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Section 2
What is Structural Health Monitoring?
Structural health monitoring is not a new
• the need for long-term monitoring for
idea. For thousands of years engineers
better management of existing
have been examining the ongoing
structures;
performance of their structures in an effort
to prolong structures’ service lives and • the recent advancements in the
ensure public safety (see Figure 2-1). development of new, functional, and
However, only recently has SHM become economical sensors (e.g. fibre optic
a more essential component of a civil sensors (FOSs) and smart materials);
engineer’s education. Infrastructure
sustainability is an issue that the • ongoing developments in the field of
developed (and developing) world can no digital data acquisition systems
longer afford to ignore, and a general (DASs);
awareness of the need for, and • ongoing developments in
implementation of, detailed SHM programs communication technologies, including
is critical to the success of the next internet-based and wireless
generation of engineers. technologies;
• developments of powerful data
transmission and collection systems,
and data archiving and retrieval
systems; and
• advances in data processing, including
damage detection models and artificial
intelligence algorithms.

Fig. 2-1. Testing of a steel truss in England for a Definition of SHM

th
railway bridge in India in the 19 century In this document, structural health
(print courtesy of R.A. Dorton) monitoring can be defined as a non-
destructive in-situ structural evaluation
The current rapid evolution and method that uses any of several types of
advancement of SHM technologies can be sensors which are attached to, or
attributed to several compounding factors, embedded in, a structure. These sensors
many of which are due, in part, to the obtain various types of data (either
efforts of organisations such as ISIS continuously or periodically), which are
Canada. The current trend toward then collected, analyzed and stored for
increased use of SHM in civil engineering future analysis and reference. The data
and be attributed to: can be used to assess the safety, integrity,
• the need for long-term monitoring of strength, or performance of the structure,
innovative designs using new materials and to identify damage at its onset.
(i.e. to monitor and ensure the safety of
as yet unproven materials and The definition of SHM given above does
systems); not encompass all technologies used in
the evaluation and assessment of
structures. The broader field would also
include the use of many devices,

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techniques and systems that are

traditionally designated as Non-Destructive
Testing (NDT) and Non-Destructive
Evaluation (NDE) tools. Common to all is
the objective of learning about the in-
service condition of the structure. There is
no formal delineation between each
approach, so the following distinction is
Doctor / Patient SHM Engineer / Structure
adopted by ISIS. NDT/NDE normally refers
to a one-time assessment of the condition Fig. 2-2. The SHM / body analogy
of materials in the structure using
equipment external to the structure. SHM Annual check-ups by doctors are now a
normally refers to activities focussed on routine form of preventative maintenance
assessing the condition of the structure or for human beings, and few people would
its key components based on response to argue that this has not improved the
various types of loads. It generally involves general health of the global population. In
on-going or repeated assessment of this the future, SHM of infrastructure will
response. Some parts of the sensory similarly be commonplace, and it will
system are usually embedded in or provide early warning of structural damage
attached to the structure for the complete or decay, thus improving the health of our
monitoring period. infrastructure systems. This rapidly
emerging technology is destined to be of
BODY ANALOGY great value to those responsible for the
One way of gaining an appreciation of safety and well-being of civil engineering
Structural health monitoring is to draw an structures.
analogy with the human body. Just as a
doctor is required to monitor the health of SHM SYSTEM COMPONENTS
her patient, today’s engineers are able to As mentioned previously, structural health
monitor the prevailing condition of monitoring refers to the continuous or
structures (as in Figure 2-2). A medical periodic monitoring of a structure using
doctor uses specialized equipment to sensors that are either embedded in it or
check a patient’s vital signs and thereby attached to its exterior. SHM systems are
monitors the patient’s overall health. In the applicable to all types of civil engineering
same way, the engineer utilizes structures, including bridges, buildings,
specialized sensors to collect information tunnels, pipes, highways and railways.
on the structure’s overall health. If a While the specific details of SHM systems
patient’s blood pressure is too high, the can vary substantially, a modern SHM
doctor prescribes corrective medicine. system will typically consist of six common
Similarly, in SHM applications, if the data components, namely:
flowing from the sensors indicate
excessive stresses or deformations on the 1. acquisition of data (a sensory system);
structure, the engineer can take the 2. communication of information;
appropriate measures to correct the 3. intelligent processing and analyzing of
situation. In both cases, immediate data;
preventative action can avert catastrophic 4. storage of processed data;
consequences.
5. diagnostics (i.e. damage detection and
modelling algorithms); and
6. retrieval of information as required.

