Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

EE 366
POWER ELECTRONICS
Dr Francis Boafo Effah
Senior Lecturer
Dept. of Electrical/Electronic Engineering
Faculty of Electrical & Computer Eng.
College of Engineering

1
Unit 4
AC-DC Converters
(Rectifiers)

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2
 Rectifier Circuits (1)
v Rectifier circuits convert AC to DC
v They are used across a power range from fractions of
a Watt to Giga Watts
v Principles are the same across the power range
v Any power supply unit fed from an AC supply has a
rectifier as its first stage.
v There are three main classes of rectifiers
1) Uncontrolled rectifiers (use Diodes)
2) Controlled rectifiers (use Thyristors)
3) Active Rectifiers (use controlled switches and diodes)
v Despite their widespread use and apparent simplicity
– they are often poorly understood
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3
Rectifier Circuits (2)
v The output of a basic rectifier circuit is not usually
“smooth” enough to be used directly
v Typically some smoothing circuit must be applied
v There are three approaches
1) Inductive Smoothing – attempts to make the
output current of the rectifier smooth
2) Capacitive Smoothing – attempts to make the
output voltage of the rectifier smooth
3) Sometimes a combination of these is used.

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4
 Rectifier Circuits (3)
v Capacitive smoothing is most common in
small power supplies for electronic
equipment.
v How the diode rectifier operates is influenced
by whether the current at the output of the
rectifier is CONTINUOUS or DISCONTINUOUS.
v Typically capacitive smoothing is
DISCONTINUOUS.
v Usually, inductive smoothing is CONTINUOUS.

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Rectifier Circuits (4)
v We will assume a very simple diode model to
understand rectifier circuit operation

A K

VAK
𝑉!" > 0 ⇒ DIODE CONDUCTS

𝑉!" < 0 ⇒ DIODE BLOCKS

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6
 Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (1)
v We will initially look at ideal operation with zero supply
impedance and a continuous smooth current at the
output
v i.e. we are assuming inductive smoothing with a
huge inductor BIG

𝑉!# = 𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡 ID Assume smooth

D1 D4
A L
O
VAB ~ V A
D2 D
D3
B
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 Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (2)
v Operation is simple (see waveforms)
v When VAB is positive, D1 and D2 are forward-biased and
conduct
v When VAB is negative, D3 and D4 are forward-biased and
conduct
v Re-draw to make the operation more obvious
D1 MAX(VA,VB)
A A
D4
~ B
A
B D3 D1
D3
- + A
D2
D2 D4 MIN(VA,VB)
B
B
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 Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (3)
v Waveforms
V VAB
V=VAB V=VAB
D1 & D2 ON D3 & D4 ON
t
𝜋 2𝜋
𝜔 𝜔

+𝐼% ASSUME FLAT BECAUSE

𝑖$ OF VERY LARGE
SMOOTHING INDUCTOR

−𝐼%

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Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (4)
v Mean (DC value of output voltage)?
v This is given by (area under voltage)/period.
𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡
The shaded area (in Volt-seconds)
𝐸
t = cos 𝛼 − cos 𝛽
𝜔
𝛼 𝛽

Rectified The shaded area (in Volt-seconds)

waveform 𝐸
= cos 0 − cos 𝜋 = 2E/ω
𝜔
t
𝜋/𝜔
+, - +,
MEAN = " =
- . .
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10
 Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (5)
v Some observations about the supply current waveform
v Note that the supply current is not sinusoidal

v This is because the rectifier is a NON-LINEAR circuit

v The rectifier creates frequencies in the current waveform that are

not in the voltage waveform (a LINEAR circuit cannot do this)

v This is a feature of all simple rectifiers

v Supply current contains harmonics at multiples of the supply
frequency (3f, 5f, 7f, 9f etc., in this case)
v This can cause problems for the supply network when large
numbers of rectifiers are used – harmonic currents distort the
network voltage – (see later)
v Active rectifiers attempt to overcome this – but are more
expensive and complex – (see later)
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11
 Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (6)
v Now look at operation with finite supply inductance
v Still, assume smooth output current (big smoothing
inductor)
BIG

ID Assume smooth
Ls D1 D4
𝑖$ L
A 𝑉&
O
VAB ~ V A
D2 D
D3
B

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12
 Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (7)
v We saw that the current commutated
instantaneously from D1/D2 to D3/D4 without
supply inductance when VAB passed through
zero.
v With finite supply inductance, this is not
possible since it implies an instantaneous
reversal of current in the supply.
v With finite supply inductance, we get what is
called “OVERLAP.”

