Energy Thermofluids Eng.

5: 1-10 (2025)

Energy and Thermofluids Engineering

Available at https://asps-journals.com

Extraction and characterization of biodiesel from waste cooking oil: An investigative

approach based on the number of times used
Md. Kharshiduzzaman,, Abu Hamja, Mohammad Joynal Abedin, Abdulla Al Abid, Mumin-Nur-Rahman, K.M.
Rafsan Shuvo, Md. Tofazzal Hossain
Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering (MPE), Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology (AUST), Tejgaon
Industrial Area, Bangladesh

Received August 10, 2023 Abstract: In the era of rising atmospheric pollution and carbon dioxide emissions,
Revised May 30, 2024 environmentally sustainable energy sources are essential. This study seeks to address this
Accepted July 7, 2024 challenge by examining the potential of biofuels, namely biodiesel derived from discarded
waste cooking oil. The primary objective was to employ substantial quantities of wasted
Published online: August 17, 2024
cooking oil, often generated by households and companies, in order to produce a biodiesel
Biodiesel substitute that has a diminished environmental footprint in comparison to conventional
Waste Cooking oil diesel fuel. The procedure involved the synthesis of biodiesel through the transesterification
Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) of waste cooking oil samples, utilizing Methyl alcohol (CH3OH) and Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Clean Energy as a catalyst. The collected biodiesel samples were analyzed for important parameters, such
as kinematic viscosity, flash point, and density. The kinematic viscosity values for the 10th,
20th, and 30th samples were 5.59 centistokes, 5.46 centistokes, and 4.91 centistokes,
respectively. The flash points were determined to be 164.4 °C, 165.4 °C, and 148.4 °C, with
densities of 0.8889 g/cc, 0.8891 g/cc, and 0.8891 g/cc, respectively. This study conducts a
comprehensive examination and comparison of the characteristics of several biodiesel
samples to ascertain the most advantageous choice. Moreover, a comparative assessment is
carried out to determine the environmental benefits of the biofuel produced, as compared
to conventional diesel. The findings offer crucial perspectives for the discourse on
sustainable energy sources, emphasizing the potential of utilizing waste cooking oil-derived
biodiesel as a viable and eco-friendly alternative to fossil fuels. By transforming waste
cooking oil into biodiesel and carefully assessing its properties during synthesis, this research
takes an innovative method.
© 2024 The authors. Published by Alwaha Scientific Publishing Services SARL, ASPS. This is an
open access article under the CC BY license.

1. Introduction emissions and their impact on the environment, changes in

local weather patterns, and a growing preference for
The increasing global population has led to a significant
diesel engines, which are known for their better
rise in the consumption of limited fossil resources. This
performance compared to gasoline engines, all contribute
circumstance highlights the urgent need for further
to the growing importance of biodiesel as an alternative
research and development in the field of renewable fuels,
fuel source (Hosseini et al., 2012).
with biodiesel emerging as a highly promising option
(Yaakob et al., 2013). At the same time, the increasing The increasing dependence on fossil fuels and petroleum
price of petroleum, growing concerns about vehicle derivatives is becoming more prevalent. According to
(Suzihaque et al., 2022), the worldwide demand for diesel


Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected]

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0. License (CC BY 4.0) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
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2 Kharshiduzzaman al. / Energy Thermofluids Eng. 5: 1-10 (2025)