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A typical flow pattern between the six respect to the timescales over which data
components of an SHM system is shown are obtained. The main categories are:
in Figure 2-3; however, other flow patterns
1. static field testing;
are also possible, and the flow of
information between system components 2. dynamic field testing;
can certainly take more than one path. 3. periodic monitoring; and
Each of the various system components is 4. continuous monitoring.
discussed in more detail in Section 3.
These various categories are outlined in
Acquisition of Data Figure 2-4, along with the associated sub-
Includes various types of sensors and collection of
desired data categories, and are discussed in more
detail in Section 5.

Communication of Data Dynamic Field Testing:

Transmission of data from site to storage/analysis Static Field Testing: Stress history tests
location Behaviour tests DLA tests
(e.g. remotely for processing) Diagnostic tests Ambient vibration tests
Proof load tests Pullback tests

Intelligent Processing
Cleansing data of noise and extraneous information
Periodic
Continuous
Monitoring:
Monitoring:
Includes field testing
Active monitoring
Tests to determine
Passive monitoring
changes in structure

Storage of Retrieval of Data

Processed Data Before or after
Fig. 2-4. Categories and sub-categories of SHM
Data should always diagnostics systems
be retrievable

CLASSIFICATION OF SHM SYSTEMS

According to Sikorsky (1999), SHM
systems can be classified both in terms of
their level of sophistication and by the
Diagnostics
Conversion of new data into structural responses types of information (and decision making
algorithms) which they are capable of
providing. These classifications are
Fig. 2-3. Components of a typical SHM system particularly instructive in understanding the
goals of SHM and some of the concepts
that are discussed later in this module. The
SHM CATEGORIES
classifications of SHM systems can be
In addition to the various components of
summarized as follows:
SHM systems, structural health monitoring
can be classified into one of at least four • LEVEL I: This basic level SHM system
overall types or categories, each is capable of detecting damage in a
consisting of several smaller sub- structure, but cannot provide any
categories as shown in Figure 2-4. These information on the nature, location, or
categories are distinguished by the type of severity of the damage. It cannot
testing undertaken, both in terms of how assess the safety of the structure.
data are physically collected, and with

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• LEVEL II: Slightly more sophisticated monitoring of civil engineering structures

than Level I SHM systems, Level II provides a wealth of information on how
systems can detect the presence of real structures actually behave when
damage and can also provide subjected to actual structural and
information on its location. environmental loads. This information is
critical to advance the future practice of
• LEVEL III: A Level III SHM system can structural engineering. The information
detect and pinpoint damage, and can obtained through detailed SHM programs
provide some indication of its severity. can thus be used to improve design
• LEVEL IV: This most sophisticated equations and practices.
level of SHM systems is capable of
Consequence
providing detailed information on the of Damage
presence, location, and severity of
damage, and it is able to use this Quantify
Damage
information to evaluate the safety of
the structural system. Obviously, Level Locate
Damage
IV SHM systems are the most complex
and costly class. Detect
Damage

A visual comparison of the various

classifications of SHM systems is shown in
Figure 2-5. Level I Level II Level III Level IV

