Engineering Physics II

(SUBJECT CODE: 303192102)

Dr. Swagata Roy, Assistant Professor

Applied Science and Humanities, PIET, Parul University
 UNIT- 4
Lasers and Fibre Optics
 What to Study in Laser !!!
1. What is an Ordinary light?
2. What is Laser light?
3. Characteristics of LASERs
4. Difference between Ordinary Light and LASER light
5. Coherence Length
6. Light-Matter Interaction-
(i) Stimulated Absorption
(ii) Spontaneous Emission
(iii) Stimulated Emission
6. Relation between Einstein’s co-efficients
7. Population Inversion and Metastable states
8. Components of Laser
9. Working of LASER
10.Schemes of Population Inversion
11. RUBY LASER
12. He-Ne Laser
12. Semiconductor diode laser
13. Applications of LASERs
14. Numericals
 What is Light !!!

 Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the

human eye.
 It is a type of energy that travels in the form of waves, and it is
part of a broader spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.
 The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses a wide range of
frequencies and wavelengths, with light falling within a specific
region of this spectrum.
Sources of Ordinary Light !!!
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
SPEED: In a vacuum, light travels at a constant speed (3.00×108 m/s), denoted as c.
This speed is one of the fundamental constants in physics.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: Light is just one portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum, which includes various types of electromagnetic radiation
such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. Each type of electromagnetic radiation has a
specific range of wavelengths and frequencies.
 Visible Spectrum

WAVELENGTH AND COLOR: The different colours of light are associated with different
wavelengths. In the visible spectrum, shorter wavelengths correspond to colours like violet and
blue, while longer wavelengths correspond to colours like red and orange.
ENERGY: The energy of a light wave is directly proportional to its frequency. This relationship
is described by the equation E=hν, where E is the energy, h is Planck's constant, and ν is the
frequency of the light wave.
 Section 1 - LASERS
LASER –
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

A device that stimulates atoms or

molecules to emit light at particular
wavelength and amplifies that light
producing a highly coherent,
monochromatic and highly intense
narrow beam of radiation.
 History of LASER

• Albert Einstein gave the theoretical prediction of “Stimulated

Emission” which is fundamental to the operation of all lasers.
1916
• C.H. Townes and his co-workers constructed first MASER
(Microwave Amplification By Stimulated Emission Of Radiation)
using ammonia based on the prediction of Einstein.
1958 • Townes and Schawlow proposed a method of extending MASER
principle to visible light.

• T. Maiman built the first

LASER (RUBY LASER).
1960 • Laser is also called Optical
MASER.
 History of LASER

Albert Einstein gave the theoretical

prediction of “Stimulated Emission in 1916

T. Maiman with his laser in July 1960

 Characteristics/Properties of LASER light

LASER encompasses interaction between atoms and molecules of matter and electromagnetic
field.
The beam emitted by laser can have following features:
(1) High Degree Of Coherency (2) Highly Monochromatic (3) Highly Directional
(4) Highly Intense

1. Laser is highly coherent.

2. Laser is highly monochromatic unlike ordinary light which means that all laser
rays have same wavelength and frequency when they are emitted from same
source.
3. Laser can be directed to a distant object and travel as a parallel beam with
only negligible spreading due to diffraction effect. Hence its highly directional
unlike ordinary light which emits light in all directions and is highly divergent. In
LASER, divergence is in some mm.
4. Laser emits light in the form of narrow beam with energy concentrated in a
small region of space. So, the beam intensity is tremendously large and stays
constant with distance unlike ordinary light.
 COHERENT (LASER) and INCOHERENT (ORDINARY) Light

Coherence is related to zero or constant/definite phase relationship at different points of time and
space. For a source to be coherent, it must emit radiation of single frequency or frequency spread must
be small. Laser is highly coherent but ordinary light is incoherent in nature as they emit light waves with
no constant phase difference with each other, they comes from independent atoms which emit on time
scale of 10-8 s.
 Characteristics/Properties of LASER light

LASER LIGHT
ORDINARY LIGHT
 Properties of Laser Light : Monochromatic

If each light coming from a source has only one frequency (single wavelength) of
oscillation, the light is said to be monochromatic and the source is called
monochromatic source. Light from traditional monochromatic sources spreads over a
wavelength range of (100 Å -1000 Å ).

On the other hand, the light from lasers is highly monochromatic and contains a very
narrow range of a few angstroms (< 10 Å).
 Properties of Laser Light : Highly Directional (Collimated) Beam

Laser light can travel very large distance without divergence and
without loss of energy. It’s angular spreading will be less. Hence it
possesses “high degree of directionality”.
 Properties of Laser Light : Highly Intense beam

Since ordinary light spreads in all directions, the intensity reaching the
target is very less. In laser, due to high directionality, the intensity reaching
the target is of high intensity. Example: 1 mW power of He-Ne laser appears
to be brighter than the sunlight.
 Coherence Length

Coherence length is a measure of how far electromagnetic waves, can maintain a

consistent phase relationship. In optics, it describes the distance over which the wave
front of a light wave remains relatively stable.
Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter
 Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter

Einstein explained the interaction of e-m radiation

with matter with the help of three processes.
1.Stimulated Absorption
2.Spontaneous Emission
3.Stimulated Emission
Interaction of e-m Radiation with Matter : Einstein’s Theory

ΔE

Condition ℎν = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ∆𝐸
Einstein’s theory of matter-radiation interaction

E2
E1

hν = E2 - E1 ………. (i)
Interaction of matter with radiation: Stimulated Absorption

 Consider an atom is initially in lower energy state (E1).

 A photon of energy hν (= E2 - E1) when incident on the atom in (E1),
it is absorbed by the atom.
 On absorbing the energy, the atom transits to its higher energy state
(E2).
 This phenomenon in which the atom transits to the higher energy
state with the help of external agent (radiation energy) is called
STIMULATED Absorption.
Interaction of matter with radiation: Stimulated Absorption

ρ(ν)
Interaction of matter with radiation: Spontaneous Emission

 Lifetime of upper energy state is very short.