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Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (8)
v OVERLAP is where ALL the diodes conduct for a small
fraction of the cycle near the zero crossing of VAB
while the supply current reverses
v During overlap, VX is zero (all diodes ON), and VAB
appears across LS
v This voltage causes the current in LS to reduce and
reverse the direction
v Overlap ends when the current has completely
reversed
v During overlap the current gradually passes from
D1/D2 to D3/D4 (or vice versa)
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14
Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (9)
v See the next slide for waveforms.
v The main effect of overlap is to reduce the
mean voltage (analysis is later)
v In large rectifiers, the “supply short circuit”
during the overlap (VX = 0) causes supply
problems – see later.

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15
Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (10)
v Waveforms for overlap period (shown for long
overlap for clarity)
VAB (-)
𝜇
V
ALL ON D3 & D4 ON
D1 & D2 ON VOLTAGE ACROSS LS
DURING OVERLAP

𝑖$ +ID VAB
OVERLAP ENDS WHEN 𝑖!
HAS COMPLETELY REVERSED
- ID
ID1 (ID2) +ID
ID3 (ID4)
+ID
0 0
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 Single phase Diode bridge rectifier (11)
Reduction of supply voltage due to OVERLAP
v The voltage-time area lost from the output voltage is
the same as the area which causes the current in LS to
reverse from +ID to –ID (total change = 2ID).
v Hence, Shaded Area = 𝐼% 𝐿$ (from ∆𝐼 = 𝑉𝑇𝐴/𝐿)
v This area is lost twice per cycle from V.
𝟐𝑰𝑫 𝑳𝒔
v :=
Reduction in 𝑽 (𝜋/𝜔 is time for ½ cycle)
(𝝅/𝝎)

𝟐𝑬 𝟐𝑰𝑫 𝑳𝒔 𝝎 𝟐 𝟐𝑽𝒔𝒖𝒑 𝟐𝑰𝑫 𝑳𝒔 𝝎

!
Þ𝑽 = 𝝅 − 𝝅 = −
𝝅 𝝅
𝑬 𝟐𝑽𝒔𝒖𝒑
Also, 𝟐𝑰𝑫 𝑳𝒔 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝁 = (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝁)
𝝎 𝝎

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Inductive Smoothing (1)

ID
Ls D1 D4 VL
𝑖$ L
A 𝑉&
O
V VLOAD
VAB ~ A
D2 D
D3
B

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18
Inductive Smoothing (2)
v So far, we have assumed operation with a very large
smoothing inductor so that the ripple in the DC side
current (DID) is negligible
v In practice, some ripple has to be tolerated to allow a
sensible-sized inductor
v We want to calculate the value of L needed to give a
certain value of ripple in ID
v Assume
v We know the mean value of ID
v The load voltage VLOAD is smooth

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19
 Inductive Smoothing (3)
v Note that the average value of V must equal VLOAD since the
average voltage across the inductor is zero (steady state)
v Procedure
1) Determine the waveform of V – this involves finding the overlap
time. Use the mean value of ID in the calculations.
2) Determine the average value of V – again, use the mean value
of ID in the calculations.
3) Draw the V waveform and superimpose its average value (=
VLOAD). The difference is the voltage that appears across L.
4) Use DID = VTA/L to find L for a given DID.
v If the resistance of L is non-negligible and is given by R, then
assume that the voltage across R is reasonably smooth (i.e. DID <<
ID) and use: 𝑽2 = 𝑽𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫 + 𝑰6𝑫𝑹

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20
 Capacitively Smoothed Diode Bridge Rectifier (1)
v This circuit is very widely used in electronic power supplies.
𝑖$ LS

D1
D3 𝑖2 𝑖! SMOOTH
D2 L
𝑉$ = 𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡 D4 O
𝑉3 A
D

v We will assume that C is very big to understand the circuit, so V is

virtually smooth.
v The basic operation of the circuit is that the capacitor charges
through the diodes to a value close to the peak of VS (=E)
v Detailed operation – see next slide.
v Waveforms are typical for a rectifier supplying 250 W from the Ghana
mains supply.
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Capacitively Smoothed Diode Bridge Rectifier (2)
v Typical waveforms
V (BIG C)
[V] [A]
400 20.0

300 15.0
𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡
200 𝑖$ 10.0

100 5.0

0 0.0
A B C
-100 ALL OFF ALL OFF -5.0

-200 -10.0

-300 D1 D3 -15.0
D2 D4
-400 ON -20.0
ON

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Capacitively Smoothed Diode Bridge Rectifier (3)
v Zoomed-in waveforms during the current pulse

