanja, 2005).

Botswana

32
Lessons were also drawn from the study by Mmereki et al (2012) in the study entitled “household
perceptions on SWM practices in developing countries: case of Donga area” which revealed that lack
of Waste disposal services had resulted in waste accumulation and unsanitary environmental
conditions in Donga. Local authorities were not able to organize adequate collection and safe disposal
of the SW generated by the residents in the area. Local authorities had difficulties in enforcing
standards, regulations and penalties on waste disposal and promote positive environmental attitudes
among citizenry due to poor SWM system in the area. Low level of awareness and negative attitudes
of the residents towards WM were seen to contribute to indiscriminate disposal of household waste
and littering which compromise environmental sanitation in general and waste disposal in particular.
People’s attitude was that of ‘throw it where you like’. Lack of environment awareness was attributed
to government low intent to environmental issues. In adequate institutional infrastructure was also
mentioned to be the cause for poor sanitation conditions in the area. This study did not bring out the
role of EE in SWM and people’s views regarding their role in SWM.

India (Bangalore city)

A case study of Bangalore city by Kumar and Nandini (2013) revealed that the majority of the residents
in the area did not care about the final disposal of waste even though they were willing to participate
for the better management of waste. The basic problem to effective SWM was attributed by residents
to lack of stiff penalty and non-execution of law. The study suggested strict regulations with
environmental awareness program for household sorting and composting to be a solution to reduce the
volume and quantity of waste for dumpsite. The reviewed literature was important in that it gave
insights into the dynamics of waste management in various cities of African countries and how
different countries have handled the problem. More important, it is noted that there is no single solution
to the problem of waste. The diversity of communities and their waste is one reason why no single
approach to waste management has been accepted as ‘the best’ method, (Richard, 2002). Since there
is no preferred method, researchers are provided with a challenge of analyzing attempts aimed at
finding a solution to waste management.

4.3 Solid Waste Management in Zambia.

The increasing amount of solid waste is the most disturbing problem in public places in Zambia. A
study carried out by Matenga and Muyakwa (1999) revealed that over a million tonnes of municipal
solid waste is generated each year in the various urban centers in Zambia. The study observed that the
management of various types of waste has been a very difficult and challenging issue in Zambia. This
difficulty has manifested itself in the perennial outbreak of diseases such as cholera and dysentery and

33
loss of aesthetic beauty. Generally the current waste management situation leaves much to be desired.
Wastes generated from all the sectors of the economy are currently not well managed. Disposal sites
in almost all the districts are either not there or they are poorly managed (ECZ, 2004).

Another study reviewed was that of Sichaaza (2009) who discussed the attitudes of people towards
SWM. Three major points emerged from this literature review, namely; people lacked knowledge on
waste minimization, sorting and composting; lack of educational programmes and subject matter on
SWM; and that people had a negative attitude towards SWM. The study observed that waste was found
all over public places in the area due to lack of knowledge and negative attitudes towards SWM.
Negative attitudes were said to be as a result of lack of education and subject matter on waste
management. The study further revealed that what was provided to residents was sensitization and not
education. Although the research brought out the attitudes of residents towards SWM it did not cover
the role EE would play to try and solve the problem. The literature was very informative on attitudes
of people towards SWM, although the attitudes of people in a more urban set up (Lusaka) are likely to
be different from those of less urban area (Choma) hence this provided the need for another study to
cover a less urban area. In Lusaka city, about 292,000 tonnes per year of waste are generated; however,
only about 8% of this waste is collected and delivered to the designated dumping site while the rest is
left to accumulate on the streets (Phiri and Zimba, 1997).

The continued problems of solid waste management have justified the need for the new solid waste
management system, which is being implemented by the LCC’s waste management unit in
collaboration with DANIDA (Hampwaye, 2005). In this new arrangement, the city has been zoned
into 12 waste management districts (WMD). Private firms have been sub-contracted to perform the
waste management function in each WMD with the exception of the central business district and peri-
urban areas, which are still the responsibility of the waste management unit (WMU) (Hampwaye,
2005). Despite having all these companies in place, there is still a lot of solid waste accumulation in
the township of Lusaka due to the private companies’ capacity constraints and people’s attitudes.

Lessons were also drawn from a research conducted by Chilinga (2013) in Livingstone who found out
that the solid waste management in Livingstone was still a problem despite using a make Zambia clean
campaign in the area to improve the situation. The study revealed that the campaign was viewed as
being ineffective and so largely unsuccessful, as the local community members largely felt the need to
not participate in decision making and implementation process of the programme. The study suggested
the need for public involvement in identifying future solid waste management solutions. What were
considered in this study were residents’ perceptions of the campaign programme and not their attitudes

34
and views of their roles in SWM. The role of EE in waste management was also not covered though
the literature was informative.

Another study reviewed was that of Pasi (2012) who in her thesis discussed the impact of reducing
central government grants on solid waste management in Kabwe. The study revealed that the central
government‘s decision to reduce grants to local authorities disabled them economically. Consequently
they had no means to manage the waste in their townships. The failure in turn was said to have led to
emergence of a dirty and filthy environment and its subsequent pollution. Added to this was that in
Kabwe waste was found all over public places due to central government‘s reduction in funding local
authorities. This study concentrated more on the impact of reduced funding and did not bring out the
attitudes of residents towards SWM and the role of EE in solving the problems of accumulating waste
amidst council constraints. On the other hand Edema et al (2012) in their works noted that there was
inadequate SWM facility in Ndola even though people were willing to pay for the service.

The study revealed that lack of environmentally friendly, sustainable and affordable waste
management had led to wide spread open dumping and open burning of SW. Solid waste comprised
mainly of food waste while paper and textiles were the least abundant of the household waste. The
study sought to investigate the causes of non-compliance of households with WM strategies by
government.

The findings revealed that residents were of the opinion that waste collection and disposal were a sole
responsibility of the government. Ndola is highly industrialized housing big companies like Zambia
copper consolidated mines (ZCCM), Dunlop and others. Besides ZCCM had their own solid waste
collection and disposal system. This study was conducted in a more urbanized town than is the case
with Choma, and people in the two towns were expected to be of different economic status. Though
the study touched on people’s attitudes towards SWM, it did not bring out their views on the roles they
were supposed to play in SWM and the role of EE to reduce the problem of accumulating waste was
not considered. Much of the domestic solid waste is generated from residential areas and at the moment
less than 10% on average of residential areas in the country are serviced as regards waste management
(ECZ, 2004). The waste management situation in the Copperbelt Province mining towns is, however,
well defined as compared to other towns in the country due to the presence of programmes driven by
AHC-MMS (ECZ, 2004). The delivery of these services has been severely influenced by financial and
administrative capacity constraints. The inappropriate and often careless handling of both municipal
and industrial wastes including those that are hazardous has all too often created problems for human
health and the environment.

35
In order to minimize waste and ensure its safe disposal, the Government of the Republic of Zambia
initiated the formulation of the National Conservation Strategy (NCS) in 1985 and subsequently the
National Environmental Act Plan (NEAP) in 1994. In both documents, waste management, among
others was identified as one of the major environmental problems faced in the country by the residents.
1n 1993, regulations for the licensing of transporters of waste and operators of waste disposal sites
came into effect whilst the regulations governing the control of hazardous waste were signed in 2001
(ECZ, 2004). Zambia has recognized the need for a strengthened legal framework to the management
of waste. In this regard, the Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Act (EPPCA), forms the
basis of the current National Solid Waste Management Strategy (NSWMS) which came into effect in
2004. The NSWMS document is envisaged to address all the sectors of the economy that lead to the
generation of waste (ECZ, 2004). Being a national document, it provides guidance on waste
management for all stakeholders in government, industry and business, private sector, non-
governmental organizations, and the community.

Despite having the NSWMS in place, management of solid waste is still a problem in Zambia. There
is still a lot of garbage almost everywhere in urban centers and along the roadsides. This implies that
there is need for other strategies to be put in place such as environmental awareness and the need for
community participation. This shows the importance of EE as it aims to change people’s perceptions
about the value of the natural world and to teach how to change environmental behaviors, such as how
to recycle waste or how to build eco-friendly dwellings.

4.4 Solid Waste Management in Choma

The management of all types of waste be it commercial, industrial or domestic is not well defined. The
council does not seem to have the adequate capacity to collect solid waste from residential areas of
Choma. This is seen by the presence of piles of uncollected solid waste in most parts of the town. The
result is that the town is littered with heaps of solid waste (Choma Municipal Council, 2006). A study
by Mwiinga (2010) revealed that solid waste management in Choma displays an array of problems.
The problems revealed by the study can be categorized into financial and general institution constraints
(Mwiinga, 2010). However, people’s perceptions and the role that EE could play towards SWM were
not determined.

4.5 The Effects of Solid Waste on the Environment

The lack of adequate waste collection and disposal systems in developing countries causes health
problems resulting in diseases, which aggravate poverty and leads to negative consequences such as

36
loss of income due to illness, increased spending on health care, and the deprivation of the poor’s
capacity to live in a safer environment (World Bank- WB, 2001). It is important to recognize that, the
fulfillment of human needs depends on environmental factors such as availability of pure water, clean
air, and adequate living space and in many circumstances people’s ability to maintain a spirit in cultural
and aesthetic relation with their environment (Panneerselvam and Ramakrishnan, 2005).

Environment, health and poverty overlap extensively in Africa because many of the most widespread
and devastating diseases, particularly those that affect the poor disproportionately emanate from
environmental conditions (Richard, 2002). An important aspect of environmental health is urban air
pollution caused by, for example biomass burning in waste incinerators, the open burning of garbage
on the streets and homes, and lack of street sweeping (Richard, 2002). Burning can cause both toxins
and suspended particles like ash to be released into the air. Open burning is common in most
compounds in Zambia. Collected household waste in Zambia is deposited in open dumps and these too
cause environmental problems.

The major problem with open dumping is that decaying garbage can give rise to poisonous chemical
substances, which leach into the surrounding soil and contaminate ground water, rivers and streams.
Where refuse dumps are close to residential areas like is the case with Chandamali compound of
Choma, flies, rats and other pests bring health hazards.