Fig. 2-5: Classification of SHM systems based on

ADVANTAGES/BENEFITS OF SHM sensing and decision-making capabilities
Structural health monitoring presents a
number of key benefits for civil engineering Early damage detection
structures, including decreased ongoing Detection of structural damage at its onset
inspection and maintenance costs, permits early action which may prevent the
increased structural safety, and an structure from having to sustain loads for
improved understanding of the behaviour an extended period of time while in a
and durability of the monitored structure. damaged state. As a result, it becomes
Some of the most commonly cited benefits less necessary for structures to be
of SHM include: overdesigned, which significantly lowers
construction costs (Lau, 2003) and
Improved understanding of in-situ increases the overall efficiency of
structural behaviour infrastructure projects. Early damage
The bulk of information which is currently detection also allows repairs to be made at
used in structural design codes has been the onset of damage, which can drastically
obtained from research programs decrease the resulting repair costs and
conducted in structural engineering prevent further deterioration (Pines and
laboratories around the world, where it is Aktan, 2002). Additional cost savings are
often difficult, if not impossible, to due to decreased site visits and manual
completely model (physically or investigations by maintenance workers,
numerically) the behaviour of full-scale since in some cases pertinent data can be
structures in-situ. As a result, testing and transferred remotely from the structure to
analysis is more commonly performed on an offsite location for analysis.
small-scale specimens, which represent
only small portions of the actual structures,
subjected to idealized loads. In-service

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Assurances of a structure’s strength Improved maintenance and

and serviceability management strategies for better
This can be particularly important for long- allocation of resources
span bridges, where visual inspections SHM systems reduce the requirement for
are, in many cases, impossible or field inspection and enable the
inadequate for determining a bridge’s development of large-scale infrastructure
safety (Pines and Aktan, 2002). In condition databases which can be
addition, SHM can be used where data is automatically updated. Decision makers
needed to provide confidence in a new can formulate better strategies to
building material or an innovative effectively deal with infrastructure
construction technique. In the case of a deterioration and allocate shrinking
structure nearing the end of its service life, budgets and scarce resources more
SHM may permit its continued use for a efficiently.
time by providing confidence of its
satisfactory performance. Enables and encourages use of
innovative materials
Reduction in down time
In an effort to address the looming
Down time during structural repair or infrastructure crisis, the engineering
upgrade works is one of the major costs community is actively investigating the use
that must be considered in assessing the of various innovative materials and
whole-life cost-effectiveness of our structural systems which can increase the
infrastructure systems. While costs due to durability of civil engineering structures.
down time can be extremely difficult to Some of these innovative materials (e.g.
quantify, since they include costs to FRPs) and methodologies (e.g. steel-free
society due to loss of productivity and bridge decks) are currently being
economic growth, inconvenience costs, investigated by researchers within the ISIS
and energy costs, it is now widely Canada Research Network, and
accepted that these costs must be information on these technologies is
considered when examining various available from www.isiscanada.com.
rehabilitation and upgrading schemes, However, the use of new and innovative
particularly for highway bridges. Early technology requires the implementation of
damage detection and an improved monitoring and inspection to ensure that
understanding of structural behaviour these materials are performing as planned.
result in a reduction in down time for Thus, SHM and FRP technologies are
structures which may require repair or rightfully evolving together.
strengthening.

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Section 3
Methodology

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

An ideal SHM system should be capable of 1. In this section, more detailed information
providing information on demand about the is provided on each specific SHM system
health of a structure as well as warnings component.
regarding any significant damage that has The components are discussed in the
been detected. Clearly, the development of general order of data flow presented in
such a system involves the use of expertise Figure 2-3. The design of an SHM system
in many disciplines, such as structures, for a particular application would follow a
materials, damage detection, sensors, data different methodology, as will be discussed
management and intelligent processing, in Section 6. It is important, however, to
computers, and communication. The six understand each component and its
overall components of a typical SHM purpose prior to discussing SHM system
system were presented previously in design.
Section 2 and are shown below in Figure 3-

Monitored Structure

Sensors DA system
(various types) (on-site)

Communication System
(e.g. telephone lines)

Data Storage
(hard discs or
CD archives)

Data processing
(automatically by computer) Data retrieval
(and decision making)

Diagnostics
Fig. 3-1. Visual schematic of a typical SHM system

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time. Extreme care should be taken in the