fuel made from petroleum has significantly increased As a possible replacement for traditional fossil fuels,
during ten years, rising from 3.5 million tons in 2010 to 3.9 biodiesel seems promising. Biodiesel is an alternative fuel
million tons in 2019. More precisely, in the Asia-Pacific that can be broken down naturally and safely, with its low
area, which includes countries like China, Japan, and carbon dioxide emissions coming from photosynthesis's
Malaysia, the consumption of diesel fuel had a significant ability to recycle the fuel. By doing so, the contribution of
rise from 1.1 million tons in 2010 to 1.4 million tons in biofuel combustion to the greenhouse effect is reduced
2019. This increasing pattern emphasizes the urgent (Brito et al., 2007; Chung et al., 2008; Körbitz, 1999). The
requirement for feasible substitutes to diesel in order to use of biofuel is beneficial because it produces cleaner
tackle the growing global usage. Global warming, the exhaust gas emissions (Glisic & Orlović, 2014). Its origin
depletion of non-renewable fossil fuels, and environmental from non-fossil fuel sources makes it a possible substitute
contamination are all problems that the world is facing for conventional petroleum diesel. Extensive studies have
right now. Fossil fuels are responsible for the vast majority investigated the potential of biodiesel as a feasible
of manmade greenhouse gas emissions (Endalew et al., alternative energy source to traditional petroleum-derived
2011; Tshizanga et al., 2017). diesel. These studies continually emphasize the
exceptional qualities of biodiesel, including its enhanced
Finding sustainable, affordable, and environmentally
biodegradability, little toxicity, and improved
acceptable alternative energy sources is crucial for
environmental performance. Compared to petroleum
addressing the challenges associated with the growing
diesel, biodiesel offers a wide range of benefits, including
dependence on fossil fuels. Biodiesel is emerging as a
less combustion emissions and a closed carbon cycle that
prominent alternative to tackle these issues. As a potential
helps limit its impact on global warming. The compatibility
replacement for traditional fossil fuels, biodiesel shows
of biodiesel with current diesel engines is particularly
promise due to its ability to break down naturally and
remarkable, as it necessitates few or no alterations and
safely. Its low carbon dioxide emissions stem from
results in very negligible reductions in performance
photosynthesis's capacity to recycle fuel, thereby reducing
(Parawira, 2009). Research constantly highlights the
the contribution of biofuel combustion to the greenhouse
positive effects of biodiesel on exhaust emissions,
effect (Brito et al., 2007; Chung et al., 2008; Körbitz, 1999).
demonstrating substantial decreases in CO, CO2, SO2,
The use of biodiesel is advantageous, producing cleaner
hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and smoke. The
exhaust gas emissions (Glisic & Orlović, 2014). Originating
favorable finding is ascribed to the abundance of oxygen in
from non-fossil fuel sources positions biodiesel as a
biodiesel, which facilitates thorough combustion and leads
feasible substitute for conventional petroleum diesel.
to reduced emissions in comparison to traditional diesel
Extensive research has explored biodiesel's potential as an
fuel (Ahmad et al., 2011).
alternative energy source to traditional petroleum-derived
diesel, consistently highlighting its exceptional qualities, Biodiesel is synthesized through the transesterification
including enhanced biodegradability, minimal toxicity, and process, utilizing methyl alcohol (CH3OH) and the catalyst
improved environmental performance. Compared to lye (NaOH) as the final components. An expeditious and
petroleum diesel, biodiesel offers various benefits, such as consistent combustion test was performed on the diesel
reduced combustion emissions and a closed carbon cycle fuel. The lubrication of the diesel appears satisfactory.
that limits its impact on global warming. Its compatibility Subsequent laboratory tests will determine the
with current diesel engines is particularly remarkable, comparative quality of the biodiesel concerning the
necessitating few or no alterations and resulting in qualities of conventional diesel. Biodiesel is a highly
negligible reductions in performance (Fazal et al., 2011). efficient and less harmful fuel that offers numerous
Research consistently emphasizes the positive effects of advantages, including cleaner combustion and reduced
biodiesel on exhaust emissions, demonstrating substantial emissions of soot and air pollutants. Furthermore,
decreases in CO, CO2, SO2, hydrocarbons, particulate biodiesel is devoid of sulfur, so preventing the emission of
matter, and smoke. This favorable outcome is attributed to sulfur oxides into the atmosphere, which are known to
the abundance of oxygen in biodiesel, facilitating thorough contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain.
combustion and leading to reduced emissions compared to Biodiesel, derived from bio-sources, exhibits a net negative
traditional diesel fuel (Ahmad et al., 2011). carbon cycle. Avoiding any emission of CO2 as a
greenhouse gas is a driver of global climate change. It can
 Kharshiduzzaman al. / Energy Thermofluids Eng. 5: 1-10 (2025) 3