Most of the waste in most developing countries is however not collected. This uncollected waste causes
public health environmental hazards because it is left lying everywhere in market places, residential
areas and open garbage dumps. Waste piles become feeding grounds for disease vectors, and clog
drains generating floods in most residential areas. It is for this reason that Khonje et al (1992) state
that due to poor solid waste collection, serious outbreaks of cholera and dysentery have occurred in
most parts of Zambia, especially during the rainy season resulting in the loss of human lives. Plastic is
the most disturbing solid waste almost everywhere across Zambia. It accumulates in the environment
faster than any other form of waste partly because it is non-biodegradable and partly because it has
replaced many other items such as glass bottles and paper bags that can be more easily recycled
(Ddungu, 2004).

Plastic is also often used in fast-food containers, disposable consumer and convenience goods; plastic
is somehow a sign of the throw away philosophy that has contributed greatly to garbage crises in most
developing countries like Zambia. The worst problem in Zambia is that plastic bags are given free of
charge for any item bought. Most people are however, aware that paper, glass and metal can be
recycled even when these items are not recycled by the end users or consumers. Ddungu (2004) quotes

37
Stefoff, 1991 stating that recycling plastic is technologically difficult and expensive, and unlike glass
and metal, can only be recycled once. Despite all these negative effects of solid waste to the
environment, there are however some positive effects. Solid wastes such as discarded plastic threads
like those of tapes are used by women to make woven bags and raise income. Some scavengers collect
waste bottles e.g. water bottles and cooking oil containers and sell them to marketeers who later reuse
them. In this way, solid waste has created employment and improved the standard of living for some
people. Environmental education is an important tool required to raise awareness and creativity in
Zambian society for people to make money out of waste.

It must be noted however that, there are more negative effects of solid waste than positive ones which
most people might not be aware of or unconcerned about. This implies that there is need to bring about
awareness of these negative effects of solid waste to the environment and people through EE. As long
as there is development, waste generation will always be a side effect. EE and public participation,
very importantly, in the long run can be cost-saving as expected attitudes and commitment to the
environment change for the better, hazards of pollution would not only be minimized but the cost of
control would also be reduced (Richard, 2002).

4.6 Importance of Studying Peoples’ Perceptions of Solid Waste Management

Perceptions examine the opinions people express when they are asked in various ways to characterize
and evaluate issues that may be of value towards problem solving and save people, from potential risk
(Centre for Environment and Development-CED, 2003). Longe et al (2009) quote Holland and
Rosenberg 1996 saying, perceptions of one’s capability is said to set a limit to what to do and ultimately
what can be achieved.

The influence of perception which describes how a person views himself and the world around him
and how it tends to govern behavior is explained by the Anomie theory, which explains that deviance
can arise by accepting culturally determined goals without the acceptability of cultural means (Longe
et al, 2009). In the case of solid waste management, it translates to either paying for SWM services
and participation or the rejection of its cost recovery methods and even community involvement.

This situation may be due to difficulties posed by the institutionalized means (Longe etal, 2009) or
deviance may arise due to lack of understanding of the effects that ill disposed waste may pose to their
health. In this wise people’s perception of environmental problems and their effects will influence the
cultural values, responses and success of any system, in this case of the SWM system. Therefore
people’s perceptions on fees, waste collection procedure and health effects of ill disposed waste are

38
important for their willingness to pay, and even in exercising environmentally friendly waste
behaviors. Longe et al (2009) state that when it is perceived by the people that waste services is paid
for through taxes or even considered as a social service to be paid for by the government, unwillingness
to pay could lead to elicit burning and careless dumping. It is for this reason that Pfeffer and Sutton
(2000) contend that what people think about waste is a significantly important aspect of solid waste
management which require examination.

Babitski (2011) is of the view that the role of human perception is of the most important question: if
we understand how a human perceives information and operates it- we would more precisely make the
future forecasts and increase efficiency. A community may have disposal waste bins in place however
their perceptions/ understanding about health effects of ill disposed waste may prevent them from
using this (waste bins) aspect of their physical environment. This therefore implies that studying the
way people perceive various environmental phenomena is very important in the formulation of
decisions about environmental phenomena. This suggests that if an effective solid waste management
system is to be put in place, people’s perceptions are critical. Surrounding the individual in the social-
ecological model is the social environment. The social environment comprises the relationships, the
culture and the society with whom the individual interacts. The social environment has a significant
influence on waste management behavior. The social environment includes cultural background,
socioeconomic status of the community, institutions and organizations, such as schools. Solid waste
management is one of the activities where community participation is important for success.
Communities are made up of different mixes of students, age groups, income levels and cultures;
knowledge of the communities is paramount to design programmes that meet their specific needs.
Tucker and Speirs (2003) state that negative attitudes towards waste management activities were the
common discriminations of behavior in household waste management.

They further state that if residents have negative attitudes towards management of waste, their practices
would be poor. Attitudes may be positively influenced through awareness building campaigns and
education about the negative aspects of inadequate waste collection with regard to public health and
environmental conditions, and the value of effective disposal. Although there are a number of
literatures on solid waste management, and associated problems in Zambia, the practical impact of
people’s perceptions and the role that EE could play some what has been given little attention. This
study is thus trying to fill this research gap.

4.7 Environmental Education as Applied to SWM

39
UNESCO (1978) defines EE as a learning process that increases people’s knowledge and awareness
about the environment and associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address
the challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations and commitments, to make informed decisions and
take responsible action. Environmental education as a process entails the education and training that
enable people to solve environmental problems. EE encompasses man and his natural endowments,
and that human action could be structured to achieve positive environmental outcomes.

EE is also defined as an organized effort to teach about how natural environments function, and
particularly, how human beings can manage their behavior and ecosystems in order to live sustainably,
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/environmentaleducation. The merits of this definition lie in the
recognition of the fact that human beings should have an awareness and understanding of their
community and associated problems if they to solve them.

The international Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines EE as a process of recognizing
values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and
appreciate the inter-relatedness among man, his culture and his biophysical surroundings
(Panneerselvam and Ramakrishnan, 2005). IUCN further states that EE entails practice in decision
making and self-formulation of a code of behavior about issues concerning environmental quality.

EE has been defined differently by different scholars; however, the UNESCO (2005) definition is
appropriate for this study which states that EE is a process of achieving environmental and ethical
awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behavior consistent with sustainable development and for
effective public participation in solving environmental problems. Environmental Education therefore
refers to any education aimed at behavioral change to reduce solid waste management problems. This
definition is relevant to the study in that it provides the most appropriate elements that are cardinal for
citizens’ participation in MSWM and for application of EE to find solutions to problems of municipal
waste management since this study focuses on people’s perceptions of MSWM and the role that EE
may play in addressing the issue in Choma Township.

People should have an awareness and understanding of the communities they live in and associated
problems since most communities are being plagued with problems such as air and water pollution,
solid waste management and lack of industrial arrangement needed to cope effectively with
environmental problems. While these problems are legitimate concerns of community, governmental
officials and planners, the responsibility for their solution rests to a large extent with citizens (Palmer,
1998). Since environmental education focuses on:

40
➢ Awareness and sensitivity about the environment and environmental challenges;

➢ Knowledge and understanding about the environment and environmental challenges;

➢ Attitude concern for the environment and help to maintain environmental quality;

➢ Skills to mitigate the environmental problems;

➢ Participation for exercising existing knowledge, values, skills and behaviors that help them solve
the problems in their communities. EE helps children and adults develop knowledge, values, skills and
behaviors that help them (Palmer, 1998 and Panneerselvam and Ramakrishnan, 2005), in this case
solve the problems of solid waste in their communities.

The goal of EE is to aid the citizenry in becoming environmentally knowledgeable and above all,
skilled and dedicated citizens who are willing to work individually and collectively, towards achieving
and maintaining a dynamic equilibrium between quality of life and quality of the environment
(Hungerford, 1980). EE is aimed at developing a world population that is aware of and concerned
about the total environment and its associated problems, and has the attitudes, motivations, collectively
towards solutions of current and the prevention of new ones (UNESCO, 1978).

4.8 The Importance of Environmental Education in Solid Waste Management

EE can facilitate the acquisition of knowledge and skills and enable people to change their attitude
towards the environment. EE programs often aim to change people’s perceptions about the value of
the natural world and to teach how to change environmental behaviors, such as getting people to
recycle some materials in order to reduce the problem of solid waste. The challenge of EE is to close
the gap between knowledge and ethics, to internalize environmental knowledge so that it will be
reflected in new behavioral norms (EPOSW, 1995). The social ecological model represents a way of
understanding and applying the principles of health promotion in the community setting. This means
it helps communities recognize, explore and address the social and environmental factors—not just
individual factors—that influence citizens’ health and learning, particularly in the area of solid waste.
The model recognizes that a person’s relationships and environment have a strong influence over their
individual behavior. In other words, an individual’s choices and behaviors are often the result of what
they see, hear and experience in the world. Therefore, health initiatives in a community should focus
on addressing the factors that influence the individual family, cultural values, community norms,
public policy, institutions rather than on changing the individual.

41
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro
in 1992, agreed to a global environment and development agenda for the 21st century, called agenda.
Thus EE was boosted by the agenda 21, where it was stated that education, including formal education,
public awareness and training should be recognized as a process by which human beings and societies
can reach their fullest potential (UNCED, 1992). The need of the hour is to make people sensitive
towards nature through a strong program of EE. EE is a way of creating knowledge, understanding,
values, attitudes, skills, abilities and awareness among individuals and social groups towards
environmental protection (Panneerselvam and Ramakrishnan, 2005). Therefore, awareness and
education of the environment should be the paramount concern of all citizens of society.

A study conducted by Minn et al (2010) revealed that public awareness is very important in improving
SWM service. The study conducted in Myanmar observed that many people were aware of solid waste
problems that affecedt them, but the majority did not realize the harmful effects of their disposal
behavior and did not have a sense of responsibility. The people of Myanmar were almost totally
unaware that the crisis situation was basically caused by their behaviors; instead they saw themselves
as the victims of that crisis (Minn et al, 2010). Environmental education being holistic in nature and
aiming at attitude change can help people understand (rather than merely being aware of the problems)
the harmful effects of their behaviors and highlight their roles and responsibilities in relation to the
environment.