 Consider an atom is initially in excited state (E2).
 It can come down to the ground state E1 by emitting a photon
of energy hν (= E2 - E1) on its own after 10-8 s (without any
external agent).
 This process is called SPONTANEOUS Emission.
Interaction of matter with radiation: Spontaneous Emission

• The probability of occurrence of this spontaneous

emission transition from state 2 to state 1 depends only
on the properties of states 2 and 1 and is given by
• P’21 = A21 …………(iii)
Where A21 is known as the
Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission of
radiation.
Interaction of matter with radiation: Stimulated Emission

ρ(ν)
ρ(ν) ………. (iv)
Interaction of matter with radiation: Stimulated Emission
 Relation between Einstein’s Coefficients
Let us consider an assembly of independent atoms which can exists only in 2 levels, 1 and 2 with
energies E1 and E2. Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms per unit volume in the states 1 and 2
respectively. These numbers are called Population of respective levels.
At thermal equilibrium, the no of atoms present in a particular energy is determined by Maxwell’s-
Boltzmann Statistics, i.e.

N𝟐 = N1 exp {- (E2 - E1)/KT}

Here,
Where, B12= Einstein Coefficient Stimulated Absorption
K= Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
B21=Einstein Coefficient of Stimulated Emission
T= Absolute Temperature in Kelvin
A21=Einstein Coefficient of Spontaneous Emission
We have these following equations:

The Rate of Stimulated Absorption (R1) transition is given by:

R1(St. Absorption) = B12 ρ(n) N1 ----- (1)

The Rate of Spontaneous Emission (R2) is given by:

R2 (Sp. Emission) = A21 N2 -------- (2)

The Rate of Stimulated Emission (R3) is given by:

R3 (St. Emission) = B21 ρ(n) N2 ------ (3)

 Relation between Einstein’s Co-efficients
Under thermal equilibrium,

The number of atoms absorbing photons per second/unit volume

= The number of atoms emitting photons per second /unit volume
Thereby, we can write, (R1) = (R2) + (R3)

i.e. B12 ρ(n) N1 = A21 N2 + B21 ρ(n) N2

𝐀𝟐𝟏 𝐍𝟐
Or, 𝝆 𝝂 =
𝐁𝟏𝟐 𝐍𝟏 −𝐁𝟐𝟏 𝐍𝟐

Dividing the above equation by B21.N2, we get,

B N B N
𝝆 𝝂 = (A21 / B21) / [ 12 1 - 21 2]
B21 N2 B21 N2
𝐀𝟐𝟏 𝟏
Thereby, 𝝆 𝝂 = ……. (4)
𝐁𝟐𝟏 𝐁𝟏𝟐 𝐍𝟏 −𝟏
𝐁 𝟐𝟏𝐍 𝟐
 Relation between Einstein’s Co-efficients

Now, we know that −𝐄𝟏

𝐍𝟏 𝐞 𝐤𝐓 𝐄𝟐 −𝐄𝟏 𝐡𝛎
= −𝐄 =𝐞 𝐤𝐓 =𝐞 𝐤𝐓
𝐍𝟐 𝟐
𝐞 𝐤𝐓

Where (h = Planck’s constant: k = Boltzmann’s constant)

Putting the values in equation (4), the values of N1/N2, we have,

𝐀𝟐𝟏 𝟏
𝛒 𝛎 = 𝐁 𝒉𝝂 …. (5)
𝐁𝟐𝟏 𝟏𝟐 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
𝐁𝟐𝟏
Now, for an ideal 2 level system, as we have considered, must result in a
radiation similar to a black body radiation, hence ρ(ν) is given by Planck’s
Radiation law,

𝟖𝛑𝐡𝛎𝟑 𝟏
i. e. 𝛒 𝛎 = 𝟑 𝐡𝛎 …….. (6)
𝐜 𝐞 𝐤𝐓 −𝟏
 Relation between Einstein’s Co-efficients

Comparing, equations (5) & (6), we get,

𝐀𝟐𝟏 𝟖𝛑𝐡𝛎𝟑
= 𝟑 and B12 = B21 ----- (7)
𝐁𝟐𝟏 𝐜

Where c = speed of light

These relations are known as Einstein’s Relations.

We can observe that :

R = Rate of spontaneous Emission / Rate of Stimulated Emission

Or, R = A21 N2 / [ B21 N2 ρ(ν)] = exp (hν /KT) – 1
If R>>1, probability of stimulated emission is negligible compared to
spontaneous emission.
If R<<1, probability of stimulated emission predominates.
So, stimulated emission is negligible compared to spontaneous emission
in OPTICAL region.
 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Let’s discuss the physical significance of these

relations:
1. We have B12 = B21, (from equation 7) which states that the probability of
stimulated emission is numerically equal to the probability of stimulated
absorption. So stimulated emission is an reverse process of stimulated
absorption, but their rates are not same because stimulated emission is
proportional to the no of atoms per unit volume in E2 excited state, i.e N2
while stimulated absorption is proportional to the no of atoms per unit
volume in E1 ground state, i.e N1.

2. Again, we have from equation (7),

A21 / B21 = 8πhν3 / c3,
Therefore, B21 = (A21 . c3) / 8πhν 3
Which implies that the co-efficient of Stimulated Emission B21 is inversely
proportional to the third power of frequency of radiation.
 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE

3. R’ = Rate of Stimulated Emission / Rate of Stimulated

Absorption

R’= [ B21 N2 ρ(ν)] / [B12 N1 ρ(ν)] = N2 / N1

This shows, at thermal equilibrium, the number of

atoms per unit volume N1 in ground state is very large
in comparison to number of atoms in excited state , i.e.
N1 >> N2.
But to achieve higher rate of stimulated emission we
should have N2 >> N1.
 Conditions for achieving Light amplification
In practice, absorption and spontaneous emission always occurs together with
stimulated emission. The laser operation is achieved when simulated emission
exceeds in a large way than the other two processes.
A light amplification only occurs when these 3 conditions are fulfilled, they are
as follows:

1. Population at the excited level should be large than that of lower energy
level (𝑁2 >>𝑁1 ). Artificial situation known as Population Inversion is to be
created in the medium.

2. The ratio of B21/A21 should be very large and this can be achieved by
choosing a metastable state at the higher level..

3. The energy density of radiation ρ ν should be very large. Large number of

photons in the active medium are required. It is made larger by enclosing
the emitted radiation in the optical resonant cavity formed by 2 parallel
mirrors. The radiation is reflected many times till the photon density
reaches to a very high value and stimulated emissions are triggered on a
large scale.
 Multiplication of Photons in LASER

• When a photon strikes an excited atom, the single photon

transforms into two identical photons. Those two photons can
then strike other excited atoms, resulting in 4 photons and then
8 and so on. This is how amplification of light happens and we
get a coherent monochromatic highly intense laser beam.