ACQUISITION AND COLLECTION OF selection of the number of sensors and
DATA their location within the structure to ensure
This component involves the collection of satisfactory performance.
raw data such as strains, deformations,
accelerations, temperatures, moisture Sensor Installation and Placement
levels, acoustic emissions, and loads. Recent field applications of SHM systems
Included in this component are the actual in real structures have demonstrated that
sensors and systems used to physically care should be taken during the design of
monitor the structure. Various conventional the SHM system to ensure that sensors
sensors may be used to record data and can be easily installed within a structure
may include: load cells, electrical without substantially changing the
resistance strain gauges, vibrating wire behaviour of the structure. The presence
strain gauges, displacement transducers, of sensor wiring, conduit, junction boxes,
accelerometers, anemometers, and other accessories needed to house
thermocouples and fibre optic sensors the SHM system on site must be
(which will be discussed in greater in considered and accounted for during the
Section 4 of this module). design process. Experience has shown
that while the embedded sensors
Selection of Sensors themselves can be quite durable, poor
Essential to the effectiveness of an SHM durability or installation of the cable
system is the selection of appropriate and network and poor design of the data
robust sensors which will provide the acquisition equipment for field
information required for monitoring and environments can significantly reduce the
analysis. The specific types of sensors functionality of the SHM system. While not
selected for a project depend on several discussed any further in this module,
considerations. Obviously the sensor must various installation issues are addressed in
be able to measure the desired response detail in the recently published Civionics
parameter such as strain or vibration. In Specifications, available from ISIS
addition, the selection criteria should Canada.
include accuracy, reliability, sensor
installation limitations, power Transfer to Data Acquisition System
requirements, signal transmission (DAS)
limitations, durability and cost. For cost, The data acquisition system refers to the
consideration must be given to the cost of onsite system where signal demodulation,
the whole sensory system including the conditioning and storage of measured data
sensor, associated cables or wiring and are conducted prior to being transferred to
the signal conditioning/data acquisition an offsite location for analysis (the data-
system. Provided that the project logger). For most sensors an input signal
requirements can be met, there is no is required, and then interpretation of the
limitation of the types of sensors which can sensor output signal must be conducted to
be used in a specific SHM system. convert the analog sensor response into
It is critically important to have some engineering terms. For example, for fibre
idea at the outset as to the long term optic sensors, an input light source must
performance of the various types of be supplied and the reflected light from the
sensors available on the market. For sensor must be measured and converted
instance, certain sensors are not into strain. The system then stores the
appropriate for long term monitoring due to response information in a temporary buffer
deterioration in sensor performance with or in long-term memory. Therefore, all