There is now a rising consensus that people’s attitude towards the environment has a direct relationship
to their level of education, how much they know about the environment, its values and the need to
protect those values (Panneerselvam and Ramakrishnan, 2005). Environmental protection starts by
creating awareness among the people so that it becomes part of their life style. The ‘keep UNZA clean’
or ‘keep Zambia clean’ campaign for instance is likely to work effectively if preceded by some level
of EE, telling the people the values of the environment and the need for keeping it in a clean state,
proper waste disposal habits, waste sorting, participating in recycling and so on. The goal of EE is to
develop a world population that is aware of and concerned about the environment and its associated
problems (UNESCO, 1978). Kamara (2006) quotes Garner (2001) stating that success in waste
management and disposal directly relate to the success of EE, which according to him , further lies
with many factors at various levels – individual, groups, community and society as a whole (Garner,
2001).

The social-ecological theory acknowledges that it takes a combination of both individual level and
environmental/policy level interventions to achieve substantial changes in health behaviors, including

42
proper waste disposal behavior. At the institutional level, a key area of focus is the classroom, where
environmental values can be instilled. A child who does not know what things are harmful to the
environment is unlikely to respect the environment and most likely would not have good environmental
attitudes. Since the young generation are the future leaders, future custodians, planners, policy makers
and educators on environmental issues, teachers (environmental educators) have to be committed to
integrate EE into their everyday class activities (Thapi, 1999). Mass media, for instance, must play an
important role in this context.

A study conducted by Kamara in South Africa revealed that EE through the media and across
communities should be disseminated, so that the general populous can learn more about the
environment and the value of its protection, and to know that even their own little efforts as individuals
in proper waste disposal and as a community in which they live can make a big difference in
contributing positively towards solving global environmental problems. Kamara’s study revealed that
if understanding of the connection between environmental awareness and education and people’s
health are well internalized, people’s perception and attitude towards environmental protection is likely
to improve. It is for this reason that Larijani (2010) states that it cannot be thought of achieving a
sustainable way of life without an appropriate educational system designated to internalize the
principles of sustainability in the life and work of the youths.

In another study, Strong (1998) observed that children represent an influential market group that directs
parental expenditure. The Strong (1998)’s study revealed that children are able to use information from
school to choose environmentally friendly products and play a role in how their parents’ act. In this
way, schools play an important role in the formation of positive attitudes towards the environment in
young people.

Panneerselvam and Ramakrishnan (2005) state that many experts feel that there can be no hope of
finding solutions to environmental problems until and unless general education at all levels are suitably
modified to enable people from all walks of life to comprehend the fundamental interaction and inter-
relationship between man and his environment from childhood. They further state that it is through EE
that a new global ethic can be developed and an environmentally literate population created. In order
to create this, all types of institutions eg schools, extension agencies, government departments etc will
have to form a network for EE.

4.9 Status of Environmental Education in Zambia.

43
ECZ (2000) state that since 1994 to date improvements have been made in increasing environmental
awareness among different stakeholders. Some of the evidence that point to an increase include articles
on environmental issues in the print media, inclusion of environmental issues in some subjects taught
at secondary school level and the introduction of EE programme courses at higher learning institutions
among others. The Chongololo club was one of the first means of providing some form of EE. In 1989,
World Wide Fund (WWF) international responded to the Zambian government’s need for a World
comprehensive EE programme as identified by the national conservation strategy of 1985,
(WWF/ZEEP, 1997). This gave birth to WWF Zambia EE program which later came to be called
WWF Zambia environmental education project (WWF.ZEEP). The WWF/ZEEP has been working
with communities in the area of EE with the aim of assisting them to achieve the capacity to initiate
and carry out activities that would improve their livelihood and immediate environment
www.books.google.co.zm/books?id=ZWXGJ4H8.B4CRpg=PT49&dg=status+of+environmental+ed
ucation.

Recent initiatives include infusion of EE themes in environmental science and social studies, CDC
(2005). Private and government institutions that offer EE in Zambia have also been on the increase.
These include the University of Zambia, National in- Service Teachers College (NISTICOL), Munda
Wanga EE centre and Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) among others.

Despite the above- mentioned efforts, there is a big challenge in terms of awareness because awareness
should change attitudes, equip individuals and communities with knowledge of the environment, and
ensure their involvement in solving environmental problems. In the case of solid waste, waste is still
found marooned in most towns in Zambia indicating that EE programmes/activities are either not
achieving their objectives or they are not properly administered.

A research conducted by Sichaaza (2009) in Lusaka indicates that the majority of the residents in
Ng’ombe lacked knowledge on waste minimization, sorting, recycling and composting due to lack of
educational programmes and subject matter. Lack of educational programmes and subject matter on
waste management was found to be a reason why respondents dumped waste anyhow without sorting,
recycling and minimizing even though they were aware of the dangers of ill disposed waste. This
research further revealed that what was provided to residents was sensitization and not education.

Another research conducted in Lusaka by Moonga (2007), revealed that there was no EE in waste
management provided especially to the hospitality industry despite having a lot of institutions that
claim to offer EE programs. It is for this reason that Palczynski (2002) contends that most African
countries do not have educational programmes on waste management. He observed that environmental

44
council of Zambia (ECZ) through the health sector promotes periodic public information campaigns
on the safe handling of solid waste when there are outbreaks of diseases. In line with this, Namafe
(2006) argues that, the field of EE is relatively new in Zambia and attempts to mount programmes and
resources for it are also new. He argues that one major challenge for EE in Zambia is that Zambia at
the moment lives in a philosophical vacuum where her uniqueness has not yet been articulated. Namafe
(2006) further states that it is only when a country weaves its own national ideology based on values,
customs and aspirations of its people that it can be set on a path to all rounded national development.

4.10 Policy Frameworks and Regulations

Waste management policies are crucial for mitigating environmental pollution, conserving resources,
and promoting sustainable development. They encompass a range of strategies, including waste
reduction, recycling, reuse, and safe disposal. Here's an analysis of waste management policies at
national and international levels:

At National Level, waste management policies include the following: Regulatory Frameworks: Most
countries have established regulatory frameworks to govern waste management practices. These
frameworks typically include laws, regulations, and guidelines that define responsibilities, standards,
and penalties for non-compliance. Waste Hierarchy: Many nations adopt a waste hierarchy approach,
prioritizing waste prevention, followed by reuse, recycling, energy recovery, and as a last resort,
disposal. This approach aims to minimize the generation of waste and maximize resource recovery
(Anand,2010). Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Several countries have implemented EPR
schemes, where manufacturers are held responsible for the entire lifecycle of their products, including
disposal. This incentivizes producers to design products with recycling and disposal in mind. Waste
Infrastructure: Effective waste management requires infrastructure such as recycling facilities,
composting plants, and landfills. Governments invest in building and maintaining such infrastructure
to ensure proper waste treatment and disposal. Public Awareness and Education: National policies
often include public awareness campaigns and educational programs to promote waste reduction,
recycling, and proper disposal practices among citizens. Technological Innovation: Governments
encourage research and development in waste management technologies to improve efficiency, reduce
costs, and minimize environmental impacts. Cross-Sector Collaboration: Collaboration between
government agencies, private sector entities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and
communities is essential for the successful implementation of waste management policies (DCS,2011).

At International Level, waste management policies include the following: Global Agreements:
International agreements such as the Basel Convention, Stockholm Convention, and Rotterdam

45
Convention address the transboundary movement and management of hazardous wastes, persistent
organic pollutants, and hazardous chemicals, respectively. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):
SDG 12 targets sustainable consumption and production, including the efficient management of waste
(Hogan,2010). Many countries align their waste management policies with SDG targets to promote
global sustainability. Technology Transfer and Capacity Building: International cooperation facilitates
technology transfer and capacity building in waste management practices, particularly in developing
countries lacking adequate infrastructure and expertise. Financial Assistance: International
organizations provide financial assistance and grants to support waste management projects in
developing countries, helping them improve infrastructure and implement sustainable waste
management practices. Knowledge Sharing and Best Practices: Platforms like the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) facilitate knowledge sharing and the exchange of best practices
among countries, promoting innovation and efficiency in waste management. Circular Economy
Initiatives: The concept of a circular economy, which aims to minimize waste generation and maximize
resource efficiency, is gaining momentum internationally. Collaborative efforts are underway to
transition towards circularity in production and consumption patterns (Ajila et al,2011).

Nevertheless, waste management policies at national and international levels play a critical role in
addressing environmental challenges and promoting sustainable development. Effective policies
incorporate regulatory frameworks, infrastructure development, public engagement, and international
cooperation to achieve efficient waste management and resource conservation.

4.11 Public Awareness and Community Engagement

Education and outreach programs play a crucial role in waste management for several reasons:
Education programs can inform individuals and communities about the importance of waste reduction,
recycling, and proper disposal methods. By increasing awareness and understanding of the impacts of
waste, these programs can encourage people to adopt more sustainable behaviors. Outreach efforts can
educate the public about what materials can and cannot be recycled, reducing contamination in
recycling streams. When individuals understand how to properly sort their waste, it leads to cleaner
recycling streams, higher-quality recycled materials, and more efficient recycling processes
(MOE,2012). Education programs can highlight the benefits of recycling and composting, such as
conserving resources, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and creating nutrient-rich soil. By
demonstrating the environmental and economic advantages of these practices, outreach efforts can
encourage greater participation in recycling and composting programs.

46
Education programs are essential for raising awareness about the proper handling and disposal of
hazardous waste materials. Improper disposal of hazardous waste can pose serious risks to human
health and the environment, so educating the public about safe disposal methods is crucial for
minimizing these risks. Outreach programs can foster a sense of community responsibility for waste
management. By engaging residents in discussions and initiatives related to waste reduction and
recycling, these programs can encourage collective action and collaboration to address local waste
management challenges (Fernando,2010). Effective education and outreach programs can ultimately
lead to cost savings for municipalities and waste management agencies. By reducing contamination in
recycling streams, increasing participation in recycling and composting programs, and minimizing the
generation of hazardous waste, these programs can help optimize waste

4.12 Summary

In this chapter, the literature relevant to the study has been presented. The term Environmental
education (EE) has also been defined as applied to solid waste management (SWM), and its role in
solid waste management has been discussed. From the discussion in the chapter, it can be concluded
that attitudes of residents towards SWM has an influence in the way waste was managed in different
areas and that changes in people’s attitudes and behavior were essential in SWM. The reviewed
literature showed that EE has a positive role to play in changing people’s perception and attitudes
towards SWM. This discussion concludes that EE is required for changing people’s attitudes towards
SWM and application of very efficient methods such as prevention, re-use and recycling.