be used as a direct substitute for petroleum diesel in any might be an alternative for boosting plant profits and
diesel engine application, including vehicles, generators, ensuring a reliable power supply. It may be possible to
and heating systems. further ameliorate the situation by eliminating the disposal
charge of the WCO and profiting from the biofuel
The transesterification process, which uses edible oil or
sediments (Ehsan & Chowdhury, 2015).
animal fat as substrate using an enzyme or catalyst, has
been the primary area of biodiesel production research This research focuses on producing biodiesel from WCO by
(Asakuma et al., 2009; Atabani et al., 2012; Demirbas, the transesterification process accomplished in the
2005; Lee et al., 2011; Olutoye et al., 2011; Yagiz et al., presence of homogeneous catalysts such as CH3OH and
2007). Since heavy virgin oils like sunflower, soybean, NaOH as suggested in a research paper (Ehsan &
olive, etc. are required to make biodiesel, the feedstock oil Chowdhury, 2015). Moreover, the properties of the
accounts for 60-80% of the total cost of the fuel, making it produced biodiesel have been investigated to compare its
more costly than petroleum fuel (Christopher et al., 2014; quality with the biodiesel from crude oil.
Parawira, 2009). Because of this, the commercialization of
This study is notable for its deliberate use of WCO, which is
biodiesel has stalled (Talebian-Kiakalaieh et al., 2013).
easily accessible in many areas, as the main raw source.
Waste cooking oil (WCO) and non-edible oils are being This intentional decision efficiently tackles both the
increasingly used as poor feedstock in biofuel production environmental difficulties linked to the inappropriate
as a result of rising food commodity prices and waste disposal of WCO and the economic obstacles in the
discharge (Shu et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2011; Zhang et al., production of biodiesel. This study enhances the field of
2003). These oils have garnered a lot of interest as a biofuel research by providing insights into the distinct
potential feedstock for the manufacture of biofuels since properties of WCO and suggesting novel methods for
they are both clean energy and accessible, which reduces utilizing catalysts. Moreover, the essay emphasizes the
manufacturing costs. Although the manufacture of worldwide need to shift from fossil fuels to sustainable
biodiesel from WCO has been widely documented in the energy sources, highlighting recent industry changes as the
literature, the feedstock's characteristics, such as its high complete use of biofuel by Malaysian airlines. The results
quantities of FFA, pose significant challenges to the use of of this study not only enhance academic comprehension
standard homogeneous-catalyzed transesterification. but also provide practical guidance for the advancement of
There are several problems associated with making ecologically sustainable and financially feasible techniques
biodiesel using a homogenous catalyst and WCO. These for producing biodiesel, especially in areas with a surplus
problems include corrosion of equipment, soap formation, of waste cooking oil.
and excessive catalyst use (Shu et al., 2007).
2. Mechanism of Biodiesel Production
Due to their high viscosity, diesel engines cannot run on
2.1. Transesterification Reaction
direct vegetable oils (DVO). The transesterification process
reduces the viscosity of DVOs (Ehsan & Chowdhury, 2015). The combination of an ester molecule with an alcohol
Free fatty acid (FFA) levels are lower in biodiesel made molecule, where the alcohol has a different structure from
from edible oils and greater in biodiesel made from non- the primary alcohol in the ester, leads to the creation of a
edible oil sources (Diwani et al., 2009). Recycling the WCO unique ester group. The reaction described by Sivasamy et
produced by restaurants, and other food industries every al. (2009) entails replacing the original alcohol molecule
day, anywhere in the globe, might be a possible alternative with a different alcohol molecule. Triglycerides, which are
raw material for biodiesel production (Demirbas, 2009), the main components of vegetable oils, undergo a
given the retail price of biodiesel from vegetable oil is still sequence of reductions to generate mono- and di-
greater than that of diesel. Food restaurants in Bangladesh glycerides before finally converting into glycerol. The
appear to be in a particularly advantageous position: they catalytic reaction pathway is illustrated in Figure 1, with
use a great deal of WCO in the cooking process, and they fatty acids denoted by the symbols R's. The procedure
must frequently use emergency generators, which require involves the reaction of a single component, WCO, with
them to spend money on diesel fuel even though they are three times the amount of methanol. This reaction results
not directly generating electricity. Producing biofuel from in the formation of three times the amount of methyl
WCO and utilizing it to replace some of the diesel feed esters and an equal amount of glycerol, as explained by
4 Kharshiduzzaman al. / Energy Thermofluids Eng. 5: 1-10 (2025)