Image Source: Engineering Physics by H K Malik and A K Singh

 Population Inversion

Definition : Population Inversion is an artificial non-equilibrium

process/condition of the material that is established by generation of large
numbers of atoms in the higher energy state than ground state
(N2>>N1).This is achieved by pumping.

[At ordinary conditions N1 > N2, i.e., the population in the ground or lower state is
always greater than the population in the excited or higher states.]
 Metastable States

Metastable states are excited states which have relatively longer

lifetime due to slow radiative or non-radiative decay.
Population inversion can be established if the lifetime of the
excited states (metastable) is 10-6 to 10-3 s which is considerably
more than the lifetime of the ordinary excited state levels.
Metastable state can be obtained in a crystal system containing
impurities. These levels lie in the forbidden band gap of the host
crystal.
 Spontaneous Emission Vs. Stimulated Emission

NO: Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

1. The spontaneous emission was The stimulated emission was postulated by

postulated by Bohr Einstein
2. Additional photons are not required in Additional photons are required in
spontaneous emission stimulated emission

3. One photon is emitted in spontaneous Two photons are emitted in stimulated

emission emission
4. The emitted radiation is polychromatic The emitted radiation is monochromatic

5. The emitted radiation is incoherent The emitted radiation is coherent

6. The emitted radiation is less intense. The emitted radiation is highly intense

7. The emitted radiation have less The emitted radiation have high
directionality Example: light from directionality Example: light from laser
sodium or mercury lamp source.
 Components of Laser
Laser requires three Components: 1) Active Medium/Gain Medium
2) Pumping scheme
3) Optical Cavity/Resonator
 Components of Laser: Active Medium
1) Active Medium:
• The fundamental component of laser is material medium which is
known as an Active/Gain Medium.
• This active medium can be solid, liquid or gaseous in nature. After
the invention of ruby laser (solid state laser), other active media
such as glasses, plastics, liquids, gases and even plasma were
used.
• In Active Medium, only a small fraction of the atoms are
responsible for the light amplification known as ACTIVE
CENTRES. The rest part of the medium behaves as a Host and
supports the active centres in the bulk.
• An active medium should possess good mechanical, thermal and
optical properties as well as transparency to stimulated radiation
and laser output.
 Components of Laser : Pumping techniques

2) Pumping techniques:

• To produce population inversion, the method of raising

the atoms from lower energy state to higher energy
state is called pumping.

• The most commonly used pumping methods are:

I. Optical pumping
II. Electrical discharge pumping
III. Chemical pumping
 Components of Laser : Pumping techniques

I. Optical pumping:
• Majorly used in solid state laser.
• Xenon flash tubes are used for optical pumping.
• Examples of optically pumped lasers are ruby, Nd: YAG Laser
 Components of Laser : Pumping techniques

II. Electrical discharge pumping

• Electrical discharge pumping is used in gas lasers.
• Electrical discharge pumped lasers are He-Ne laser, CO2 laser,
argon-ion laser, etc
 Components of Laser: Optical Cavity/Resonator

Optical resonator is a pair of plane parallel mirrors set on optic axis which
defines the direction of laser output. One is perfectly reflecting mirror and
the other surface is partially reflecting mirror. In this resonant cavity, the
intensity of photons is raised tremendously through stimulated emission
process (amplification of stimulated photons).

M1

M2
 Working of Laser: Lasing Action
 The atoms excited with the light of suitable wavelength jumps from ground
states E1 to excited state E2 by absorbing incident photons. They can’t
remain in excited state for more than 10-8 s and drops back by spontaneous
emission.

 During this, many of the atoms get dropped in the metastable state where
the atoms can stay for a longer time than that of its excited state as the
lifetime of an atom in metastable state is greater than its excited state. So,
due to their longer stay, a large number of atoms exist in the metastable
state than that in ground state indicating population inversion (N2 >> N1).

 When population inversion is achieved using pumping, then one or more

atoms may be excited spontaneously by emitting a photon hv. This photon
acts as a stimulant and is made to strike the atoms present in the metastable
state.

 The atoms thus gets excited and it is stimulated to emit a photon of same
energy as that of the stimulating photon.
 Working of Laser: Lasing Action
 As the both stimulated and stimulating photons passes through active medium, it
initiates the process of stimulated emission in the active medium by repeated
stimulated emission with the help of optical resonator.

 Photons travelling parallel to the optic axis of the resonator are partially reflected
by M1 and transmitted part of beam gives laser output. The photons emitted in the
other direction will traverse a relatively short path length in the material and die out
soon.

 Reflected photons acts as a positive feedback for active medium as they enter
again into the active medium and initiates further stimulated emission. These
photons are totally reflected back by the second totally reflecting mirror M2 into
active medium and their number increases due to further stimulated emission.

 Multiplication of photons occur and light gets amplified. These photons have same
energy, direction and phase as that of incident photons. Hence, a highly intense ,
monochromatic and unidirectional LASER light is obtained.
 Schemes for Population Inversion
I. Two-level System:
• Two energy level E1 and E2
• Einstein coefficients (or constants) for the upward (B12) and downward
(B21) transitions can be found easily and are equal, i.e.B12 = B21.
• Population inversion cannot be achieved in two level system.
• Solution: Metastable state
• Metastable state : an energy state where electrons can stay for a longer
time.
Population Inversion is not possible in Two-level System

• Consider the case of two-level system having energies E1 and E2 such

that E2 > E1. We can easily find that the Einstein coefficients for the
upward (B12) and downward (B21) transitions are equal, i.e., B12 = B21.

• It means, even with strong pumping, the population distribution in upper

and lower levels can only be made equal.

• This is due to the fact that the probability for raising an electron to the
upper level (stimulated absorption) and probability of falling back of an
electron to the lower level (stimulated emission) are exactly the same.

• In other words, we can say that the numbers of electrons going up and
coming down will be the same, and both the levels will be equally
populated.

• So, we cannot achieve population inversion in the case of two energy

levels system. Therefore, It requires either three or four level systems to
attain population inversion.
 Schemes for Population Inversion

II. Three-Level System:

• Atoms are pumped to an excited state E3.

