nitrogen oxide emissions.
Nitrogen oxides produced Emissions in the United States, 1970 and 2011
during high-temperature combustion processes in indus- • Figure 8.15
try can be removed from smokestack exhausts.
Modification of furnaces and engines to provide Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, volatile organic compounds (many
more complete combustion helps control the production of which are hydrocarbons), and nitrogen oxides showed decreases;
of both carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Catalytic af- only particulate matter did not decline. “PM = 10” applies to particles
less than or equal to 10 μm (10 micrometers). Since 1990 the EPA has
terburners, used immediately following combustion, oxi-
also monitored PM = 2.5, which are very small particles less than or
dize most unburned gases. The use of catalytic converters
equal to 2.5 μm.
to treat auto exhaust reduces carbon monoxide and vola-
tile hydrocarbon emissions about 85 percent over the life 200
1970
of the car. Careful handling of petroleum and hydrocar- 180
bons, such as benzene, reduces air pollution from spills 2014
and evaporation. 160
Million metric tons per year
140
Courtesy of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
The Clean Air Act 120
There is good news and bad news about air pollution in
the United States. The bad news is that many locations 100
Office of Air and Radiation, EPA
throughout the country still have unacceptably high 80
levels of one or more air pollutants. Moreover, health
60
experts estimate that air pollution causes the prema-
ture deaths of thousands of people in the United States 40
each year. The good news is that overall air quality has
20
improved since 1970 (see Case Study 8.1).
This improvement is largely due to the U.S. Clean Air
Carbon Sulfur Volatile Nitrogen Particulate
Act (CAA), first passed in 1970 and updated and amended monoxide dioxide organic oxides matter
in 1977 and 1990. The CAA authorizes the Environmen- compounds (PM = 10)
tal Protection Agency (EPA) to apply and enforce the
Th in k Cr it ica lly
Why have emissions of particulate matter
CAA by establishing limits on the amount of specific air
increased since 1970, when all other emissions have gone down?
pollutants permitted everywhere in the United States. In-
dividual states must meet deadlines to reduce air pollu-
tion to acceptable levels. States may pass more stringent
pollution controls than the EPA authorizes, but they can’t
mandate weaker limits than those stipulated in the CAA. vehicle emissions. The provisions of the CAA Amend-
The EPA has focused on six air pollutants—lead, ments of 1990 include the development of “superclean”
particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, ni- cars, which emit lower amounts of nitrogen oxides and
trogen oxides, and ozone—and established maximum hydrocarbons, and the use of cleaner-burning gasoline
acceptable concentrations for each. The most dramatic in the most polluted cities in the United States. More
improvement so far has been in the amount of lead in recent automobile models do not produce as many pol-
the atmosphere, which showed a 98 percent decrease lutants as older models. Yet despite the increasing per-
between 1970 and 2000, primarily because of the switch centage of newer automobile models on the road, air
from leaded to unleaded gasoline. quality has not improved in some areas of the United
Atmospheric levels of the other pollutants, with States because of the large increase in the number of cars
the exception of particulate matter, have also declined being driven.
(Figure 8.15). For example, between 1980 and 2010, sul- The CAA Amendments of 1990 focus on indus-
fur dioxide emissions declined 83 percent. During this trial airborne toxic chemicals in addition to motor
same time, U.S. gross domestic product increased more vehicle emissions. These amendments required a 90
than 120 percent, energy consumption increased 23 per- percent reduction in the atmospheric emissions of 189
cent, and vehicle miles increased about 95 percent. As toxic chemicals. To comply with these requirements,
will be discussed in Chapter 9, emissions of carbon diox- both small businesses (such as dry cleaners) and large
ide have increased substantially since 1970. manufacturers (such as chemical companies) installed
The CAA of 1970 and its amendments in 1977 and pollution-control equipment if they had not already
1990 required progressively stricter controls of motor done so.
Controlling Air Pollutants 205
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