350
V 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵 20.0
340 18.0
A
330 16.0
B
320 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 14.0
𝚤"̂ =
310 𝑉$ = 𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑖" 𝐿" 12.0
300 𝚤"̂ 10.0
290 8.0
280 6.0
270
D1 & D2 ON 4.0
260 2.0
250 0.0

A B C

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23
Capacitively Smoothed Diode Bridge Rectifier (4)
v Operation (refer to previous slides)
v To the left of A, V > VS and all the diodes are reverse biased.
The supply current is zero.
v At A, D1 and D2 become forward-biased and turn ON.
v Between A and B, VS > V. The difference appears across Ls and
causes the current to rise
v At B, V = VS and the current reaches its maximum value.
v NOTE THAT D1 and D2 DO NOT TURN OFF AT B – because the
energy stored in LS keeps the current flowing
v Between B and C, VS < V. The voltage across Ls is negative, and
the current reduces until it reaches zero at C
v D1 and D2 turn OFF at C
v The process repeats in the next half-cycle with D3 and D4
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Capacitively Smoothed Diode Bridge Rectifier (5)
v OBSERVATIONS
v If V reduces, the current pulses get larger and
vice-versa.
v In practice, V settles at whatever value makes the
average value of the IR pulses equal to the load
current IO.
v For typical values of LS, V will always be close to E
(probably within 10%)
v Calculating the value of V for a given IO is, in fact,
not at all easy (we will not do it)

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25
Capacitively Smoothed Diode Bridge Rectifier (6)
v OBSERVATIONS cont.
v We can calculate the peak supply current for a given
V (as shown on the zoomed-in waveform slide)
v The supply current waveform is distorted because the
circuit draws all the energy it supplies to the load in
short bursts.
v For example, if there are many similar rectifiers (a room
full of PCs), all the current pulses are synchronized.
v This can cause serious supply voltage distortion (the
top of the sinewave becomes flattened) – see next
slide.

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26
Capacitively Smoothed Diode Bridge Rectifier (7)
v Example of supply voltage distortion due to
capacitively smoothed rectifiers (lab waveforms)
400

300

200

FUNDAMENTAL
100

-100
SUPPLY
VOLTAGE
-200

-300

-400
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02

380

360

340

320

ACTUAL
300

280

260 VOLTAGE
240

220

200
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-3
x 10

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27
 Capacitively Smoothed Diode Bridge Rectifier (8)
v Value of Smoothing Capacitor
v Detailed calculations are difficult in practice and pointless
because
v We don’t usually have a good estimate of the value of LS
v C is normally an electrolytic capacitor. These have very poor
tolerance (often -20%, +50%)
v Approximate calculations are adequate
v Method
v The capacitor discharges between current pulses
v Assume the pulses are very short so that the discharging time
is equal to half the supply period
v Use DV = ITA/C
𝑰𝒐 ×𝑻/𝟐 𝑰𝒐 𝑻 𝑰𝒐
∆𝑽 ≈ ⇒ ∆𝑽 ≈ 𝑪≈
𝑪 𝟐𝑪 (𝟐∆𝑽×𝒇)

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28
 Voltage Doubler Rectifier (1)

v In many applications, the input voltage magnitude may

have to be increased to meet the dc output requirement.
v More importantly, the equipment may be required to
operate with a voltage of 115 V and 230 V.
v Therefore, as shown above, a voltage-doubler rectifier
may be used to avoid a voltage step-up transformer.

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29
 Voltage Doubler Rectifier (2)
v When the switch is in the 230-V position with a line voltage of
230V, the circuit is similar to the full-bridge rectifier circuit
discussed earlier.
v With the switch in the 115-V position and the line voltage of
115 V, each capacitor gets charged to approximately the
peak of the ac input voltage, and therefore, 𝑉4 (which is the
sum of voltages across C1, and C2) is approximately the same
as in the 230-V operation.
v The capacitor C1 is charged through the diode D1 during the
positive half-cycle of the input ac voltage, and C2 is charged
through D2 during the negative half-cycle.
v Therefore, in this mode, the circuit operates as a voltage-
doubler rectifier.
v This can be found helpful by European and USA travellers.