• In addition to this excited state (e.g. E3) the system has a
metastable state (e.g. E2).
• E3 has short life time and the atoms transits from the upper
level E3 i.e. they spontaneously decay into the metastable
state E2.
• This transition is usually weakly radiative or non-radiative
(energy is released to the lattice which give rise to
phonons).
 Schemes for Population Inversion
II. Three-Level System:
• Atoms decay from the higher level to the metastable level state,
which results in a population inversion between the metastable level
and ground state.
• Population inversion can only be achieved by pumping to a higher
level, followed by rapid radiative or non-radiative transfer to the
upper laser level.
 Schemes for Population Inversion

III. Four-Level System:

• Four energy levels, E4 > E3 > E2 > E1 with
corresponding populations of N1, N2, N3 and N4.
• The atoms are excited by optical pumping from the
E1 ground state in the E4 level.
• By rapid decay (non-radiative transition) they come
to the metastable energy level E3.
• The population inversion takes place between level
E3 with level E2
• Lifetime of the transition of E3 to E2 is long
compared to E4 to E3.
 Schemes for Population Inversion
III. Four-Level System:
• Atoms in the metastable state E3 start spontaneous and stimulated
emission in the E2 energy level.
• The transition from the E2 energy level E1 is just as fast as the E4 level.
• This rapidly de-energized atom leads to a negligible population in the E2
state and maintains the population inversion..
 Comparison between four level and three level laser

The large pumping power is required to establish population inversion in three level
pumping scheme while relatively small pumping power is required in four level
scheme.
In the three-level pumping scheme, the lower level involved in population inversion
is ground level. Therefore, more than half of the ground level atoms have to be send
up to the upper level. As the number of atoms in the ground level is very large, high
pump power is required to establish the required population inversion.
While in the four-level pumping scheme, the lower level involved in population
inversion is ideally empty and population inversion condition is readily established
even if a smaller number of atoms reach at the upper level.

In case of three level scheme, light output is in pulsed form, while in four level
scheme, light output is in continuous wave (CW) form.
In three level pumping scheme, once stimulated emission commences, the
population inversion condition changes to normal population condition. Laser output
ceases as soon as the excited atoms drop to the ground level. Lasing occurs again
only when the population inversion is re-established. The light output therefore is a
pulsed output.
In four level scheme, the condition of population inversion can be held without
interruption and light output is obtained continuously so in continuous wave (cw)
mode.
 RUBY LASER (Solid State Laser)

Figure 1(a) Ruby Laser belongs to the class of solid state Lasers
 RUBY LASER – Description

 A solid state laser is one in which the active centres are fixed in a crystal or glassy material.
Solid state lasers are electrically non-conducting. They are also called Doped insulator
lasers. Historically, the ruby laser was the first laser invented in 1960 by T. Maiman, USA.

 Ruby laser rod is a synthetic ruby crystal Al2O3 crystal, doped with chromium ions at a
concentration of about 0.05% by weight Cr 3+ ions are the actual active centres and have a
set of three energy levels suitable for realizing laser action whereas aluminium and Oxygen
atoms are inert.

 Ruby laser is in the form of cylindrical rod having size 2 to 30 cm in length and 0.5 to 2 cm in
diameter whose both ends are optically flat. Its ends are grounded and polished such that
the end faces are exactly parallel and are also perpendicular the axis of the rod. One face is
silvered to achieve 100% reflection while the other is silvered to give 10% transmission &
90%. reflection.

 The Laser rod is surrounded by a helical photographic flash lamp filled with xenon.
Whenever activated by the power supply the lamp produces flashes of white light. The
space between two faces is known as the resonant cavity in which the light intensity can be
built by multiple reflections and through stimulated emission. The ruby rod is wound by a
helical flash light tube.
 RUBY LASER – Working Mechanism

Figure 1(b)

Ruby laser uses a three-level pumping scheme.

In this laser, chromium ions are the active centres which are responsible for the
laser transitions.
Here some of the Al3+ ions in the crystal lattice are replaced by Cr 3+ ions.
The Al2O3 is the host crystal and Cr atoms are called activator atoms. Chromium
ion gives the transparent Al2O3 crystals a pink or red-colour depending upon
their concentration.
 RUBY LASER – Working Mechanism

A simplified energy level diagram of chromium ions is shown in figure

1b above.
1. In the normal state, most the chromium ions in the ground state E1.
When light from flash lamp is activated, (~λ = 5500 Å) is made to fall
on Ruby Rod, the incident photons are absorbed by Chromium ions
and rise to the excited state E3.
2. The energy levels in this bands have a very small lifetime (~10-9 s).
Hence, the excited Cr 3+ ions rapidly loose some of the energy to
the crystal lattice & undergo non radiative transitions. They quickly
drop to the levels E2.
3. Released energy by the excited ions are absorbed by the lattice in
which it is embedded and gets dissipated in the from of heat. E2 is
the metastable state having a lifetime of approximately 1000 times
more than the lifetime of E3. Therefore, Cr 3+ ions accumulate at E2
level and population inversion is established between E2 and E1
levels.
 RUBY LASER – Working Mechanism
4. When an excited ion passes spontaneously from the metastable to ground state, it
emits a photon of wavelength 6943 Å.
This photon travels parallel to the axis of ruby rod and stimulates the surrounding ions
present in the metastable state then by stimulated emission other photons are emitted
which are in phase of stimulating atoms photons. These photons (6943 Å) travelling along
the axis of Ruby rod are repeatedly reflected by the end mirrors M1 and M2 and light
amplification takes place. A strong, coherent and intense beam emerges out of front
mirror.

RUBY LASER IS A PULSED LASER

Ruby laser doesn't operate throughout this period. Its output occurs in the form of
irregular pulses of microsecond duration. It is because the stimulated transition occur
faster than the rate at which population inversion is maintained on the crystal. Once
stimulated, transition commence, the metastable state E2 gets depopulated very rapidly
and at the end of each small pulse, the population at E2 has fallen below the threshold
value required for sustained emission of light.
As a result, lasing ceases & laser becomes inactive. The next pulse appears after the
population inversion is once again restored. The process repeats.
The Ruby Laser operates at about 1% efficiency & it may produce a laser beam of 1 mm
to 25 mm in diameter in pulses.
ADVANTAGE: Very strong beam and its construction is simple & operation is easy.
It is Known as PRACTICAL LASER.
 He-Ne Laser
Figure 2(a)

He-Ne is a Four level

LASER System
 He-Ne Laser- Construction

He-Ne Laser is the first Continuous Gas laser and was made by A.
JAVAN, Benett & Herriott in 1961, to overcome the drawback of pulsed
form of RUBY LASER.