This chapter has also discussed the status of EE in Zambia. Environmental education in Zambia has
been given little attention more especially in the area of SWM. Despite the success stories about the
positive impact of EE in changing people’s attitudes reported in the literature from other countries like
South Africa, most studies in Zambia have not considered people’s views and perception in relation to
SWM and the role that EE could play to try and solve the problem. Thus, the levels of knowledge on
how people perceive the way solid waste is managed and the role that EE could play in Choma
township remains unknown and this present study therefore intended to fill this research gap.

Previous studies in Zambia focused more on capacity constraints of municipal councils, and the need
for private sector involvement in the area of SWM. Though negative attitudes of people were reported
in some areas, the views of people regarding their role in SWM were not tackled. Chapter four
introduces the research methods used in the study.

47
 CHAPTER 5: METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the methodology used in the research. Methodologies are the blue prints of
every research as they shape the way the research is approached and how the results are finally
interpreted and analyzed. Therefore, this research made usage of expert interviews, semi-structured
interviews, and secondary data from government, publications, key stakeholders and work of other
authors as cited, as well as some element of author’s own observations.

5.1 Steps in the methodology framework

The base of this study followed a set of key steps in order to ensure a scientific approach is followed
in assessing people`s behavior waste towards management. The steps included: conducting a focused
literature review to determine a suitable theoretical and conceptual framework for the study and the
data that is needed to answer the research questions; determine where the data is located and suitable
aids that will be used to obtain the data, and determine the procedure that will be used to analyze,
interpret and present the data/results. The above outlined steps are further explained below Next these
steps will be elaborated on below.

5.2 Literature review

The literature study focuses on assessment of current literature on waste management in squatter
settlements and the behavior of communities towards waste management enacted initiative in their
locality. Some of the literature was mostly from documentation from published school dissertations,
DMMU, CSO, Other Government Gazettes, Zambian newspaper articles, UN Zambia information
departments, international journals and some print and electronic media. Other literature was from
various authors and journals that have been recorded and used in different forums regarding waste
management and related concepts. It must be noted that due to the complexity study subject, People`s
behavior towards waste management in the squatter settlements, the researcher since restricted
literature review to information only relevant to this particular study. The next chapter reports
extensively on the literature review, indicate the type of data that is needed and the models that can
be used to address different dimensions of the research problem.

5.3 Obtaining the required data

Both primary and secondary data is required to do the research. Two methods used to obtain the data
were expert and semi-structured interviews

48
5.3.1 Expert interviews
An expert is usually a person with high level of knowledge and experience in certain field. According
to Archer, et al., (1998), a person with specialized information needed for a research may be referred
to as an expert. In this study an expert is defined as any individual who may have knowledge and
experience in relation to this study and may be a representative of an organization or oneself in his/her
own willful right. The researcher planned to interview experts namely LCC Public Health Personal,
Local Clinic Medical Practitioners, ZEMA Environmentalists, Physical Planners, Architectures, Civil
Engineers, Teachers, Epidemiologists, Academia, and other interested government officials. However,
this did not happen as laid out due to changes in waste management departments particularly Lusaka
with the formation of Lusaka Integrated Solid Waste Management Company (LISWMC).

The final selection of research experts considering the mentioned development did come easy for the
researcher as this changed the earlier outlined approach. The researcher`s opinion is that during the
time of interview interaction with this group of experts, that was the best part of the research.
Interviews were just a supplement of the methodology, for the purpose of collecting some primary
data, and not just secondary data. The interviews helped in getting a good picture about the behavior
of people towards waste management in the squatter settlements of Lusaka. (See appendix 1 for
questions asked.)

5.3.2 Semi-structured interviews/Questionnaires

Damm (2010) described a semi-structured interview as open-ended and that it may cover a number of
topics. She described the advantages and disadvantages of these types of interviews as outlined below:

Advantages of semi-structure interviews

≈ Interviews are appropriate at the time the situation is very difficult. The respondent is
prepared by the interviewer prior to interview time and any complexity is discussed. In-depth
information is obtained more easily because the situation allows for probing.
≈ An interviewer can obtain more information through observation of non- verbal
reactions.
≈ It is easy to avoid ambiguity by explaining a question in detail, or ask question in a
different form.

49
Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews
≈ It is expensive and time wasting especially where the study area is geographically wide.
≈ The quality of data and information depends on how well both interviewer and interviewee
relate to each other at the time of interviews.
≈ There is a danger of biasness from the researcher in terms of questions and responses and the
models that can be used to address different dimensions of the research problem.

Components/focus of Semi-Structured Interviews

The following were the major components/focus of the interviews (see Appendix 2):
• Introduction of the interviewer and the respondent.
• Determining experiences the interviewee had with Poor Solid Waste Management Impacts.
• Assessing knowledge about Environmental Ignorance and Awareness from the interviewer’s
point of view.
• Interviewee’s knowledge about impacts of Solid Waste on Livelihood, Health and Sanitation
socioeconomic, ecosystems and political systems.
• Interviewee’s knowledge as to whether the Municipals are ones responsible for waste
collection in their communities and whether they were doing enough in terms of waste collection
and management.
• Interviewee’s knowledge about solid waste disposal and 3Rs how effective these were.

5.4 Characteristics of research participants

In course conducting the interviews, the researcher ventured in door-to-door interviews in Misisi and
John Laing compounds of Kanyama constituency, Lusaka province. The researcher targeted the
compounds in question after considering the characteristics shared by the two areas and how valuable
they were to this particular research. Both Misisi and John Laing have high density of wrongly
disposed waste in their locality and with high tendance of indiscriminate waste dumping. These
communities have also been reported to be flood prone areas, most cholera affected areas, high level
of illiteracy, part of Lusaka`s most populated constituency and most importantly these are unplanned
communities. The researcher engaged simple random and purposive techniques to isolate households
to interviewed, due to wide ground in the two compounds the researcher also involved GIS tool Google
Earth to evenly conduct interview all parts of the communities by following GIS map grids. The author
also considered the language used in these communities, the author could speak five languages which
included Tonga, Bemba, Nyanja, Lozi and English. Amongst the languages spoken by the author,
Tonga, Nyanja and Bemba were also the common languages amongst the members of Misisi and John

50
Laing communities and so worked out positively at researcher`s convenience. Most of the primary
data was collected from a total of 100 people from Misisi and John Laing communities. The age group
was 18, as lowest and 64 as highest. As stated earlier the majority in this group were youths. Table 2
below presents some characteristics of the research participants.
Respondents Gender
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid FEMALE 72 72.0 72.0 72.0

MALE 28 28.0 28.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Respondent`s Age Group

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 18-25 17 17.0 17.0 17.0

25-35 29 29.0 29.0 46.0
35-50 43 43.0 43.0 89.0
50-65 11 11.0 11.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Respondents School Level

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Primary School Level 44 44.0 44.0 44.0

Secondary School Level 43 43.0 43.0 87.0

Tertiary Level 6 6.0 6.0 93.0

N/A 7 7.0 7.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Respondents Job Title

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Farmer 5 5.0 5.0 5.0

Civil Servant 4 4.0 4.0 9.0
Business Owner 52 52.0 52.0 61.0

Industrial Worker 39 39.0 39.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Time lived in the Compound

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 1-6 months 3 3.0 3.0 3.0

6 months to 1 year 4 4.0 4.0 7.0
1-2 years 9 9.0 9.0 16.0
3-20 years 84 84.0 84.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

51
Table 2: Characteristic of Participants

Source: SPSS analytical report data (Author 2024)

5.5 Procedures to analyses and interpret the results

The theoretical framework in Chapter 4 provides guidelines for analyzing and interpreting the data of
this study. It will show how the data has been related to the framework. The interpretation will be
based on how the data has been applied in the research.

5.6 Concluding remarks

The author had limitations in collecting primary data because it was very difficult prior to security
threatening communities highlighted as case study areas and the number of participants were in
perception of the author being a member of relief organization this was due to the hunger situation
during the time of researcher`s field work. The small percentage of primary data was collected through
semi-structured interviews while secondary data/information was obtained from various reports of
research conducted on a similar or related topic. Most of information obtained was from electronic and
websites as the researcher had difficulties coming across printed media that related to the study subject.
The author attempted to make some observations from an individual point of because of being very
familiar with the area and the livelihood of the people of Misisi and John Laing. The author has also
been a resident of John Laing during researcher`s academic year 2022-2023 and hence inclusion of
observed data relating to study subject. The issues of access to participants, informed consent and
culture and familiarity with residence and community languages played a critical role in the interviews
and the quality of data collected. Despite the study areas been vast, the author restrictively managed to
cover the square of both communities using a grid on mobile google earth map.
The next chapter reports extensively on the literature review indicate the type of data that is needed
and the models that can be used to address different dimensions of the research problem.

52
 CHAPTER6: APPLICATIONS AND FINDINGS

5. 0: Introduction

Chapter five has introduced the research methods and established its relevance to the study. Important
methodological issues such as research design, sampling procedure, data collection tools were
discussed in detail. Chapter five has also explained the methods used in data analysis.

This chapter presents the findings of the research in terms of people’s behavior towards Solid waste
management, residents’ roles in SWM and the existence of EE in SWM among other things. The aim
of the research was to find people’s behavior towards solid waste management in Misisi and John
Laing compound. The specific research questions that were used to achieve this aim were; What are
factors influencing individual waste management practice behavior in the unplanned/squatter
settlement of Lusaka city study areas Misisi and John Laing compound? What are different behavioral
patterns within squatter settlement of Lusaka city study areas? What are the current waste management
practices within study areas of Lusaka city unplanned settlement? And how is the impact of waste
management practices employed in these study areas and the community involvement in these same
waste management practices?