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sensors must communicate with the DAS. Boy SHM project in Manitoba (discussed in
This is normally conducted via one of two Section 11), is to convert voltage signal
means. The most common (and (the standard output of sensors) to current.
inexpensive) method to transfer data is via The reason is that the current signal can
a physical link called a lead cable or wire. be transmitted much further without
This cable transfers the sensor signal corruption. Many types of DAS can read
directly to the DAS. In some cases, very current directly, or current can be
long lead wires can lead to errors resulting converted back to voltage at the DAS. This
from electromagnetic interference (EMI), has proven to be a reliable and
particularly in the presence of high-voltage inexpensive solution.
power lines or radio transmitters. The use
of differential signalling techniques and Data Sampling and Collection
properly shielded cables can sometimes As sensor signals arrive at the DAS, the
mitigate the effects of EMI. Note that FOS data must be sorted for onsite storage. A
technologies are not normally affected by well thought out data acquisition algorithm,
EMI. In any case, extreme care must be which captures an adequate (but not
taken during the construction process to excessive) amount of data, is a very
ensure that sensor cables are not important component of a successful SHM
accidentally sheared off or otherwise system.
damaged. As one might expect, structures which
Lead cable connections are appropriate in are extensively instrumented with a variety
most situations and in cases where of sensors in a variety of locations can,
structures are not so large as to make particularly in the case of continuous
physical connections problematic. monitoring (discussed later), rapidly
However, for very large structures in which generate large quantities of data which can
lead cable transmitted sensor signals easily become unmanageable if the
might be corrupted by excessive noise, or system is not set up efficiently. A general
where long lead cables are otherwise rule is that the amount of data should not
impractical, emerging wireless be so scanty as to jeopardize its
communications technologies can be used usefulness, nor should it be so voluminous
to transfer sensor signals to the DAS. as to overwhelm interpretation. A low
Wireless data transfer is currently more sampling rate leads to the former, and an
expensive than direct connections, data is unnecessarily high rate to the latter. Of
typically transferred much more slowly, course, in some cases, as in the case of
and the signals are not completely secure. dynamic testing (discussed later), high
However, it is expected that wireless sampling rates are required to accurately
communications will be increasingly used measure the structure’s response to
for SHM of very large structures in the transient loads. It is important to sample
future. For some sensory systems, a data at the appropriate rate for the type of
combination of the two transmission testing which is being conducted.
techniques may be employed. For Decisions regarding appropriate sampling
example, many sensors will require that rates should thus be based on experience.
the sensor be connected to the signal
source/demodulation system by a physical What is monitored, how, and why?
link. The communication from It is probably useful at this stage to briefly
demodulation equipment nodes to the describe the types of information in which
main data logging system for the structure engineers/owners are interested when
can be wireless. Another solution which assessing the health of a structure. The
has been used successfully, on the Golden following is a list of some of the data types

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that are typically monitored by SHM strains continuously recorded in a

systems, along with a very brief tension member of a steel truss bridge
explanation of how the data might be used. suddenly change, engineers know that
something significant is happening to
• Load: SHM systems can, by using one
the structure – perhaps a particularly
of a variety of techniques, collect
heavy freight train is going over the
information about the magnitude and
bridge or deteriorated member. The
configuration of loads applied to a
magnitude of the measured strains,
structure. Using this data, engineers
and the variation of the magnitudes
can determine if the loads on a
recorded over the life of the structure,
structure are as expected, or if it is
can be examined to evaluate the safety
subjected to greater (perhaps
and integrity of the structure. Strains in
damaging or dangerous) loads. SHM
structural components can be directly
can also be used to learn how the
measured at the desired locations
various loads are distributed within and
using standard electrical resistance
supported by the structure. Loads can
strain gauges, vibrating wire strain
be measured directly using load cells
gauges, or more recently developed
installed within a structure, or it can be
fibre optic sensors.
inferred through strains or other
parameters measured on selected • Temperature: Changes in temperature
structural components. cause materials to expand or contract
due to the effects of thermal
• Deformation: All structures deform or
expansion. Repeated cycles of heating
deflect to some degree. Engineers
and cooling can cause damage to
approximate these deformations in
structures through repeated cycles of
design based on simplifying
deformation or thermally-induced
assumptions; but SHM can monitor
loads. By incorporating temperature
actual deformations caused by all
measurements, an SHM system can
physical and environmental loading.
provide information on how
Excessive deformation, or deformation
temperature changes affect a
in unexpected places, might signal
structure, and whether the
deterioration or changes in structural
temperature-induced loads and strains
condition and can be used to assess
are as expected. Temperature may
the need for rehabilitation or upgrade.
also affect the readings of certain
Deformations and deflections can be
sensors or sensing equipment used in
measured with a variety of types of
SHM systems. Thus, when collecting
displacement transducers and
data from temperature sensitive
tiltmeters. In many structures, the
gauges, temperature effects must be
direct measure of displacement is
measured and accounted for.
difficult due to the need for an
Temperatures can be measured using
appropriate reference point or
thermocouples, integrated temperature
grounding point for the transducers.
circuits, thermistors, or certain types of
• Strain: Strain is a measure of the FOSs.
intensity of deformation of a structural
• Acceleration: Loads experienced by
component. Strains can be used to
structures cause accelerations of
gain a wealth of information about the
structural components (recall F=Ma).
behaviour and ongoing performance of
Conversely, ground accelerations,
a structure; these are probably the
caused by seismic loads for instance,
most commonly used measurements in
result in the dynamic loading of
SHM systems. For instance, if the
structural components. The