1) It consists of a quartz tube having the size about 1.5 cm in diameter

and about 20-40 cm in length.
2) The both ends of the lube are sealed by optical plane and parallel
mirrors, one of them being partially silvered (90% reflective) and the
other one is fully silvered (100%, reflective).
3) In this laser system, a quartz tube is filled with a mixture of Helium
and Neon gas in the ratio 10:1 respectively at a pressure of about 0.1
mm of mercury. This mixture acts as the active medium.
4) On the axis of the tube 2 mirrors are arranged externally which form
the Fabry-Perot optical resonator.
 He-Ne Laser: Working Mechanism

He-Ne Laser employs a

four-level pumping scheme.
The energy levels of Helium
and neon are shown beside
[Figure 2(b)].

 When the power is

switched on, a high
voltage about 10 KV is
applied across the gas.

 It is sufficient to ionize Figure 2(b)

the gas. The electrons
and the ions produced in
the process of discharge
are accelerated towards
the anode and cathode
respectively.
 He-Ne Laser: Working Mechanism

 The energetic electrons excite helium atoms

through collisions. One of the excited levels of
helium F3 (2’S0) is at 20.61 eV above the ground
level. It is a metastable level and the excited helium
atom cannot return to the ground level through
spontaneous emission.

 However, it can return to the ground level by

transferring its excess energy to a neon atom
through collision. Such an energy transfer can take
place when the two colliding atoms have identical
energy levels. Such an energy transfer is known as
resonant energy transfer.
. He-Ne Laser: Working Mechanism

 One of the excited levels of neon E6 (5s) is at 20.66 eV, which is nearly at the same level as F3
of helium atom. Therefore, resonant transfer of energy can occur between the excited helium
atom and ground level neon atom. The kinetic energy of helium atoms provides the additional
0.05 eV required for excitation of the neon atoms. Helium atoms drop to the ground state after
exciting neon atoms. This is the pumping mechanism in He-Ne laser. The role of helium atoms is
to excite neon atoms and to cause population inversion.

 The probability of energy transfer from helium atoms to neon atoms is more, as there are 10
helium atoms per 1 neon atom in the gas mixture. The probability of reverse transfer of energy
from neon to helium atom is negligible.

 The upper state of neon atom E6 is a metastable state. Therefore, neon atoms accumulate in
this upper state. The E3 (3p) is sparsely populated at ordinary temperatures, and a state of
population inversion is readily established between E6 and E3 levels. Random photons emitted
spontaneously prompt stimulated emission and lasing occurs. The transition E6 to E3 generates
a laser beam of red colour of wavelength 6328 Å.

 From the level E3 the neon atoms drop to E2 (3s) level spontaneously. E2 level is however a
metastable state. Consequently, neon atoms tend to accumulate at E2 level. It is necessary that
these atoms are brought to the ground state E1(2p) quickly; otherwise the number of atoms at
the ground state will go on diminishing and the laser ceases to function.
 He-Ne Laser: Working Mechanism

 The only way of bringing the atoms to the ground state is

through collisions. If the discharge tube is made narrow, the
probability of atomic collisions with the tube walls increases.
Because of frequent collisions with the walls, the neon atoms
rapidly drop to the ground level and will be available for
excitation once again.

He-Ne laser operates in CW mode and is widely used in

laboratories as a monochromatic source. It is also widely used in
laser printing, bar code reading, etc.
 Semiconductor diode Laser
 A semiconductor diode laser is a specially
fabricated PN junction device, which emits
coherent light when it is forward biased. It was
demonstrated in 1962 by US groups led by R.Hall.
 It is made from Gallium arsenide (GaAs) which
operated at low temperatures and emitted light in
the near IR region.
 The PN-junction lasers can emit light almost
anywhere in the spectrum from UV to IR. Diode
lasers are remarkably small in size (0.1 mm long).
They have high efficiency of the order of 40%.
Modulating the biasing current easily modulates
the laser output. They operate at low powers.
 In spite of their small size and low power requirement, they produce power outputs
equivalent to that of He-Ne lasers. The chief advantage of a diode laser is that it is
portable.
 Because of the rapid advances in semiconductor technology, diode lasers are mass produced for use
in optical fibre communications, in CD players, CD-ROM drives, optical reading, high speed laser
printing etc.
 Semiconductor Laser: Construction
 A simple diode makes use of the
same semiconductor material, say,
GaAs on both sides of the junction.
 Starting with a heavily doped n-type
GaAs material, a p-region is formed
on its top.
 The diode is extremely small in size.
Typical diode chips are 500 µm long
and about 100 µm wide and thick.
 The top and bottom faces are
metallized and metal contacts are
provided to pass current through the
diode.
Figure 3(a)

 The front and rear faces are polished parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of
the junction. The polished faces constitute the Fabry Perot resonator.
 The two remaining sides of the diode are roughened to eliminate lasing action in that direction.
The entire structure is packaged in small case like the metal case.
 Semiconductor Laser: Working
• Population inversion is required for producing
stimulated emission.
• A semiconductor cannot be regarded as two-level
atomic system. It consists of electrons and holes
distributed in the respective energy bands.
Therefore, laser action in semiconductors involves
energy bands rather than discrete levels.
• In semiconductors, electrons are not associated
with specific atoms but are injected into the
conduction band from the external circuit.
• Therefore, the conduction band plays the role of
excited level while the valence band plays the role
of ground level. Population inversion requires the
presence of a large concentration of electrons in
the conduction band and a large concentration of
holes in the valence band.
Figure 3(b)
A simple way to achieve population inversion is to use a semiconductor in the form of a
PN-junction diode formed from heavily doped p-type and n-type semiconductors.
 Semiconductor Diode Laser: Working Mechanism

• At low forward current level, the electron-hole recombination causes

spontaneous emission of photons and the junction acts as an LED.
• As the forward current through the junction is increased the intensity of the light
increases linearly.
• However, when the current reaches a threshold value, the carrier concentrations
in the junction region will rise to a very high value.
• As a result, the junction region contains a large concentration of electrons within
the conduction band and simultaneously a large number of holes within the
valence band. Holes represent absence of electrons.
• Thus, the upper energy levels in the narrow region are having a high electron
population while the lower energy levels in the same region are vacant.
• Therefore, the condition of population inversion is attained in the narrow junction
region. This narrow zone in which population inversion occurs is called an
inversion region or active region.
• Chance recombination acts of electron and hole pairs lead to emission of
spontaneous photons. The spontaneous photons propagating in the junction plane
stimulate the conduction electrons to jump into the vacant states of valence band.
• This stimulated electron-hole recombination produces coherent radiation.
• GaAs laser emits light at a wavelength of 9000 Å in IR region.
APPLICATIONS of LASERS

 Computers
_ In LAN (local area network), data
can be transferred from memory
storage of one computer to other
computer using laser for short time.
_ Lasers are used in CD-ROMS during
recording and reading the data.

