ENDOGENIC

PROCESS
 HEAT
is seen as energy from
the motion of the
molecules of bodies,
such as Earth, that may
be transferred by
conduction, convection,
or radiation.
 There are three main sources of heat on
Earth:
1. Heat from the accretion of Earth during its
formation.
2. Frictional heating, caused by the sinking of
core materials to the center of the planet
3. Heat from the decay of radioactive
elements
 Volcanism is the
eruption of molten
rock called magma
onto the Earth’s
surface through a vent.
 The driving force of
volcanism is the plate
tectonic motion created
by the movement of
molten rocks in the
mantle caused by
thermal convection
currents.
The heat of the planet is trapped underneath as the temperature
increases with depth. This change in temperature is called the
geothermal gradient.

Magma is formed when

the addition of heat,
decrease in pressure, and
change in composition of
the mantle.
 The addition of heat
can be generated
within the lithosphere
at the subduction zone.

Subduction zones are long, narrow zones where one

lithospheric plate descends beneath another when an
oceanic lithosphere thrusts into the mantle along a
convergence.
 Volcano is a vent in the
surface of Earth where
magma is expelled during a
volcanic eruption.

Lava is the primary material

extruded from a volcano in
addition to volcanic rocks,
ash, and dust during
volcanic eruptions.
TECTONIC FORCES AND PROCESSES
As the plates continue to move due to the convection of the
Earth’s layers, rocks are continuously exposed to stress.

DEFORMATION FOLDING
Refers to any change in the shape In rocks occur when they are
and size of a rock as a response to subjected to tectonic forces
stress. The deformation may occur from opposite sides.
by either folding or faulting.
 FAULTING
Is the result of the fracture or displacement
of rock layer or strata along a fault plane
 NORMAL FAULT
a dip-slip fault in which the
block above the fault has
moved downward relative to
the block below.

TRANSFORM FAULT
a type of strike-slip fault wherein
the relative horizontal slip is
accommodating the movement
between two ocean ridges or other
tectonic boundaries.
 REVERSE FAULT
a dip-slip fault in which the hanging wall
moves upwards, relative to the footwall.
The nineteenth-century
geologist James Dwight
Dana proposed the
continental accretion
theory, which proposed
that the continents have
always been stationary,
with the gradual
addition of new material
around a central nucleus.
 Another theory, called continental assimilation
hypothesis, explained how the ocean areas
accumulated the denser elements, then subsided to
form basins.
 In 1925, the expanding Earth hypothesis stated that the
present continents split apart with the expansion of Earth,
and that the continents combined could cover half of the
current Earth’s surface area.
The oldest continental rocks dated by radioactive are
3.98 billion years old.

This suggests that the continents and oceans are probably

permanent features of the Earth’s surface.
The Continental Drift Theory is the gradual movement
of the continents over time.

The upper layer of the crust is broken down into large slabs
called plates.
 Alfred Wegener is a German
geophysicist who found that the
continents fit together like pieces
of a jigsaw puzzle and in 1912 he
proposed the first complete
continental drift theory.
One of the very first observations Wegener made that influenced his
continental drift theory was the puzzle fit of the continents.

Wegener led his observation to believe that the

continents were once joined as a single
supercontinent, which he called Pangaea

Wegener’s theory was not widely accepted by

the scientific community for many years.
Pangaea began to break up into two large landmasses, Laurasia and
Gondwanaland, 200 million years ago.

Laurasia eventually broke

up into the continents of
North America, Europe,
and Asia.

Gondwanaland eventually
created South America,
Africa, Australia, and
Antarctica.
 When scientists made up
names for the animals,
they used the Greek word
sauros, which means
“lizard”. In fact, the term
dinosaur is a combination
of the Greek words deinos
(“terrible”) and sauros, so
it means “terrible lizard”.
Perhaps the most intriguing evidence of plate tectonics is the similarities in
fossils found in the continents that were separated by vast bodies of water.

The discovery of the fossils of a freshwater reptile called Mesosaurus, which

lived during the Permian period in Africa and South America, led many to
believe that Africa and South America were joined around 280 million years
ago.
The Mesosaurus is known to have been a type of reptile, similar to
the modern crocodile, which propelled itself through the water with
its long hind legs and limber tail.
 Fossils of an early to mid-Triassic reptile, called Cynognathus,
were also found on the two continents.
The now-extinct Cynognathus, which translates to “dog jaw”, was a
mammal-like reptile. Roaming the terrains during the Triassic period (250 to
240 million years ago), the Cynognathus was as large as a modern wolf.
 Fossils of an early to Triassic reptile, called Lystrosaurus, were
also discovered in Africa, India, and Antarctica, suggesting that the
aforementioned continents were still joined about 250 million years
ago.
The Lystrosaurus, which translates to “shovel reptile,” is thought
to have been an herbivore with a stout build like a pig.

It is approximated that it grew up to one meter in length and was

relatively dominant on land during the early Triassic period
 An early Permian
plant, called
Glossopteris, was also
found in the
continents of South
America, Africa,
Antarctica, India, and
Australia.
PLATE TECTONICS AND PLATE MOVEMENTS

There are seven major plates and dozens of smaller plates that
interact with one another in several ways. These tectonic plates and
their movement are monitored through remote sensing satellite
data.
Earth is composed of major and minor tectonic plates
Major Plates are:
1. Pacific Plate
2. Indo-Australian Plate
3. North American Plate
4. South American Plate
5. African Plate
6. Antarctic Plate
7. Eurasian Plate

Minor Plates are:

1. Philippine Sea Plate
2. Nazca Plate
3. Juan de Fuca Plate
4. Caribbean Plate
5. Arabian Plate
6. Cocos Plate
7. Indian Plate
 PLATE BOUNDARIES
The boundaries that separate lithospheric plates may…

Divergent Plate Boundary occurs

when two tectonic plates move
or drift away from each other.

Transform Plate Boundary is

where tectonic plates slide
past each other.
 PLATE BOUNDARIES
The boundaries that separate lithospheric plates may…

Convergent Plate Boundary is two

tectonic plates that move toward
each other and collide.
SEAFLOOR SPREADING
 One of the theories that were
used to support the theory of
plate tectonics is a seafloor
spreading theory proposed by
American geologist Harry
Hammond Hess.

According to this theory, the

seafloor splits and moves apart.
 This motion constantly
forms new crustal
materials, usually from
volcanic action.

Magma from underneath the seafloor rises and fills the gap, forming
a new ocean floor. A new oceanic crust forms continuously at the
crust of a mid-ocean ridge.
 Oceanic ridges are long,
high, and continuous
chains of mountains that
seem to run across Earth.

Subduction happens when tectonic plates crash into each other

instead of moving apart.
 The Mid-Atlantic
Ridge is an oceanic
ridge that is located
at the center of the
Atlantic Ocean basin.
As the new crust moves away from the ridge, it cools and
becomes increasingly older.
The age of the sample rocks was determined and found that the
rocks near the mid-ocean ridge are younger than those farther
from the ocean ridge.