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combination of the frequency of the between the sensors and the origin of
response as well as the amplitude of the sound. The most common example
the response to these dynamic of AE SHM is in its use for monitoring
excitations is called the modal unbonded post-tensioned concrete
response. Although structures are structures or cable-stayed bridge
designed to withstand these ducts. Unbonded post-tensioned
accelerations, SHM can be used to concrete structures are reinforced
determine exactly how a structure is internally with highly-tensioned steel
responding to these accelerations and strands which are not bonded to the
the resulting loads via determination of concrete. Many of these structures are
the modal response parameters. This susceptible to corrosion of the steel
type of monitoring is now widespread strands, which can lead to explosive
in seismic regions, where many (and noisy) failures of the strands
structures are extensively instrumented within the concrete. AE SHM is used
in an attempt to gain insight into the both to determine the occurrence of a
effects of real seismic events on strand break and its location. If a steel
structures and their components. Even strand breaks at some location,
in non-seismic situations the modal microphones distributed throughout the
response parameters of a structure structure record the sound and the
can be monitored. Due to changes in time at which the sound was recorded
support conditions or material at each microphone. Using special
properties, there can be a shift in these algorithms this information can be used
modal parameters. Hence, in certain to find the location of the strand break,
situations, an SHM system may be and immediate action can be taken to
able use these changes in the repair the structure.
measured modal response to identify
• Video Monitoring: The relatively
damage or deterioration. Accelerations
recent introduction of low cost video
are typically measured using a class of
surveillance and webcam systems has
sensors called accelerometers.
enabled the use of video monitoring in
• Wind Speeds and Pressures: Wind SHM systems. As an example of the
speeds are not normally primary use of video surveillance in SHM,
considerations for most civil consider a typical highway bridge
engineering structures. However, for which is subjected to an overloaded
tall buildings and long-span bridges, truck. Sensors within the bridge (load
wind can be a governing design cells, strain gauges, displacement
criterion and should be recorded at transducers) detect the presence of the
various locations in an SHM system. overloaded truck and send a signal to
Wind speed can be measured using the DAS to save the video which was
anemometers. recorded as the truck passed over the
bridge. This allows the bridge owner to
• Acoustic Emission: An emerging
determine the identity of the
suite of SHM technologies by sound
overloaded truck (by examining the
waves, or acoustic emission (AE)
licence plate for instance) and to seek
waves, can be used to determine the
compensation for any damage incurred
location and characteristics of damage
by the excessive load. It is worth noting
in a structure. AE monitoring is based
that periodic overloads can cause
on the principle that the arrival times of
significant distress to civil engineering
sound waves at different sensors
structures, and periodic overloading of
(microphones in this case) will be
bridges has been an important
different depending on the distance

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motivating factor which has by SHM systems, various data