 Communication:
The light signals can be modulated
with the information to be sent by
either light emitting diodes or lasers
using optical fibers.
 APPLICATIONS of LASERS

Surface Texturing

Lasers are one of the most widely used tools in manufacturing and
can create fine features that are difficult or impossible to make
using traditional machining equipment.
 APPLICATIONS of LASERS

Laser Drilling

This process focuses the laser beam to create holes in

materials involving melting and vaporization of materials
to form a hole.
 APPLICATIONS of LASERS

Laser Welding

This process is especially effective for products with

complex geometries or dissimilar materials that are
difficult to join together
APPLICATIONS of LASERS

Laser cutting
 APPLICATIONS of LASERS
Lasers in Medical sectors

 Medical uses: Lasers are used in retinal treatment, dental procedures, delicate surgeries to
cut blood-rich tissue such as the liver etc. Pulsed neodymium laser is employed in the
treatment of liver cancer. Argon and carbon dioxide lasers are used in the treatment of liver
and lungs.
 Numericals on UNIT 4

(1) Determine energy and momentum of a photon of a laser

beam of wavelength 6328 Å.
Given h = 6.63 × 10-34 J.s , c = 3 × 108 m/s
ℎ𝑐
Hint: 𝐸 = ℎν =
λ
𝐸 ℎ𝑐 1 ℎ
𝑝= = =
𝑐 λ 𝑐 λ

ℎ𝑐 6.63×10−34 𝐽.𝑠 3×108 𝑚/𝑠

Solution: 𝑬 = ℎν = =
λ 6328×10−10 𝑚
= 0.003143 × 10−16 𝐽
0.003143×10−16 𝐽
= = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 𝒆𝑽
1.6×10−19

𝐸 ℎ𝑐 1 ℎ 6.63×10−34 𝐽.𝑠 −𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈.𝒎

𝒑= = = = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑐 λ 𝑐 λ 6328×10−10 𝑚 𝒔
 Numericals on UNIT 4

(2) Find the ratio of population of the two states in a He-Ne laser
that produces light of wavelength 6328 Å at 27⁰C. (𝒌 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 ×
𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝑱/𝑲)
𝑁2 − 𝐸2 −𝐸1
Hint: =𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑁1
ℎ𝑐 6.63×10−34 𝐽.𝑠 3×108 𝑚/𝑠
Solution: 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎν = =
λ 6328×10−10 𝑚
= 0.003143 × 10−16 𝐽

𝑁2 − 𝐸2 −𝐸1 − 0.003143×10−16 𝐽
=𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑁1 1.38×10−23 𝐽/𝐾 300𝐾
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −75.92
𝑵𝟐
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟑
𝑵𝟏
 What to Study in Fibre Optics

1. What is (a) Fibre Optics?

(b) Optical Fibre?
2. Structure of Optical Fibre
3. Working principle of Optical Fibre
4. Total Internal Reflection
5. Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture
6. Fractional difference of R.I.
7. Classification Of Optical Fibre
8. Power Loss in Optical Fibre
9. Advantages of Optical Fibre
10. Applications of Optical Fibre
11. Numericals
 Section II : FIBRE OPTICS
An Optical Fibre is a cylindrical
wave guide made of
transparent dielectric (glass,
clear plastic) which guides light
waves along its length by total
internal reflection. It is thin as a
human hair, i.e. 70 µm)

Fibre optics is a technology in which electrical signals are converted into

optical signals, transmitted through a thin glass fibre and reconverted into
electrical signals. In 1950, Kapany coined the term Fibre Optics.
Narinder Singh Kapany (31st October 1926 – 4th December 2020) was
an Indian-American physicist, best known for his work on optical fibres.
He is the inventor of fibre optics.
Kapany's research and work encompassed fiber-optics communications,
lasers, biomedical instrumentation, solar energy and pollution monitoring.
Tyndall Experiment on TIR

Water Fountain Showing TIR

 OPTICAL FIBRE : STRUCTURE

Figure 4(a) - Internal 250 to 900 µm

Structure Of Optical Fibre 8 to 62.5 µm
 OPTICAL FIBRE : STRUCTURE
A practical optical fibre is cylindrical in shape and has 3 co-axial regions

CORE : (Silica, Germanium)

The innermost cylindrical region is the light guiding region known as core. Diameter of
the core is 8.5-62.5 μm.
CLADDING (Pure silica)
CORE is surrounded by a co-axial middle region having diameter of the order 125 μm,
is known as CLADDING.
The refractive index n2 of “Cladding” is always lower than that of Core whose
refractive index is n1.
OUTER SHEATH:
The outermost protective layer is called buffer coating or sheath. It is a plastic coating
given to the cladding for extra safeguard to provide physical and environmental
protection for the fibre. The fibre is elastic in nature and can vary in size from 250-900
μm.
Necessity of cladding
 Keep size of fibre constant
 Protects fibre from physical
damage
 Prevents leakage of light
 Increases the rate of transmission
of data
OPTICAL FIBRE : STRUCTURE
 OPTICAL FIBRE : Principle
 The propagation of light in an optical fibre from one of its end to the other end is
based on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR).

Figure 4(b)
Basic Operation of an OPTICAL FIBRE
When light enters one end of the fibre, it undergoes successive total internal reflections
from sidewalls and travels down the length of the fibre along a zigzag path as shown. A
small fraction of light may escape through the sidewalls but a major fraction emerges
out from the exit end of the fibre. Light can travel through fibre even if it is bent.
OPTICAL FIBRE : Principle
 Total Internal Reflection
• A medium having a lower refractive index is said to be an optically rarer
medium while a medium having a higher refractive index is known as an
optically denser medium. When a ray of light passes from a denser
medium to a rarer medium, it is bent away from the normal in the rarer
medium.

ϕ2

ϕC ϕ1 ϕ2
ϕ1

Figure 5 - Total Internal Reflection

 Total Internal Reflection
• Snell’s law for this case may be written as
𝑛1
• sin ϕ2 = sin ϕ1 …..(1) Where ϕ1 is the angle of incidence of light ray in the denser medium
𝑛2
and ϕ2 is the angle of refraction in the rarer medium. Also 𝑛1 >𝑛2 . When the angle of incidence, ϕ1
in the denser medium is increased, the transmission angle, ϕ2 increases and the refracted rays bend
more and more away from the normal.
• At some particular angle ϕ𝐶 the refracted ray glides along the boundary surface so that ϕ2 =90°.
• At angles greater than ϕ𝐶 there are no refracted rays at all. The rays are reflected back into the
denser medium as though they encountered a specular reflecting surface.