Fig. 1.Triglyceride transesterification mechanism using

methanol {reproduced from (Sivasamy et al., 2009) with
Fig. 2.Flow process of the plant for biodiesel production
permission from John Wiley and Sons.}
{reprinted from (Ehsan & Chowdhury, 2015), copyright
research finding (Ehsan & Chowdhury, 2015). This (2015) with permission from Elsevier}.
synthesis process highlights the complex changes that
occur in triglycerides during biodiesel generation and has
implications for improving the efficiency of the 2.4. Methodology
transesterification process.
The main objective of this study is to produce biodiesel
2.2. Experimental process of biodiesel production from WCO. The research will primarily focus on
implementing fieldwork and conducting a numerical
Laboratory-scale biodiesel production from waste cooking
survey. After synthesizing biodiesel from WCO, a thorough
oil used methanol and Sodium Hydroxide as a catalyst.
series of chemical tests was conducted according to the
Transesterification occurs in a 500ml flask on a magnetic
specified approach. The chemical solution was prepared
stirrer. Heat the waste cooking oil to the reaction
by combining methyl alcohol (CH3OH) and sodium
temperature before adding methanol and catalyst lye to
hydroxide (NaOH) as a catalytic lye. This solution was then
the flask. Methanol and NaOH were mixed in the flask for
applied to the WCO samples under carefully controlled
8–10 minutes. After adding the methyl-oxide solution to
conditions. Following the initial stages, the fuel and
the WCO, the reaction mixture was vigorously stirred for
glycerol were separated into separate layers.
6–10 minutes. After adding 2500 ml of waste cooking oil,
Subsequently, chemical analysis was performed in
the mixture was heated to 65˚C transesterification was
controlled laboratory conditions to determine the
done by stirring the reaction mixture for the required
characteristics of the biodiesel that was created. This
duration.
work enhances the scientific discussion by providing a
2.3. Article structure detailed account of the methods used to produce biodiesel
Figure 2 shows the biodiesel production process. Two from WCO, highlighting the crucial chemical processes
access locations are possible for this process. Vegetable involved, and reporting data obtained from extensive
oils with less than 2.5% free fatty acid (FFA) do not need laboratory analyses.
esterification (Mohd Zamberi et al., 2011). Here are the In this experiment, the WCO was collected from five
trans-esterification steps: Warming oil to 65°C; titrating different domestic restaurants. This study involved a
WCO to determine NaOH; combining methanol and NaOH thorough examination of cooking oil usage in five different
to make methoxide; combining methoxide concentration restaurants in order to identify trends and differences in
with WCO; emptying glycerol; and cleaning and drying cooking methods.
biofuel. The cafes in the study generate 80 liters of WCO
Table 1 shows the data collected from different
every week, but they need 150–200 liters of fuel per day to
restaurants. Treat Dee, Hotel Hasan International, and Dui
power their 180-kVA backup generator during the 4-5
Kabab and Restaurant primarily used vegetable oil and
hours of daily power outages. The hotel manager says this
mustard oil, with usage frequencies ranging from 30 to 50
WCO must be properly disposed of at a "Disposal Expense"
times, 12/13 times, and 10 to 20 times a day, respectively.
of 25000 Tk per week (Ehsan & Chowdhury, 2015). This
Hotel Hasan International stands out by using olive oil in its
"Disposal Cost" rises when glycerin is extracted with
culinary operations. The Vai Vai Hotel, which specializes in
biofuel particles.
 Kharshiduzzaman al. / Energy Thermofluids Eng. 5: 1-10 (2025) 5