To answer these research questions the researcher used structured interview and semi- structured
interview guide. The structured interview guide was administered to residents and semi structured
interview guide to the municipality official in charge of solid waste management unit, being the ones
responsible to manage waste and to offer EE in the area. The findings obtained are as outlined below.

5.1: Socio –economic Characteristics of Respondents in the Study Area

The socio-economic characteristics such as gender, educational level, occupation and duration of
respondents stay in the study area were investigated as a way of providing the background information
to the study. These were studied to provide the general characteristics of the study population. In view
of this, the findings on these variables are discussed below.

5.1.1: Sex Distribution

The table below shows the distribution of respondents by gender.

53
Table 1: Sex Distribution of Respondents

Respondents Gender

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid FEMALE 72 72.0 72.0 72.0
MALE 28 28.0 28.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Source: SPSS Field data 2024.

The sample was dominated by more females; this is because more females were found at their homes
during the interviews as compared to males.

5.1.2: Educational level of Respondents

This study had to find out the educational level of respondents. Answers obtained were useful because
they helped in determining whether or not level of education had positive and significant effect on
SWM behavior. The level of education for respondents is presented below;
Table 2: Level of Education for Respondents
Respondents School Level

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Primary School Level 44 44.0 44.0 44.0
Secondary School Level 43 43.0 43.0 87.0
Tertiary Level 6 6.0 6.0 93.0
N/A 7 7.0 7.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Source: SPSS Field data 2024

The results show that the majority of the respondents (93%) at least had been to school. This implies
that most residents of Misisi and John compound were literate and were able to understand the
problems associated with SWM.

54
5.1.3: Occupation Distribution of Respondents

Only 4% of Formal employment rate in Misisi and John Laing community was found while 5% were
farmers, 52% were business owners and 39% were industrial workers. Nonetheless, 100% of
respondents were doing something to earn a living and people could somehow afford to pay for solid
waste management services to private collectors in the study areas Misisi and John Laing community.
The employment status of respondents is given in Table 3 below;
Table 3: Employment Status of Respondents

Respondents Job Title

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Farmer 5 5.0 5.0 5.0
Civil Servant 4 4.0 4.0 9.0
Business Owner 52 52.0 52.0 61.0
Industrial Worker 39 39.0 39.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Source: Field data 2014

5.1.4: Duration of respondents’ stay in the Study Area

Figure 2 below shows that the majority of the respondents (55%) have been staying in the study area
for more than 5 years.
Figure 2: Duration of Respondents’ Staying in the study Area.

Time lived in the Compound

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 1-6 months 3 3.0 3.0 3.0
6 months to 1 year 4 4.0 4.0 7.0
1-2 years 9 9.0 9.0 16.0
3-20 years 84 84.0 84.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Source: SPSS Field data 2024

Duration of respondents’ stay in the study area is expected to influence unwillingness to comply with
SWM practices and regulation because they are used to lifestyle of living in densely polluted areas or

55
it can also influence the willingness to pay for SWM, since the longer the period of stay in a study
area, the more they are likely to understand the problems of SWM in the area and living condition in
the compound and the more they would be willing to pay for improvement in the waste management.
Only 3% of the respondents have been in the study area for less than one year. Majority of these
respondents are born and bred residents of Misisi and john Laing compound

5.1.4: Respondents’ Age Group

Most of the respondents interviewed were youths mostly ranging from 18 to 50 years with the
percentage 89% and only 11% were in their early 60s going up. This implies that the greater percentage
of residents in Misisi and John Laing were youths. The tabulation below presents distribution
respondents age groups.

Respondents Age Group

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 18-25 17 17.0 17.0 17.0
25-35 29 29.0 29.0 46.0
35-50 43 43.0 43.0 89.0
50-65 11 11.0 11.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Source: SPSS Field data 2024

5.2: The Behavior of Misisi and John Laing Residents towards SWM

Behavior is the response of an individual, group, or species to its environment, attitude is a

hypothetical construct that represents an individual’s like or dislike for an item. Attitudes can also be
said to be a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. Such evaluations are often positive
or negative but they can also be uncertain (neutral) at times. Attitudes can have a powerful effect in
influencing people’s behavior, choices or decisions. In the case of SWM positive attitude can enhance
waste management while negative attitudes can hinder waste management strategies. While attitudes
can have a powerful effect on behavior, they are not set in stone. The same influences that lead to
attitude formation can also create attitude change. Therefore, Under behaviors, socio-economic
characteristics of respondents and their attitudes towards SWM will be considered.

In order to ascertain people`s waste management behavior in Misisi and John Laing compound, the
researcher engage the of measure attitudes towards waste management in the following dimensions;
waste disposal, waste recycling, waste storage. Therefore, Respondents’ attitudes towards waste

56
disposal methods, waste recycling, storage before garbage collection and willingness to participate in
order to improve the situation in the study area are presented through the highlight of questions and
responses the particular subtopics below.

5.2.1: Waste Disposal Methods

➢ Respondents were also asked about their waste disposal behaviors; 32% disposed their waste to
private collectors (wheelbarrow guys), 16% burnt their wastes, 15% buried their waste (landfill),
17% open dumped their waste along the railway in-between Misisi and Kamwala South
Compound and 20% reported dumping their waste along bodies water one been Ngwenya dam.

➢ The majority of the respondents (68%) in the study areas disposed of waste through
indiscriminative open dumping on idle grounds, landfill and burning in pits. Use of open dumping
and burning was the common method of waste disposal in both residential areas. However, some
of the respondents (17%) disposed of their waste by throwing along the railways. All the
respondents that dumped waste along railway were from Misisi due to limited space in their
backyards. One respondent from Misisi was open about her disposal habits and said; “the council
does not pass here to collect our garbage and when they do, they want to paid k30 monthly when
they rarely show up for waste collection, I would rather dump my waste along railway for free”.
Another respondent from the same area said;” waste is dumped anyhow in this area because there
is no legal system that has been put in place by the council, so we have no option but to use
initiative”.
Table 4: Tabulations Waste Disposal Methods in the Study Areas

Tabulations Waste Disposal Methods in the Study Areas

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Burning 16% 16% 16% 3.0

Disposed to private collectors 32% 32% 32% 7.0
Disposed along railway 17% 17% 17% 16.0
Dumped in Ngwenya dam 20% 20% 20% 100.0

Dumped on land (landfill) 15% 15% 15% 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Source: SPSS Analysis Field data 2024

57
5.2.2: Waste Storage Methods

This question was directed at understanding where the communities stored the wastes awaiting
disposals. 66% reported storing their waste in sacker bags, 10% stored waste in plastic bags and only
24% had modern waste bins for waste storage.

Plate 1: Railway Dumping of Solid Waste in Misisi Compound

No roadside dumping was observed in John Laing compound. However, Since the municipality did
not collect waste from all residential study areas Misisi and John Laing, all residents did not pay
anything towards waste management and no waste from all residential areas found its way to the
municipal council dumpsite.

58
5.2.3: Attitudes towards Waste Sorting.

Waste sorting is the process by which waste is separated into different elements. Waste sorting can
occur manually at the household and collected through curb side collection schemes, or automatically
separated in materials recovery facilities or mechanical biological treatment system. Sorting of
domestic waste reduces the volume of waste that is to be disposed of, and hence lessens the cost and
burden of waste disposal. Waste sorting also enhances recycling of variable materials. The
observations of this aspect reported through researcher`s observation are as follows; almost all 100%
of households visited for interviews did partial waste sorting unknowingly and with a different
objective under cause. At least 90% of households reported separating plastics and other combustible
waste in a separate sack with a view of burning them and reducing the cost of waste disposal services
from the private collectors and other materials did not support burning were grouped together and
disposed through all highlighted methods of waste practiced by these study communities as earlier
cited.

FIGURE 2: Combustible waste materials grouped together for burning in John Laing Compound

59
5.2.4: Willingness to Participate for Improved Services

Because of the inadequate amount of money in the budget available for MSWM services in developing
countries, governments devised a system that used household contributions to cover the shortage in
funding for these services. Willingness by households to pay reflects the value to the community of
having a better environmental quality.

When respondents were asked about their willingness to participate for improved solid waste
management services, the results obtained are tabulated below.

Table 6: Attitudes towards Payments for Improved SWM Services

Tabulations for Attitudes towards people that Dump waste indiscriminately

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Willing 67% 67% 67% 67%

Not Willing 33% 33% 33% 33%
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Source: Field data 2024.

The majority of the respondents (62.5%) were willing to pay for improved services. Fifteen (37.5%)
of the respondents who were not willing to pay expressed disbelief towards the council and were of
the view that waste collection should be done free of charge because the council is funded by the
government for this purpose. For instance, one respondent from Misisi said; “The council is funded by
the government and workers get a salary to keep town centres clean, why should we pay them again”.
Another respondent from John Laing said, “The councils in Zambia have failed to improve sanitation
even in towns like Kamwala and Kabwata where people are paying for solid waste and you think
anything will change us from the komboni pay the council”.

This statement was an indication that some residents did not think that the council could improve the
situation based on observations from other towns.

5.2.5: Attitudes towards People that dump waste anyhow

The researcher engaged the households on structured freestyle conversation to gather the views of
residents towards people who indiscriminately dumped waste (80%) of the respondents indicated that
they were not disturbed as long as waste was not thrown onto their yard. 20% households mentioned

60
the concern of indiscriminate dumping of waste by community residents who shared no knowledge
of its impact on human and since shared the solemn experience of cholera affected households due to
carelessness and ignorance of some community members.
Table7: Attitudes towards people that Dump waste indiscriminately

Tabulations for Attitudes towards people that Dump waste indiscriminately

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Bad 20% 20% 20% 3.0

Not concerned 80% 80% 80% 8.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Source: Field data 2024

Residents had low level of concern on waste dumped far away from their premises or houses. They
were only disturbed when waste was dumped closer to their houses. The results show low level of
concern towards SWM in both residential areas. The majority 80% were not concerned about how
waste was managed in study areas. Of the 100% respondents who were working by either being
employed or self-employed only 20% showed concerns towards improper waste disposal. Of the 20%
who showed concern, 6% were over tertiary level education and 14% completed their secondary
schools. It seems the level of education had an influence on the behaviors of individuals towards the
environment. Thus majority 80% did not seem to have any concern and immediate solution to the
littering problems.