accelerated the development of management strategies have been
advanced SHM systems incorporating developed to eliminate unnecessary data
video surveillance. without sacrificing the integrity of the
overall system. One simple technique is to
COMMUNICATION OF DATA record only changes in readings, along
This component of an SHM system refers with the times that these changes
to the mechanism of transfer of data from occurred. In this way, long periods in which
the location where they are collected (the nothing changes are omitted from the data.
DAS) to the location where they will be Alternatively, an SHM system may record
processed and analysed (normally some readings only above a certain threshold
remote location). The communication of value, or perhaps only the peak readings
data is an important aspect of an effective measured over a designated length of
SHM system, since it allows monitoring to time.
occur remotely, and eliminates the need In more sophisticated systems, neural
for site visits and inspections by engineers. computing and artificial neural network
In this way, engineers/owners can monitor techniques may be employed (McNeill
the performance of their structures from 2004). Algorithms are designed to learn
the comfort of their own offices. Modern the characteristic patterns of the signals
SHM systems transmit field data remotely, and identify only those patterns which can
either through telephone lines or the be classified as ‘novel’. For example, on
internet, or using wireless technologies bridges with low to medium traffic volumes,
such as radio or cellular transmission. particularly with respect to heavy trucks,
Examples of communication systems used the majority of signals produced by a
in ISIS projects can be found in Han et al. continuous monitoring program will be
(2004). Further details of the various types small compared to the signals generated
of transmission systems are beyond the by heavy trucks. The latter is of more
scope of this document. interest. Neural computing can be used to
isolate the truck response as novel
INTELLIGENT PROCESSING AND compared to all other responses and only
MANAGEMENT OF DATA this section of the data will be tagged for
storage or further analysis. This can be
The data obtained by the various sensors conducted in an unsupervised mode by the
in a structure are likely to contain monitoring computer such that no human
extraneous information and noise that are input is required and the data management
of little or no use for the purposes of becomes automatic and efficient.
structural health monitoring. Hence,
intelligent processing of data is required Sometimes a combination of data
before it can be stored for later acquisition algorithms may be required so
interpretation and analysis. The goal of that only peak values are recorded as a
intelligent processing is to remove this general operating mode, and continuous
unwanted information and to make data data is recorded for discrete periods of
interpretation easier, faster, and more time if a threshold value is exceeded.
accurate. In many cases, intelligent Selection of the most appropriate data
processing is also required to remove the acquisition algorithm is a critically
influence of thermal or other unwanted important component of SHM as it will
effects in the data. affect both the volume of stored data and
the type of diagnostic information that can
In addition, to deal with the sometimes be obtained.
overwhelming amounts of data generated

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STORAGE OF PROCESSED DATA how that behaviour may be affected by

Once the data have been intelligently damage, deterioraton or other changes in
processed, they can be stored for later use condition. The level of complexity of the
in structural health diagnostics. In some analysis will change based on the needs of
cases, the data could be stored for long the monitoring program and the SHM
periods of time, and it is important that, system components. In a simple
once retrieved, the data are easy to application, it may be sufficient to convert
understand. Thus, the medium for storage strain readings into stresses for
of the data should be such that the data assessment against critical limits such as
will be available for a period of many years yielding. The degree of sophistication can
without susceptibility to corruption. increase up to a point where artificial
Obviously, the amount of memory required neural networks are required to determine
for storage can be very large in SHM the probability that a measured change in
applications with numerous sensors or response readings indicates a specific
higher data sampling rates, and care must damage type and location by a statistical
be taken to ensure that sufficient memory comparison against a wide range of
is available to store all of the data which possible damage situations generated by
will be generated. It is also important to parametric analysis using numerical
ensure that the data files contain enough models. Whatever the level of
information about the data so that anyone sophistication of diagnostic activity, an
could interpret them. It is possible that the appropriate numerical model of the
data collected could be used by an structure calibrated against baseline field
engineer many years in the future, so the measurements is normally required.
data files should be logical and well-
documented. RETRIEVAL OF DATA
It is common to disregard raw data and When selecting data to store for retrieval,
store only processed or analyzed data, both the significance of the data and the
thereby decreasing the amount of space confidence in its analysis should be
necessary for storage. Unfortunately, considered. For example, for a static field
discarding the raw data does not allow for test (discussed later), the volume of data
reinterpretation at a later time. generated is relatively small; therefore,
both the raw data and the diagnostic
DIAGNOSTICS information can be easily stored for
Arguably the most important component of retrieval. Conversely, for a dynamic field
an effective SHM system, diagnostics test, the volume of data generated is quite
involves further interpretation of the large, and therefore only the diagnostic
collected, cleansed, and intelligently information is stored.
processed data. Diagnostics is concerned
Of course, the overarching goal of
with analysing the more abstract data
structural health monitoring is to provide
signals to produce useful information about
detailed physical data which can be used
the response and health of the structure.
to enable rational, knowledge-based
This activity requires expert structural
engineering decisions.
knowledge about the behaviour of
structures as well as an understanding of

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