Table 1. Data Collection from Different Restaurants.

Restaurant Oil Type Oil Brand Oil Uses Food Items Daily oil use
Name
Treat Dee Vegetable oil, mustard Basundhara, Pushti 30 (min–50 chicken, rice, biriyani, Chinese, 5-liter average
oil (max) times French fry, potato wedges, etc.
Hotel Hasan Vegetable oil, mustard Pushti 12/13 times per French fry, Wonton, salad, 5 to 10 liters
International oil, olive oil day chicken fry etc average
Vai Vai Hotel Palm oil Super 8/9 times per Samucha, Shingara, Jilapi, etc. 10 liters average
day (street food)
Alif Food Vegetable oil Basundhara 30–50 times Burger, crispy chicken, roll, 10 to 15 liters
wings
Dui Kabab and Vegetable oil, mustard Pushti, Radhuni 10 to 20 times Kabab and daily meals 10 to 20 liters
Restaurant oil

street food, solely relies on palm oil as its primary cooking to a maximum temperature of 148 °F. During this
oil, consuming an average of 10 liters a day. Alif Food, procedure, it is crucial to ensure that the temperature
renowned for its burgers and crispy chicken, exclusively does not surpass 148 °F. Failure to do so could result in a
usesvegetable oil, using it 40 to 60 times a day, resulting in volcanic eruption occurring when the oil is combined with
a daily consumption of 10 to 15 liters. By employing this the chemical solution.
analytical technique, a thorough comprehension of the
2.5.1. Methyl-Oxide Solution Preparation
cooking oil preferences and practices in each restaurant
was achieved, hence facilitating a detailed comparative The chemical solution has been prepared. Using a
analysis. magnetic stir plate, 50 ml of methyl alcohol (CH3OH) and 4
grams of catalyst lye (NaOH) were combined in a flask.
As a result of difficulties in obtaining WCO directly from
The dissolution of lye into methanol and the formation of
restaurants, the study opted to create representative WCO
the methyl-oxide solution required around 3–4 minutes.
samples by simulating domestic cooking behaviors, notably
frying birds and French fries. There were six separate 2.5.2. Mixing the Waste Cooking Oil into the Methyl-
samples created, each representing different usage Oxide Solution
frequencies that mirror real-life situations. Sample 5th The WCO sample was mixed into the prepared methyl-
experienced around 5 usage cycles, while Sample 10th, oxide solution in the magnetic stirring plate as shown in
Sample 15th, Sample 20th, Sample 25th, and Sample 30th Figure 3 to perform the transesterification process. After
underwent roughly 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 usage cycles, mixing the solution properly, the solution was kept for 24
respectively. This method tackles the difficulties of hours at rest to allow it to separate into two different
acquiring genuine WCO from restaurants, guaranteeing layers.
that the artificially produced samples accurately represent
the various conditions seen in culinary environments. The
thorough recording of usage frequencies enhances the
precision and significance of the research, establishing a
basis for further examination and discourse on the
characteristics and consequences of biodiesel created from
these domestically sourced waste cooking oil samples.