• If 𝝓𝟏 < 𝝓𝑪 , the ray refracts into the rarer medium

• If 𝝓𝟏 = 𝝓𝑪 , the ray just grazes the interface of denser-to-rarer media
• If 𝝓𝟏 > 𝝓𝑪 , the ray is reflected back into the denser medium
• The phenomena in which light is totally reflected from a denser-to-rarer medium boundary is
known as total internal reflection.
• The rays that experience total internal reflection obey the laws of reflection.
• When 𝝓𝟏 = 𝝓𝑪 , 𝝓𝟐 = 𝟗𝟎°
• From eq.(1), 𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓𝑪 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟗𝟎° = 𝒏𝟐 [ as, sin 𝟗𝟎° = 1]
𝒏𝟐
• 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓𝑪 = …..(2)
𝒏𝟏
 Acceptance Angle
We consider a step-index
optical fibre (figure 6) with its
core & cladding having
refractive indices n1 and n2
respectively. Let no be the
refractive index of the outside
medium. Let a ray of light is
incident on the entrance
aperture of the fibre at an
angle θ1 with the axis. If θ2 be
the angle of refraction we get
from Snell's Law, we get,

no sinθ1 = n1 sinθ2 ----(1)

Figure 6

In order to keep the light inside the core, the angle of incidence θ3 of at the core-
cladding interface must not be less than the critical angle θc.
Again from fig, we can write θ3 = 90°- θ2
If θ1 is increased, θ2 increases and hence θ3 decreases. So, there is a maximum value
of of θA of θ1, for which θ3 is not less than θc. and the ray undergoes Total internal
reflection at core-cladding interface. This angle θA is known as ACCEPTANCE angle.
 Acceptance Angle/ Acceptance Cone

Acceptance angle θA : The maximum angle of incidence for which any ray is totally internally
reflected at the interface and therefore, transmitted without loss. A cone of light of semi-angle θA
is Known as Acceptance CONE. Acceptance angle is the maximum angle that a light ray can have
relative to the axis of the fibre and propagate down the fibre
 Thus only those rays that are incident on the face of the fibre making angles less
than acceptance angle θA will undergo repeated TIR and reach other end of the
fibre. The larger acceptance angle make it easier to launch light into the fibre.
 In 3D, the light rays, contained within the core having a full angle 2θ are accepted
and transmitted along the fibre. This is called Acceptance Cone (Figure 7). Light
incident at an angle beyond θA refracts through the cladding and the corresponding
optical energy is lost

.
Figure 7(a)
 Acceptance
Acceptance Angle
Angle/ Acceptance Cone

Acceptance / Emission Cone

Figure 7(b) & (c)

 Numerical Aperture
 To determine θA, we have,
no sin θ1 = n1 sin θ2 ----(1)
Again, we can write
no sin θ1 = n1 sin θ2 = n1 sin (90°- θ3) = n1 cos θ3 ------ ( from figure 6)

For conditions, θ1 = θA, we have θ3 = θc (where, θc = critical angle)

Putting these conditions we can write,
no sin θA = n1 cos θc ---- (2)
We know that sin θc = n2/n1 ----(3). Thereby, we can write,

----(4)
 Numerical Aperture
The quantity no sin θA is defined as the NUMERICAL APERTURE
(NA) of the fibre
It is seen from eq.(4) that NA is dependent only on the refractive indices of the core and
cladding materials and does not depend on the physical dimensions of the fibre.
The value of NA ranges from 0.13 to 0.50. A large NA implies that a fibre will accept
large amount of light from the source.

 Not all rays entering the fiber core will continue to be propagated down its length.
Only rays with sufficiently shallow grazing angle (i.e. angle to the normal > θC) at the
core-cladding interface are transmitted by TIR.
 Any ray incident into fiber core at angle > A will be transmitted to core-cladding
interface at an angle < θC and will not follow TIR.
 Larger the Numerical Aperture, greater is the amount of light accepted by the fibre
from the external source.
 It is obvious that the larger the diameter of the core, the larger the acceptance angle.
 For a lens or a fiber, the NA is commonly defined as the sine of half the maximum
angle of acceptance.
 For multimode fibers, the equation shown calculates the NA using the index of
refraction (n) of the core and cladding.
 Fractional Difference of Refractive Index

• The fractional difference Δ between the refractive indices of the

core and the cladding is known as fractional refractive index
change. It is expressed as ,
Δ = (n1-n2)/n1

• This parameter is always positive because n1 must be larger than

n2 for the total internal reflection condition. In order to guide light
rays effectively through a fibre, Δ<<1.
• Typically, Δ is of the order of 0.01.
.
 Classsification of Optical Fibre
1. Based on Refractive Index
(a) Step-index fibres
(b) Graded-index (GRIN) fibres

 Step Index refers to the fact that the

refractive index of the core is
constant along the radial direction
and abruptly falls to a lower value at
the cladding and core boundary.
 In the case of GRIN fibres, the
refractive index of the core is not
constant but varies smoothly over
the diameter of the core. It has a
maximum value at the centre and
decreases gradually towards the
edge of the core.
Figure 8 (a) STEP-Index Fibre (b) STEP-Index Fibre
 At the core-cladding interface, the refractive index of the core matches with the refractive index of
the cladding. the refractive index of the cladding is constant.
 Classification of Optical Fibre
2. Based on Modes: On the basis of light propagation optical fibres are classified into
(a) Single Mode Step-INDEX fibres
(b) Multimode Step-INDEX fibres
(c) Graded-INDEX (GRIN) fibres
(a) SMF (single mode step index
fibre) has a very fine thin core of
diameter of 8 μm to 12μm at is
usually made of germanium
doped silica. The core is
surrounded by a thick cladding.
refractive index. The cladding is
composed of silica lightly doped
with phosphorous oxide. The
external diameter of the
cladding is of order of 125 μm.
The fibre is surrounded by an
opaque protective sheath. The
refractive index of the fibre
changes abruptly at the core
cladding boundary.
Classification of Optical Fibre
 Classification of Optical Fibre
(b) A multimode step index fibre (MMF) is very small much similar to the single mode
step index fibre except that it's case is of larger diameter. The core diameter is of the
order of 50-100um which is very large compared to the wavelength of light. External
diameter of cladding is 150-250 μm.
Multimode step index fibres allow finite number of guided modes. Many zigzag paths of
propagation are permitted in a MMF. The path length along the axis of the fibre is
shorter while other Zigzag paths are longer. Because of this difference, the lower
order modes reach the end of the fibre earlier. while the high order modes reach after
some delay causing intermodal dispersion.