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30
 Three-phase Supplies
v Three-phase systems are “always” used for high-power
AC connections and equipment (above about 5kW)
v Any power electronic converter connected to an AC
system above a few kW in power will be a 3-phase
converter.
v The only common exception is railway/tram traction,
where the problem of feeding a 3-phase supply to a
moving vehicle means that a single phase is used.
v Before looking at 3-phase rectifiers, we will remind
ourselves what a 3-phase system is and why it is used.

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31
 Review of Three-phase Supplies
v Assume a “STAR” connected supply.
v In practice, the three voltage sources usually represent the
voltages generated by three coils (physically displaced by
1200 from each other) in an AC rotating machine (Alternator).
v Their waveforms are 1200 displaced from each other in time.
A Line A Phasor diagram

Phase VCA
Neu voltage VCN
tral Line to
line
voltage VBC
N VBN VAN

C B VAB
“Line to line” voltage often
called “line voltage”
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32
 Review of Three-phase Supplies
v Assuming the peak phase voltage is denoted by E (a
convention used throughout the course), then:
v B lags A by 120O, C lags B by 120O, A lags C by 120O
(or put another way, C leads A by 120O)
𝑽𝑨𝑵 = 𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
𝑽𝑩𝑵 = 𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅⁄𝟑
𝑽𝑪𝑵 = 𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − 𝟒𝝅⁄𝟑 = 𝑬 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅⁄𝟑
v This assumes “phase sequence” A-B-C, A-C-B is also
possible – we will always assume A-B-C
v Drawing a phasor diagram and converting back to
time functions, it is easy to show that the line voltages
are given by:
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 Review of Three-phase Supplies

𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝟑𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 + 𝝅⁄𝟔

𝑽𝑩𝑪 = 𝟑𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − 𝝅⁄𝟐
𝑽𝑪𝑨 = 𝟑𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 + 𝟓𝝅⁄𝟔
v Three-phase supplies are specified using the RMS
line voltage. Hence “a 415V, 50Hz, 3-phase
system” means:
𝟑𝑬
= 𝟒𝟏𝟓𝑽, 𝝎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅 rad/sec
𝟐

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 Three-phase waveform template
Don’t worry about these ones (yet)
𝑉#$ 𝑉%$ 𝑉&$
𝐸

Phase
Voltages

𝑉#% 𝑉#& 𝑉%& 𝑉%# 𝑉#& 𝑉&% 𝑉#%

3𝐸

Line
Voltages

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35
 Why Three-phase used (revision)
Power Flow
v Consider a single-phase load with a phase shift f
between the current and voltage.

IS

Load
VS
impedance ½Z½Ðf

Pulsation at 2 times supply

frequency (zero average)
v The instantaneous power is given by:
𝑃" 𝑡 = 𝑉# 𝑡 𝐼# 𝑡 = 2𝑉$%# 2𝐼$%# sin(𝜔𝑡) sin(𝜔𝑡 − ∅) = 𝑉$%# 𝐼$%# cos ∅ − cos(2𝜔𝑡 − ∅)

Useful constant part

v Power flow is not constant in a single-phase system
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 Why Three-phase used (revision)
v Now add another two phases to create a 3-phase
system with the three phases mutually displaced from
each other by 1200 (2p/3)

𝑃# 𝑡 = 2𝑉JK$ 2𝐼JK$ sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2𝜋/3) sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2𝜋/3 − ∅)

𝑃3 𝑡 = 2𝑉JK$ 2𝐼JK$ sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋/3) sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋/3 − ∅)

𝑃! 𝑡 = 𝑉JK$ 𝐼JK$ cos ∅ − cos(2𝜔𝑡 − ∅) Pulsating

𝑃# 𝑡 = 𝑉JK$ 𝐼JK$ cos ∅ − cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 4𝜋/3 − ∅) terms sum
𝑃3 𝑡 = 𝑉JK$ 𝐼JK$ cos ∅ − cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 4𝜋/3 − ∅) to zero

⇒ 𝑷𝑻𝑶𝑻 𝒕 = 𝟑𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅) = 𝟑𝑽𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑰𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅) Which is

constant

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 Why Three-phase used (revision)
v The total Power Flow in a 3-phase system is
constant. This has many advantages – e.g. 3-
phase motor produces constant mechanical
power.
v Also, a 3-phase system needs less material
(iron, copper etc.) to transmit, convert, or
transform a given amount of power than a
single-phase system
v 3-phase transformers/machines etc., are
smaller

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 Power flow – graphical illustration
500