2.5. Biodiesel Production

The WCO is produced at home. Different samples from

different WCO based on the times it was used in cooking.
The whole process was conducted at home. The initial
WCO sample was obtained from a stove that was heated Fig. 3.Transesterification Reaction Occurring in the mixture
of the Waste Cooking Oil and the Methyl-Oxide Solution.
6 Kharshiduzzaman al. / Energy Thermofluids Eng. 5: 1-10 (2025)

submersion of bulb-C (spherical) took around 5 minutes to

reach the correct temperature. After gently pumping the
sample to the middle of the bulb, bulbB recorded the
sample's fall time.

2.6.2 Flash Point Testing

Flashpoint analysis of biodiesel samples from the 10th,

20th, and 30th batches were performed at the Institute of
Fuel Research and Development (IFRD) of the Bangladesh
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR)
Fig. 4. The Final Product of the transesterification process
according to ASTM-D93. A Pen-sky-Martens closed-cup
i.e., biodiesel.
device determines a test substance's flash point according
The transesterification procedure entailed combining the to ASTM-D93. The flash point testing machine meets
WCO sample with a carefully produced methyl-oxide ASTM-D93 and other requirements. ASTM-D93
solution, using a magnetic stirring plate for assistance. procedures A, B, and C can be chosen based on test
After complete mixing, the solution was left undisturbed temperature, liquid type, or low melting solid. Process A
for 24 hours to allow for spontaneous separation into two involves distillate fuels like diesel, biodiesel blends,
different layers. The temporary period of rest was kerosene, heating oil, turbine fuels, and new and used
essential, as it facilitated the separation of the synthesized lubricating oils. Procedure B tests leftover fuel oils, cutback
solution into its individual components, specifically the residue, used lubricating oils, petroleum liquid-solid
biodiesel and glycerol phases. This procedural step combinations, and petroleum liquids that form a surface
guarantees the thoroughness of the transesterification film. Procedure C governs biodiesel. Since manual
process and establishes the foundation for further observation is difficult, automated equipment with
evaluations of the characteristics and effectiveness of the electronic flash point detection can precisely measure
resulting biodiesel. residual alcohol in biodiesel. These tests can detect volatile
2.5.3. The Final Product of the Transesterification Process or flammable chemicals in non-volatile materials. It is
possible to determine the flash point above 250°C,
After allowing the solution to settle for 24 hours, it
although the precision is unknown. Precision for residual
underwent phase separation, resulting in the formation of
fuel flashpoints above 100°C and accuracy for
two distinct layers. The top substance is bio-diesel,
contemporary lubricating oils have not been determined.
whereas the bottom substance is glycerol as shown in
Several standards show that the D93 lowest flash point is
Figure 4.
below 40°C; however, precision below this temperature is
2.6 Property Testing of the Produced Biodiesel unknown.

In order to do the laboratory analysis of biodiesel, three 2.6.3 Density Testing

distinct samples of the manufactured biodiesel were
The ASTM-D 1298 test standard is used to determine the
chosen to ascertain the essential characteristics, including
density, relative density (specific gravity), or API gravity of
kinematic viscosity, flash point, and density. The chosen
th th th
crude oil, petroleum products, or mixtures of crude oil and
samples were ranked as the 10 , 20 , and 30 .
non-petroleum products. This test is conducted in a
2.6.1 Kinematic Viscosity Testing laboratory using a glass hydrometer, and it applies to
liquids with a Reid vapor pressure (RVP) of 101,325 kPa or
The Institute of Fuel Research & Development (IFRD) of
lower. During the experiment, the sample was heated to
Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
a specific temperature, and a piece of the sample was then
(BCSIR) investigated biodiesel kinematic viscosity at 40°C
transferred to a hydrometer cylinder that had been heated
and 100°C using ASTM-D 445-65. The biodiesel sample
to a similar temperature. Furthermore, a suitable
was collected in a viscometer from Tube-1's vent tube. To
hydrometer was submerged into the sample and left to
put the sample's meniscus between bulb-A's two lines, the
stabilize at a comparable temperature. Once thermal
lower bulb, was the goal. The viscometer was then placed
equilibrium was achieved, the temperature of the test part
vertically in a thermos-like bath at a set temperature. Full
 Kharshiduzzaman al. / Energy Thermofluids Eng. 5: 1-10 (2025) 7

was measured using the hydrometer. The hydrometer

reading was adjusted to the reference temperature using
the Petroleum Measurement Tables. If required, the
hydrometer cylinder and its contents were placed in a
temperature-controlled bath to prevent significant
temperature fluctuations in accordance with the testing
standard ASTM-D 1298. Fig. 6. Burning test of the produced biodiesel.