(c) Graded-Index GRIN fibres

A graded index fibre is a multimode fibre with a core consisting of concentric layers of
different refractive index. Therefore, the refractive index of the core varies with
distance from the fibre axis. It has a high value at the centre and falls of with increasing
radial distance from axis. Such a profile causes a periodic focussing of light
propagating through the fibre. So all rays travelling through the fibre, irrespective of
their modes of travel, will have almost the same optical path length and reach the
output end of the fibre at the same time.
 Losses in FIBRE OPTICS
As a light signal propagates through a fibre it suffers loss of amplitude and changes in
shape. The loss of amplitude is referred to as attenuation and the change in shape as
distortion.

Attenuation: When an optical signal propagates through a fibre, power of the signal
decreases exponentially with distance. The loss of optical power as light travels down
a fibre is known as Attenuation (Measure of decay of signal strength of Light POWER).
The attenuation of optical signal is defined as the ratio of the optical output power from
a fibre of length L to the input optical power.
If Pi is the optical power launched at the input end of the fibre, then the power Po at a
distance L down the fibre is given by,
Where,
α= fibre attenuation coefficient
In case of an ideal fibre, P0 = Pi
and the attenuation would be
zero.
The unit of measurement of
attenuation is decibel/kilometre
(dB/km).
This is the Logarithmic relationship between the optical output power and
the optical input power.
 Advantages of Optical Fibres over metal wires

Fibre Optics have many advantages compared with traditional

metal communications lines, which are listed as follows:

 Fibre optics cable can carry more data as their bandwidth is

greater than metal cables.
 Fibre optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to
interference.
 Fibre optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal
wires.
 Through fibre optic cables the data can be transmitted digitally
rather than analogically.
 Attenuation through fibre optics cables are very low in
transmitting the data Lover long distance so there is no need of
repeaters.
 Applications

• Optical Communications: Traditionally, electronic communications were

carried out by sending electrical signals through copper cables, coaxial
cables or waveguides. In recent years optical fibres are being used, where
light signals replace electrical signals.

• Transmission of LIGHT: Optical Fibres are used for transmission of light to

illuminate hard to reach places or to conduct light out of such places.

• Transmission of images: A flexible bundle of optical fibre is called

fibrescope . It is extensively used in carrying images. Light is passed down
the outer fibres from the sources and the reflected light is piped alone the
inner fibres.
• Sensors: Sensing Acoustic fields, magnetic fluids temperature etc.
• Coupler: Used to couple two electrical circuits without introducing a direct
link.
 Applications
Medical Applications:
• The fibre optic endoscope is used to inspect internal organs for diagnostic
purposes.
• A laser beam guided by optical fibre is used to reattach detached retina and to
correct defective vision.
• The optical energy transmitted through a optical fibre is used to evaporate built-up
plaque that is blocking an artery.
• In cancer treatment, special chemicals are injected that penetrates only the
cancerous cells. Infra red energy transmitted via the fibre illuminates the affected
area and is absorbed by the special chemical in the cancerous cells. The heat
generated destroys the cancerous cells.
Military Applications:
• An aircraft, a ship or a tank needs tons of copper wire for wiring of the
communication requirement, control mechanism etc. Use of optical fibre in place of
copper reduces weight.
• Fibre guided missiles are used in recent wars. Sensors mounted on the missile
transmit video information through the optical fibre to a ground control van and
receive commands from the van again. The control van continuously monitors the
missiles position to ensure that the missile precisely hits the target.
 Numericals

(1) Calculate the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of an

optical fiber from the following data
n1(core) = 1.55, n2(cladding) = 1.50

Hint: NA = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

𝜃0 = sin−1 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

Solution: 𝐍𝐀 = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = 1.552 − 1.502 = 0.1525 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟎𝟓

𝜽𝟎 = sin−1 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = sin−1 0.3905 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟖⁰
 Numericals

(2) Optical Power of 1 mW is launched into an optical fiber of length

100 m. If the power emerging from the other end is 0.3 mW.
Calculate the fiber attenuation.
10 𝑃
Hint: α= log 𝑖
𝐿 𝑃𝑂

10 𝑃 10 1 𝑚𝑊
Solution: 𝜶 = log 𝑖 = log = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟐𝟖 𝒅𝑩/𝒌𝒎
𝐿 𝑃𝑂 0.1 𝑘𝑚 0.3 𝑚𝑊
 Numericals on UNIT 4
1. A step index fibre has a core of refractive index 1.55 and a cladding of refractive index 1.53. Find the
numerical aperture and the acceptance angle of the fibre.

2. A step index fibre has a core of refractive index 1.50 and a cladding of refractive index 1.40. If the fibre is
used in a water environment, finds its numerical aperture and acceptance angle. The r. i. of water is 1.33.

3. Optical power of 1 mW is launched into an optical fibre of length 100 m. If the power emerging from the
other end is 0.3 mW, calculate the fibre attenuation.

1
4. What is the attenuation in dB/km, if 15 % of the power fed at the launching end of a 2 km fibre lost during
propagation.

5. An optical fibre has clad of RI 1.50 and NA of 0.39. Find the RI of the core and the acceptance angle.

6. The power of a signal after propagating through an optical fibre of 1.5 km length is reduced to 25% of its
original value. Compute the fibre loss in dB/km.

7. Find the attenuation in an optical fibre of length 500m, when a light signal of power 100 mW emerges out of
the fibre with a power 90 mW.

8. The attenuation of light in an optical fibre is estimated at 2.2 dB/km. What fractional initial intensity remains
after 2 km & 6 km.

9. Calculate:
(a) The cladding Index
(b) The critical internal reflection angle
(c) The external critical acceptance angle
(d) The numerical aperture
of a glass clad fibre made with core glass of RI 1.5 and cladding is doped to give a fractional index difference
of 0.0005.
 BOOKS FOR REFERENCE

:
Engineering Physics,
H K Malik, A K Singh (Mc Graw Hill Publication )

A Textbook of Engineering Physics by

M N Avadhanulu, PG Kshirsagar, TVS Arun
Murthy