5.2.6: Attitudes towards waste recycling

The respondents waste recycling behaviors was determined by enquiring how many households were
aware of waste recycling, how many recycled wastes and the type waste recycled. The results showed
that 51% households were not aware of waste recycling, reusing and repurposing techniques whereas
49% were aware of waste recycling, reusing and repurposing techniques. Of 49% respondents that
report having knowledge of waste recycling and reusing techniques, most of them mentioned the
following as the waste recycled, sacker bags, plastic bottles and cloth materials. This implies that
education had again the influence on people`s recycling behaviors as the population reported not
having knowledge about recycling or any of 3Rs waste management technique, it is therefore, fair to
anticipate a different positive outcome had the respondents been sensitized on the 3Rs of waste.

The table below shows the distribution of waste recycling in Misisi and John Laing compound.

61
 Tabulations for Attitudes towards people that Dump waste indiscriminately
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Recycled 49% 49% 49% 3.0

Did Not Recycle 51% 51% 51% 8.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

5.3. The risks of improper waste disposal

This study gauged the knowledge associated with risk of improper waste disposal by asking the
respondents whether they were aware of improper waste disposal in their community, and the majority
of the respondents (n = 90) reported knowing these risks. The Pearson chi-squared test reveals a
statistically insignificant relationship between gender and the awareness of the respondents about
improper waste disposal in their community. However, most females reported being aware of improper
waste disposal risks as compared to their male counterparts is was because female were mostly found
at home during the course of the study investigations in both Misisi and John Laing community.

Respondents were further prompted to describe the risks of improper waste disposal that they were
aware of, and the majority (n = 39) of the respondents reported health risks (Cholera as commonly
used term), and other improper waste disposals induced diseases. Studies have reported that waste
needs to be categorized appropriately to understand its effect thoroughly (Laurent et al., 2014; Ziraba
et al., 2016). This study, therefore, applied the basic framework for categorizing waste on the study
questionnaire and asked the respondents questions about improperly disposed waste in their
community that were a fit into the framework.

5.3.2: Residents Views and Roles in SWM

There were a number of views regarding the perceived roles of residents in solid waste management
and their individual views in the study areas Misisi and John Laing community.

62
 Residents Roles in SWM

Paying Waste Collection Fee Nothing Store it so the council collects Cleaning our Homes

Source: Fields Analysis 2024

The figure above illustrates the views of resident on the role they need play in SWM as Misisi and
John Laing community. When asked about their role in solid waste management, all the respondents
gave more than one response. The majority of the respondents 35(39%) indicated that they were
supposed to pay waste collection fees to council so that their waste is properly collected, 30(33%)
pointed that their role was to but not limited to storing the waste properly and wait for council collect
it dump where its supposed to be dumped while 2(2%) responded that their role was keep their
immediate surrounding (homes) clean. 23(26%) of did not think it was their role to do anything
regarding SWM in their locality and during interviews one said; “ we are not affected by any type of
waste here, for me here once I sweep the surrounding and dump the waste at edge of my yard, I need
not worry about cause I will burn waste then won`t be affected , the only challenge is when there is
water everywhere and we cannot burn our waste because of the wet grounds”. Residents had little
knowledge on the role they were supposed to play to reduce the problem of accumulating waste in
public places in the area. Environmental education is very much needed in the study areas to stimulate
and inform households about source reduction of waste, tasks and responsibilities of residents, place
to deliver waste and waste recycling.

5.4 Views of Waste Management Unit

Lack of waste management services and SWM awareness in residential study areas raised concern to
find out from the council the activities done by the waste management unit in the study areas. The
concern was pinned with the interest of cross checking the finding from study areas with Municipality
63
views on the matter of SWM in the areas. The researcher prepared interview guide for local waste
management unit LISWMC to understand what was been done to combat this waste management
issue and initiatives that had already been deployed in the study community ahead this objective. After
thorough investigations, it was found that activities related to waste carried out by the municipality
included the following:
≈ Daily sweeping of streets in the town center

≈ Collection and disposal of waste from the town center and market temporal dumpsite
≈ Clearing and cleaning of drainages once in a while
≈ Carry out Sensitization programs and public health education on the effects of improper waste
disposal to marketeers through market committees and to business men through chambers of
business committees.
However, it was noted these activities were mostly done in CBDs and residential markets that had
good road networks, nonetheless, to the reaffirm the cited municipality activities, the interview
questionnaires were conducted against Lusaka Integrated Solid Waste Management Company
(LISWMC), the findings from LISWMC are presented as follows;
Analysis from Interview Guides
From the-analysis of data, obtained via interviews, the finding of interviews revealed the following;
firstly, the interviewees were asked about their job titles as their professional experience was important
to the study. The researcher had target professional personnels from Zambia Environmental
Management Agency (ZEMA) and Lusaka City Council (LCC), however this did not happen as
planned due the revolutionary change in waste management departments within the city of Lusaka,
this responsibility was found to be under Lusaka Integrated Solid Waste Company (LISWMC) which
was founded under Solid Waste Regulation and Management Act (SWRMA) of 2018. This revelation
prompted the researcher to conduct interviews with LISWMC where a total number of ten (10)
members were interviewed.

The demographical test on target sample revealed that amongst the ten (10) interviewees, six (7) were
Health Inspectors, three (2) were Community Development Officers and one (1) was a Senior Inspector
and Standard Officer, (see the table below).

64
Source: SPSS Analysis Field Data, 2024
The researcher also enquired the researcher years on the Job, the study therefore, revealed that three
had three (3) years’ experience on job title held, one had four (4) years’ experience, three had five (5)
years, two had seven (7) years and only one had eight (8) years’ experience on the job title interviewed
for. This implies that all the respondent had reasonable experience on the job they were holding and
were therefore, considered expertise in the study subject matters. The below shows distribution of
respondent’s years on the job held during the course research interviews.

Source: SPSS Analysis Field Data, 2024

65
LISWMC views on SWM behavior of People of Misisi and John Laing Compound
To ensure collaborative and authenticity of the findings, some questions were repeatedly asked
between the two parties pinned for this research Misisi and, John Laing residents and the members of
Lusaka waste management unit, LISWMC. For collaborative purposes, LISWMC staffs were asked
who was responsible for waste collection in Misisi and John Laing community, all the LISWMC staffs
interviewed highlighted Chibolya waste management and lime cleaning services as the legally
responsible waste collectors for the two study community. Chibolya waste management services was
reported to be responsible for waste collection in John Laing community and lime cleaning services
was reported to be responsible for waste collections in Misisi community.

The researcher also sort to find out the views of LISWMC on the behavior of Misisi and John Laing
residents towards waste management practices, the following were the views on study areas` waste
management behavior; “the behavior of residents of Misisi and john Laing is negative which needs
enough sensitization for behavioral changes, the residents are engaged in high tendency of
indiscriminate dumping , low compliance in terms of waste subscriptions and poor attitudes” the
majority of the respondents viewed the overall behavior of Misisi and John Laing residents negative
where as only two (2) of ten (10) respondents interviewed looked at the behavior of Misisi and John
Laing residents to be positive. In support of the perceived positive waste management behavior of
Misisi and John Laing residents, one (1) respondent said, “there is positive behavior in terms of waste
management because residents are now subscribing to legal waste collectors and willing to make
needed payment”. Despite having reasonable arguments from both respondents highlighting positive
and negative views of study areas behavior towards waste management practices, the majority of
respondents leaned on the negative views, this implies that the views of LISWMC on waste
management behavior of Misisi and John Laing residents is that the communities have negative waste
management behavior.

Challenges faced by LISWMC

This section presents the challenges faced by LISWMC during the course of duty in Misisi and john
Laing compound. The waste collectors under LISWMC reported a number of challenges faced when
carrying out their day to day duties of waste collection in Misisi and John Laing communities, the
challenges outlined included the following;

66
 ≈ Poor payments of waste collection fees by Misisi and John Laing compounds, this was the
most common challenged mentioned almost across all the respondents.
≈ Poor road networks in Misisi and John Laing compound of Lusaka, this makes it difficult for
waste collector to enter areas with necessary machineries need to carry their duties properly.
≈ Presence of illegal waste collectors, the residents prefer giving their waste to illegal waste
collectors (wheelbarrow guys) which reduces the number of residents subscribing to legal
waste managers, LISWMC.
≈ Indiscriminate disposal of waste by Misisi and John Laing residents
The above outline challenges confirm that there is negative attitudes and behavior towards waste
management practices among the residents of Misisi and john Laing community of Lusaka province.

5.4: How EE could be properly executed be to improve Solid Waste Management in the Study Area
Since the majority of the respondents 80% showed no concerns towards the waste management
challenges in their communities, 51% did not know how to recycle or reuse their waste, this was an
indicative of the need for EE to change this long held belief. To change this viewpoint EE should be
offered to the people, to help them understand to see a problem as a shared responsibility of both
individuals in communities and the council.
The municipality were since asked questions relating to what should be the focus of EE awareness
programs in order to improve solid waste management in the squatter settlements of Lusaka
communities Misisi and John Laing. The views given by municipality (LISWMC) are outlined below;
The respondents had the following to say the matter, “the main focus of sensitization on waste
management should be the importance of the residents to subscribe or rather have a company (legal
one subcontracted by LISWMC) and also encourage them to separate whatever waste that they
produce from the source.”. Another respondent had this to say, “the residents should be sensitized on
the negative effects of dumping waste indiscriminately and the on the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle)
viewing waste as a resource”. The above suggested subject matters of sensitization come back as the
major gabs in the waste managements and practices in the study areas, therefore the quoted subject
matters revealed where the municipality is still lacking behind in terms of management
implementations and practices.