3. Results and Discussion The examination of biodiesel samples, specifically focusing

on sample IDs 10th, 20th, and 30th, demonstrates
After combining the chemical solution with the heated
significant discrepancies in important attributes, as
cooking oil, the resulting mixture underwent phase
outlined in Table 2. Sample ID 30 exhibits the highest-
separation, resulting in the formation of two separate
quality biodiesel values across multiple parameters and
layers. The upper layer consisted of biodiesel, while the
demonstrates superior performance compared to the
lower layer consisted of glycerol as shown in Figure 5. This other samples.
process is depicted in the accompanying diagram. This
division was a crucial turning point, facilitating the The density, which is a crucial parameter for assessing the
extraction of the specific biodiesel from the top layer. quality of biodiesel, is found to be the same for sample IDs
20th and 30th, measuring 0.8891 g/cc. This value exceeds
The study involved the creation of six biodiesel samples, the density of sample ID 10th, which is 0.8889 g/cc.
each made from different WCO (vb) samples, which were Increased density is typically correlated with enhanced
identified by their unique frequencies of use. Moreover, biodiesel quality. Therefore, both sample IDs 20th and
the effectiveness of the synthesized biodiesel was 30th are identified as ideal selections according to this
confirmed by conducting a burning test, as demonstrated criterion.
in the accompanying visual representation as shown in
Upon further examination of the flash points, it is evident
Figure 6. This comprehensive technique enhances the
that sample ID 30th, with a flash point of 148.4°C, exceeds
scientific comprehension of biodiesel synthesis from WCO
the flash points of sample ID 10th (164.4°C) and sample ID
and emphasizes the significance of thorough testing to
20th (165.4°C). A lower flash point can indicate improved
evaluate its practical feasibility.
biodiesel performance in terms of ignition properties.
Therefore, sample ID 30th is identified as the optimal
choice in regards to flash point.

The analysis of kinematic viscosity provides additional

Biodiesel evidence of the improved performance of sample ID 30th.
At 40°C, the viscosity of the sample is 4.91 cSt, and at
Glycerol 100°C, it is 1.96 cSt. This is better than sample ID 10th,
which has viscosities of 5.59 cSt and 2.15 cSt at the
respective temperatures, as well as sample ID 20th, which
Fig. 5. Biodiesel and Glycerol were separated into Two has viscosities of 5.46 cSt and 2.05 cSt at the respective
Layers at the end of the work. temperatures. A decrease in kinematic viscosity suggests
better performance of biodiesel, further supporting the
Table 2: Parametric values of the produced biodiesel found in the experiments.

Parameter Method / Instrument Results

Sample ID: 10th Sample ID: 20th Sample ID: 30th
Density (g/cc) ASTM-D 1298 0.8889 0.8891 0.8891
Flashpoint (°C) ASTM-D 93 164.4 165.4 148.4
Viscosity cSt at 40 °C ASTM-D 445 5.59 5.46 4.91
at 100 °C 2.15 2.05 1.96
8 Kharshiduzzaman al. / Energy Thermofluids Eng. 5: 1-10 (2025)

Table 3: The Comparison between the value of the sample ID 30th and the value of the actual diesel.