67
5.4.1: Views regarding the existence of EE in the study area

Respondents were asked to ascertain the existence of EE in SWM in the study area. All ten (10)
respondents indicated that educators visited the study areas early March, 2024 to offer EE in SWM,
one them said, “ yes there is EE in the study areas risk communication is one of they are educated on,
during cholera outbreaks, the residents were sensitized how cholera can be eradicated by practicing
proper solid waste management”, This statement collaborates with 39% of Misisi and John Laing
residents questioned over the same subject matter.
5.4.2: Awareness of health/environmental problems from Solid Waste

LISWMC officers were asked whether or not SW the study areas knew the impacts of improper solid
waste to themselves and the environment. 6% indicated that Misisi and John Laing do not know the
risks of improper solid waste some of them saying “that’s why they prefer paying money to private
waste collectors who just indiscriminately dump waste anyhow in the community surrounding”. The
responses from respondents are presented in table

Table 13: Views regarding Residents awareness of Environmental Problems from SW

Item Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Do you think the residents of Misisi and Yes 04 40
John Laing Compound know the risks of No 06 60
improper waste management?
Total 10 100
Source: Field data 2024.

5.4.3: Residents’ Views on how they be helped combat waste management challenges in their
localities. The majority of the respondents had no idea on how municipality could help them improve
SWM in their areas. Only the few respondents who had ideas stated the following;
• The council should engage and educate community leaders by making them understand the
problem and what needs to be done before rolling out to the people.
• Use community leaders to form neighborhood committees in their localities and to help them
disseminate information on proper waste disposal behaviors expected to all residents in their
localities.

68
 • Council to provide waste receptacles and support these community committees as they enforce
the bylaws agreed upon on SWM expected behaviors. They must also motivate them if
possible.
• Actual methods that could be used to disseminate the information in compounds, they said
could vary from mega phone announcements through community meetings to fliers.

5.4.4: Municipality’s suggestion/comments on waste management status in Lusaka as a whole

In support of suggestions, comments and recommendations, the researcher gave municipality

(LISWMC) a platform to give out their comments, suggestion and recommendations, the following
are the comments highlighted direct quoted from their interviewing leaf’s;

“for effective and sustainable solid waste management in Lusaka, it requires connected efforts from
different stakeholders such as the community, police and other ministries such as ministry of health
and others; waste management is a system that includes all, the residents have a responsibility to take
and there is need to note that behavioral change is not a one day issue, consistency will help achieve
the required results; we need to do more sensitization in order to improve waste collection services,
do more enforcement program and make waste fees binding; my suggestion in relation to waste
management especially into squatter settlements is to introduce tariffs’ binding, where people pay for
waste management services through lets say electricity or water bills”.

Most of the quoted suggestions captured above spear head the challenges that commonly faced both
parties (community residents and municipality, LISWMC) lack of environmental awareness and SWM
services fees.

5.5: Summary of the Findings

The overall summary of this chapter indicates that Misisi and John Laing residents’ behaviors towards
SWM were negative due to number of factors which included lack of environmental education and
lack of proper solid waste management services reinforcements in all residential areas. The residents
in the study community did not indiscriminate dumping of waste a challenge as along it was not
dumped in their yards, people did not mind about the final disposal of waste resulting into
indiscriminate dumping. The Majority of the respondents perceived cholera as the only resultant of
improper solid waste management, this made them look at SWM challenge a seasonal program which
only impacted during the rainy seasons and after that during the dry seasons the problem would seize
to exist because the land would have dried up minimizing the chemical reactions of wastes results in

69
disease like cholera. EE was viewed as being important to bring about changed attitudes towards
SWM and to make people aware of their roles in SWM. Regarding how EE could be used to try and
improve the situation in the study area, the study revealed that EE could instigated to raise awareness
in the community and build resilience against improper SWM and need for establishment of direct
and simple sensitization topic aiming to achieve behavioral modification was important.
Dissemination of information could be done through focused group discussion, health talks, fliers,
mega phone announcements, community meetings and discussion methods.

Chapter six provides the discussion of the findings presented in chapter five.

70
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND REVIEW OF CONCEPTS

CHAPTER 7: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

REFERENCES

Adger, W. N. (2006): Vulnerability. In: Global Environmental change, vol. 16, pp. 268-281

Alexander, D. (1997): The study of natural disasters, 1977-1997: Some reflections on a changing field
of knowledge. In: Disasters. Vol.21, pp.
283 – 304.

Bankoff, G.; Frerks, G.; Hilhorst, D. (Eds.): Mapping Vulnerability. Disaster Development and People.
London Earthscan.

Barrows, H. (1923): Geography as Human Ecology. In: Annals of the Association of American
Geographers. Vol. 13, pp.1-4

Beck, T. (2005). Evaluation of World Bank Development Grant Facility funding to the ProVention
Consortium 2000-2004. Manuscript.

Benson, C. & Twigg, J. (2004). Measuring mitigation: Methodologies for assessing natural hazard
risks and the net benefits of mitigation: a scoping study. Geneva : ProVentionConsortium.

Bernard, H.R. (2006): Research Methods in Anthropology. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Oxford, Altamira Press.

Biblioconsult Kiser (2004). UN-ISDR : strengthening of information management systems.

Manuscript. In: Strengthening of ISDR information management system and website on disaster
reduction: project report: period November 2003 to June 2004. (2004) Manuscript. (Annex 4)Geneva:
UN/ISDR.

71
Birkmann I (2006): Indicators and Criteria for Measuring Vulnerability: Theoretical Bases and
Requirements. In Birkmann, J. (Ed.): Measuring Vulnerability to Hazards of National Origin. Tokyo,
New York, UNN Press.

Birkmann, J. (Ed.) (2006b): Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards. Towards disaster resilient
societies Tokyo, New York, Paris, UNU Press.

Blaike, P., Cannon, T., Davis. I., Wisner, B. (1994): At risk. Natural

Hazards, Peoples’ Vulnerability and Disasters. London – New York, Routledge.

Bohle, H. (2001): Vulnerability and Criticality. Perspectives from social geography, In: IHDP Update
2.

Bollin, C.; Cárdinas, C.; Hahn, H.; Vastsa, K.S. (2003): Natural Disaster Network; Disaster Risk
Management by Communities and Local Governments. Inter- American Development Bank.
Washington D.C

Burton, I.; Kates, R.W.; White, G.F. (1993). The Environment as Hazards. New York, Guild ford

Burea of African Affairs (2011). Political history of Zambia. [Online] Retrieved from,
http://www.state.gov [2011, Feb 11]

Butler, D. (2003). The world disaster risk reduction center. Manuscript. In: Strengthening of ISDR
information management system and website on disaster reduction: project report: period
November 2003 to June 2004. (2004) Manuscript. (Annex 3). Geneva:

UN/ISDR

Canon, T. (1993): A Hazard Need not a Disaster Make: Vulnerability and the Causes of ‘Natural
Disaster’. In: Merriman, P.A.; Browitt, C.W.
(Eds.): Natural Hazards. London, Thomas Telford.

Centre for Community Enterprise (2000), The community resilience manual: A resource for rural
recovery and renewal, Centre for Community Enterprise, British Columbia

72
CDERA (2010): Comprehensive approach for disaster management in the Caribbean project: A
strategy and results framework for communities and non-governmental organizations. [Online].
Retrieved from

www.cdera.org/doccentre/publications/CDM_Strategy_FDF.pdf.

[2010, Dec 10].

Chambers, R. (1989): Vulnerability, coping and policy. IDS Bulletin, vol. 20,pp. 1-

Chambers, R.; Conway, G. (1992): Sustainable rural livelihoods: practical concepts for the 21st
century. IDS Discussion Paper. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies.

Cutter, S.L.; Boruff, B. J.; Shirley, W.L. (2003): Social vulnerability to environmental hazards. In
Social Science Quarterly. Vol 84. pp. 242261

CSO (2000) Background of Zambia: [Online] Retrieved from: http://www.zamstats.gov.zm [2011,

March. 13].

Damm, M. (2010): Mapping Social-Ecological Vulnerability to Flooding, UNU-EHS, Bonn, Germany

Damm, M (2010) Evolution of Vulnerability concepts. In Mapping Social-Ecological Vulnerability

to Flooding. A sub-National Approach for Germany.

Delica (1999): The Community Based Disaster Risk Management

(CBDRM) Training and Learning ... materials of the National Commission on the Role of the Filipino
Women. [Online] Retrieved from: www.gdnonline.org/resources/gender-in-cbdrm.pdf. [2011,
Aug.14

Delica (1999): Partnerships for Disaster Reduction - Southeast Asia Phase 3. Role of Local Authorities
in Community-based Disaster [Online] Retrieved from:
www.adpc.net/pdrsea/pubs/curriculum-cbdrm.pdfSimilar. [2011, Aug.22]. www.adpc.net/pdr-
sea/publications/12handbk.pdf.[2011,Aug.22].

DFID (1999): Sustainable Livelihood Guidance Sheets. [Online]. Retrieved

from:http://www.oneworld.org/odi/keysheets/. [2011, May.15]
http://www.livelihoods.org/info/guidancesheets.htm.[2011.May.15]

73
Early warning as a matter of policy (2004). [Abstract of ‘The conclusions of the second International
Conference on Early Warning; 16-18 October 2003; Bonn. Geneva: UN/ISDR; Bonn: DKKV.

UN/ISDR (2003) Guiding principles: National platforms for disaster risk reduction: working
document. Geneva.

Electoral Commission of Zambia (ECZ) (2008): Presidential Elections results.[Online].Retrieved

from: http//www.elections.org.zm/media/national_by_constituency1.pdf.
[2010, Sept. 14].

Fifth National Development Plan (2006-2010): Broad based wealth and job creation through citizenry
participation and technological advancement,Lusaka.[Online]Retrieved from:
www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2007/cr07276.pdf .[2010, Jan, 12]
www.mcti.gov.zm/index.php/policy-and-planning/doc.../4-fndp. [2010.12]

FEMA (2010): Disaster preparedness:[Online]. Retrieved from: www.fema.gov/.[ 2011, Oct.22]

Frerks, G.; Bender, S. (2004): Vulnerability Analysis as a Means of Strengthen Policy Formulation
and Policy Practice.

Frost, F., Harland, O. & Turner-Smith, P. (2005). Review of ISDR Secretariat’s regional offices.
Manuscript. London : DFID.

Guidelines for reducing flood losses. (2004). 2. ed. Geneva : UN.

Disaster reduction for sustainable mountain development: 2002 United Nations world disaster
reduction campaign.[Online] Retrieved from the ISDR website:
http://www.eird.org/ing/campanas/campa%F1a2002/Campaign%20200

2.pdf.[2011, July.16]

Geology.com (2007): Map of Zambia [Online]. Retrieved from

http://www.infoplease.com/atlats/country/zambia.html. [2011, April.24]
IPCC (2007): Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability.
Cambridge,University,press

74
IUCN (2007) pp.26. Climate change and development project, pilot phase, Climate change
vulnerability assessment in Zambia. [Online].
Retrieved online from:

www.cmsdata.iucn.org/.../climate_change_vulnerability_assessment_z ambia [2011, June.5]

ISDR Highlights. Various issues from 2004/2005. [Online] Retrieved from the ISDR website:
http://www.unisdr.org/eng/public_aware/highlights/2005/June2005eng.htm[2010, Oct.20].

King, D.; Macgregor, C. (2000): Using social indicators to measure community vulnerability to natural
hazards. In Australian Journal of
Emergency Management. Vol. 15, pp. 52-57

Know risk (2005). Geneva : UN.

La Trobe, S. & Davis, I. (2005). Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction:

a tool for development organisations. Teddington : Tearfund.

La Trobe, S. & Venton, P. (2003). Natural disaster risk reduction: the policy and practice of selected
institutional donors : a Tearfund research paper. Teddington :
Tearfund.

Living with risk : a global review of disaster reduction initiatives. Volume 1 (2004). New York ;Geneva
: UN.

Luers, Al. (2005): The surface of Vulnerability: An analytical framework for examining environmental
change. In: Global Environmental
Change.vol.15,pp. 214-223

75
MacDonald, W. (2003) UNISDR secretariat workshop on work planning and management: draft final
report. Manuscript.

Media monitoring report. (2005). World Conference on Disaster Reduction; 18-22 January 2005;
Kobe, Hyogo.[Online] Retrieved from: the ISDR website:
http://www.unisdr.org/wcdr/media/wcdrmediamonitoring.[2011,Sept.30]
.

Muller, M. & Calvi-Parisetti, P. (2004). Study on synergies among disaster reduction entities based in
Geneva. Geneva : GIGNOS. (Research paper: 2)

Nardo, M.; Saisana, M.; Saltelli, A.; Tarantola, S. (2005): Tools for Composite Indicators Building.
Joint research Centre. Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen. Econometrics and
Statistical Support to Antifraud Unit. Ispra.

Nyambe (2001): Water for a growing city: A case of Lusaka the capital of Zambia:[Online]. Retrieved
from:

www.danishwaterforum.dk/.../KeyNOTE%20Speech%20Denmark.[201

0. March.31]

Nyambe (2007): Impact of climate change on the peri-urban areas of Lusaka: characteristics of a peri-
urban area.[Online]. Retrieved from:

www.wsup.com/sharing/.../HowtoclimateproofWASHinLusaka2010[201

0.March.31]

Pelling.M (2003): The Vulnerability of Cities: Natural disasters and Social Resilience.

Pelling, M. (2005). Comments on the World Conference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR).

International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, vol. 23:1.

Poverty reduction and disaster risk reduction. (2004). Nairobi : UN/ISDR. (Africa educational series
: vol. 2: 5).

76
President Banda (2010): Opening speech in the National assembly of Zambia:[Online]. Retrieved from
www.zambian-economist.com/2010/.../president-banda-parliament-[
2010, Sept. 21]

President Banda (2010): In Challenges hindering growth. In: Fifth National Development Plan (2006-
2010): Broad based wealth and job creation through citizenry participation and technological
advancement, Lusaka

Quarantelli, E. L (1992): Urban vulnerability and technological hazards in developing socieities.

Article 236. Newark, DE, University of Delware.Disaster Research Centre.

Scheneiderbauer, S.; and Enhrlich, D. (2004): Risk,Hazard and People’s Vulnerability to Natural
Hazards. A Review of Definitions, Concepts and Data. European Commission Joint Research Centre.
EUR 21410 EN.

The Disaster Management Act(2010) Disaster Management. The Government Printer, Lusaka.

Times of Zambia (2009): Floods have become an annual phenomenon

allafrica.com/stories/200904020285.html2 Apr 2009

Turner et al.;( 2003): A Framework for Vulnerability Analysis in Sustainability Science. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences 100807074-8079

UNESCO (2010): Intangible Culture Heritage: The Likumbi Lya Mize Cultural Association.[Online]
Retrieved from: http://www.unesco.org/culture[2011, June 3].

UN/ISDR (2004): Living with Risk, a Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives. Geneva, United
Nations.

Watts, M. J.; Bohle, H.G. (1993): The space of vulnerability: the causal structure of hunger and famine.
In: Progress in Human Geography. Vol 17, pp. 43-67

Weichselgartner, J. (2005): Mitigating flood hazards: lessons learned from the Elbe River flood 2002
in Germany. In: The University of Tokyo
(ed.):

77
Yodmani (2008): Disaster Risk Management and Vulnerability Reduction: Protecting the poor.
Retrieved [ Online]. Retrieved from:

www.adpc.net/infores/adpcdocuments/PovertyPaper.pdf[2011, April. 1]

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

78
APPENDIX I: UNSTRUCTURED EXPERT INTERVIEWS

PHOENIX RESEARCH INSTITUE

TITLE: THE BEHAVIOUR OF PEOPLE TOWARDS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE

UNPLANNED/SQUATTER SETTLEMENT OF LUSAKA

Interview Guide

Dear respondent,

I am an undergraduate student at the Phoenix Research Institute in the school of Natural Sciences
doing a Diploma in Occupational Health and Safety Management, am conducting research on the
behavior of people towards waste management in the unplanned settlement of Lusaka.

I am humbly requesting you to participate in this research as a respondent. The information that will
be collected is purely for academic purposes only and the source of information as well as your
response will be treated with maximum confidentiality. Please spare a few minutes to answer this
interview guide.

Instructions: please write your answers in the spaces provided.

1. The official position of respondent: ………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………..

2. Respondent`s years on the current job? ……………….…………………………..

3. Which organization is responsible for waste collection in Misisi and John Laing compound?
…………………………………………………………………………

4. What is the respondent`s view on individual behavior towards waste management in Misisi
and John Laing?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

79
 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………….

5. What are the most common challenges faced by waste collectors as they collect waste in
Misisi and John Liang compounds?

..............................................................................................................…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….

6. Do you conduct environmental education in the two compounds?

………………………………………………………………………………………….

7. If yes, when last did you conduct environment education in Misisi and John Laing?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………

8. Has environmental education offered by your staff been effective in reducing solid waste
problems?
…………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Explain …………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

10. If, no, why? …………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………….………
……………………………………………………………………….

11. Does Misisi and John Laing have waste dump site in their localities?

80
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………….

12. Do you think environmental education has the capacity to influence individual behavior and
positive perception towards waste management?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

13. Do you have any collection bins/service and collection points installed in these compounds in
question?

…………………………………………………..…………………………………

Do you think the residents of Misisi and John Laing Compound know the risks of improper waste
management? Explain
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………

14. Both Misisi and John Laing compound faces serious flooding during the rainy season and are
victimized by several diseases, do you think that makes them look at waste management as a
rainy seasonal problem?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………

15. Do you think positive behavior towards to waste management could help improve combat
improper waste management in these compounds?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………….

81
 16. What do you should be the focus of sensitization on waste management in order to impact
individual behavior towards waste management?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………

17. Any other suggestions/comment you would like to make in relation to waste management in
Lusaka as whole?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….……………………………………………..

APPENDIX II: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Phoenix Research Institute

Research Questionnaires for Waste Management Behavior in Squatter Settlement of Lusaka

Dear participants,

82
The setup of this survey is strictly designed to protect your privacy during and after survey of these
questionnaires. Information provided is strictly for research purposes only and shall not be used
anywhere else off this research. Your participation in this survey will highly be appreciated.

General Questions

Instructions: circle or cross mark your answer

1. What is your gender?

(A) Male (B) Female (C) N/A

2. What is your age group?

(A) 18 to 25 years (B) 25 to 35 years (C) 35 to 50 years (D) 50 to 65 years

3. What is your academic level of achievement?

(A) Primary school level (B) Secondary school level (C) Tertiary or college level (D)
N/A

4. Which organization do you belong to?

(A)Farmer (B) Civil servant (C) Business owner (D) Private sector employee.

5. How long have you being living in this compound?

(A)1 to 6 months (B) 6 months to 1 year (C) 1 to 2 years (D) 3 to 10 years

Research Based Questions

Instructions: Please write your answers in the spaces provided

1. What is waste?
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Which organization is responsible for waste collection in your community?
............................................................................................................................................
3. Where is Lusaka waste dump site located?
..........................................................................................................................................
4. Have you ever been sensitized on waste management matters?

83
 (A) Yes (B) No
5. If yes, which organization was responsible for sensitization?
...........................................................................................................................................
6. Are you aware of effects of improper waste management?
(A) Yes (B) No
7. If Yes, what are some of effects improper waste management you know?
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
8. Where do you damp your day to day domestic waste?
.........................................................................................................................................
9. How do you dispose your waste?
..........................................................................................................................................
10. Do you have a waste dump site in your area?
...........................................................................................................................................
11. What health concerns of poor waste management do you in your household and community?
............................................................................................................................................
12. What type of domestic water source does you have?
(A) Borehole (B) Tap (C) wells
13. Do have any community initiative to combat this problem improper waste management your
area?
(A) Yes (B) No
14. If yes, what is the initiative?
.............................................................................................................................................
15. What are your community leaders currently doing about your waste management situation?
...........................................................................................................................................
16. Are you currently involved in any waste management campaign or project in your community?
(A) Yes (B) No
17. If yes, what is the campaign or project are about?
..............................................................................................................................
18. Are you aware of waste management recycling and reusing technique?
(A) Yes (B) No
19. If yes, give at least three types or examples of waste that you recycled and reused in home.
..................................................................................................................................
20. What health risks have your home or neighbors home experienced due to the improper waste
management in your area?
84
 …………………………………………………………………………………………..

21. What is your general view on waste management in your area and what recommendation would
give to those responsible for waste management in order to control waste in your area?
..........................................................................................................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………

85