Fuel Property Actual Diesel Biodiesel

Density g/cc 0.80–0.90 0.8891
Flash Point °C 60–80 148.4
Kinematic Viscosity at 40 °C 1.3–4.1 4.91
at 100 °C 1–1.5 1.96

selection of sample ID 30 as the preferred option. When testing, including a burning test, to confirm their
comparing the biodiesel's density, flash point, and effectiveness.
kinematic viscosity in sample ID 30th with the real diesel
Significant discrepancies in key attributes among the
values (Table 3), noticeable patterns emerge. The
biodiesel samples, particularly sample IDs 10th, 20th, and
combustion efficiency of biodiesel is not compromised
30th, were observed. Sample ID 30th emerged as the top
despite its increased density, which is influenced by
performer, demonstrating superior characteristics in
parameters like fatty acid content and molar mass. Higher
density, flash point, and kinematic viscosity. This indicates
density, in reality, signifies effective atomization and
its potential as an environmentally friendly fuel substitute.
thorough combustion within the engine, hence promoting
a longer lifespan for the engine. Comparisons with genuine diesel fuel (Table 3) further
underscored the superiority of biodiesel, especially from
Furthermore, the increased flash point of biodiesel, which
sample ID 30th, in terms of flash point, kinematic viscosity,
is a consequence of enhanced intermolecular attractions,
and density. Despite its increased density, biodiesel from
diminishes the probability of unforeseen fire risks. Despite
sample ID 30th maintained combustion efficiency and
having a higher flash point than regular diesel, biodiesel
posed reduced fire risks, making it suitable for applications
derived from sample ID 30th can be efficiently utilized as
such as HFO in the Stratified Charge Engine.
Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) in the Stratified Charge Engine. In this
engine, the fuel-to-air combination is intentionally made The outstanding performance of sample ID 30th confirms
richer near the spark plug. its potential as a sustainable alternative to conventional
diesel fuels. These findings provide crucial insights into the
The increased kinematic viscosity of biodiesel compared to
applications and benefits of biodiesel produced from
regular diesel is related to the longer molecular chain
waste cooking oil, emphasizing the significance of
length of biodiesel molecules. The heightened quantity of
thorough testing to evaluate its practical feasibility and
dispersion forces within biodiesel chains leads to a greater
promote environmental sustainability in the energy sector.
molecular closeness, which in turn affects viscosity.
Notwithstanding the variation, sample ID 30th Disclosures
demonstrates outstanding performance, confirming its
Free Access to this article is sponsored by
potential as a sustainable alternative to conventional
SARL ALPHA CRISTO INDUSTRIAL.
diesel fuels. These studies provide vital insights into the
possible applications and benefits of biodiesel produced
from waste cooking oil. Acknowledgments

4. Conclusion The authors of this research would like to acknowledge the

support of the Bangladesh Council of Scientific and
In conclusion, the investigation into biodiesel generation Industrial Research (BCSIR) by providing the testing
from various types of spent cooking oil, focusing on their facilities as well as the support of the Department of ‘Arts
frequency of usage, has yielded valuable insights. The and Science’ of Ahsanullah University of Science and
methodical sequence of experiments and thorough Technology.
analysis facilitated a rigorous evaluation of the synthesized
biodiesel samples. These samples, derived from different Conflict of interest
waste cooking oil sources, underwent comprehensive The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
in publishing this research work.
 Kharshiduzzaman al. / Energy Thermofluids Eng. 5: 1-10 (2025) 9

Nomenclature and Technology, 6(2), 219–224.

https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03327625/METRICS
υ Kinematic viscosity [cSt]
K Viscometer constant [mm²/s] Ehsan, M., & Chowdhury, M. T. H. (2015). Production of Biodiesel
t Down flowing time of a liquid [s] Using Alkaline Based Catalysts From Waste Cooking Oil: A
ρ Density [g/cc] Case Study. Procedia Engineering, 105, 638–645.
HFO Heavy Fuel Oil https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PROENG.2015.05.042
WCO Waste Cooking Oil Endalew, A. K., Kiros, Y., & Zanzi, R. (2011). Inorganic
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