V 0
Voltages
V
-500
0 5 10 15 20
20

0 Currents
I (450 phase lag)
-20
I
0 5 10 15 20
6000

4000
PTOTAL
W 2000
Powers
W
0
0 5 10 15 20

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 Three-phase Rectifiers
v Rectifiers convert (interface) AC to DC
v Power flow may be:
v Unidirectional (AC to DC)
v Bidirectional (AC to DC) and (DC to AC → inverting
operation)

v We characterise rectifiers as either 1-quadrant (1Q), 2-

quadrant (2Q) or 4-quadrant (4Q) – depending on
which regions of the V-I plane they can work in

Io
Rectifier Vo

AC Side DC Side
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 Rectifiers Quadrants
Io Io

1Q 2Q(a)
Vo Vo

Power flow AC-DC – rectifying operation

Operating region
Power flow DC to AC – inverting operation
Io Io

4Q
Vo Vo
2Q(b)

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 Rectifier Types: V-I quadrants
v Diode (uncontrolled) rectifiers – 1Q
v Thyristor-controlled rectifiers – 2Q(a)
v Use a special kind of “latching” device – A thyristor
v Active rectifiers
v Use controlled switches (transistors of some kind – IGBTs, MOSFETs etc.
and diodes)
v Employed to achieve one or both of the following
v Better input current waveforms (sinusoidal current)
v Bidirectional power flow
v They may be 1Q, 2Q or 4Q
v 1Q and 2Q(b) are the most common (4Q is rare)
v We will look at 3-phase diode rectifiers, 3-phase thyristor rectifiers
and active rectifiers.
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 Some 3-phase rectifier applications
Fixed Variable
frequency
frequency
AC
Rectifier DC-link Inverter AC

AC DC
DC AC
Variable
speed
v Used where high power (> a few kW) conversion of AC to DC is
required
v A very common application is in variable-speed drives
v Also used where DC is required in industrial processes - for
example
v Electro-winning – production of metals (Copper/Gold/Tin)
etc. from ore by electrolysis
v Aluminium smelting for Aluminium production
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Diodes
v We will consider a very simple diode model to
understand how rectifiers work.

A K iA
iA
Anode Cathode
vAK

vAK

v We will ignore the forward voltage drop of the diode

– it is insignificant (≈ 1 V) compared to the operating
voltage of most 3-phase rectifiers (>100 V)
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 Which diode (s) conducts when?
v This is a question you need to answer to understand any
diode rectifier circuit
v Consider a simple circuit
V1

I1

D1
V2 10 ohms

I2

D2
Which diode conducts ?

200V 100V

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 Which diode conducts when?
v The potentially confusing point in the previous slide
is that if D1 was not there, it is obvious that D2
would conduct and a current of 10A would flow
v However, when D1 is present, D2 does not
conduct since D1 is connected to a larger
voltage, and as soon as D1 conducts, D2 is reverse
biased
v The correct circuit conditions are:
v V1=0 (D1 conducting), V2=-100V (D2 is reverse
biased), I1=20A, I2=0

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 Which diode conducts when?
v If we try to set up the conditions with D2
conducting, then we can see it does not work
since we would have:
v V2 = 0 (D2 conducting), V1=100 (D1 is forward
biased by 100V!)
v This condition can’t exist since D1 will immediately
turn on and reverse bias D2, turning it off – taking us
back to the first (correct) condition.
v In a rectifier circuit, the voltages applied to the
diodes are continually changing (AC) – but we
can always work out which diode conducts by
employing the same thinking.
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Which diode(s) conducts when?
v Generalising the previous idea to 3 diodes
VA VA

D1 D4

VX VY
VB VB

D3 D6

Assume current flowing to

external circuit not shown
VC VC

D5 D2
VA > VB and VA > VC → D1 on → VX = VA VA < VB and VA < VC → D4 on → VY = VA
VB > VA and VB > VC → D3 on → VX = VB VB < VA and VB < VC → D6 on → VY = VB
VC > VB and VC > VA → D5 on → VX = VC VC < VB and VC < VA → D2 on → VY = VC
VX = MAXIMUM OF (VA, VB, VC) VY = MINIMUM OF (VA, VB, VC)
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 3-phase diode bridge rectifier
Ideal operation, zero impedance supply, constant output current
VX ID (assume constant)

D1 D3 D5
VAN
Assume
A very large
VBN iA L so ID is
VXY practically
N B
smooth
iB
VCN
C LOAD
iC
D4 D6 D2
VY

According to previous slide we can see that at any instant

VX = Maximum of (VAN, VBN, VCN) and VY = Minimum of (VAN, VBN, VCN)

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 3-phase diode bridge rectifier
Ideal operation, zero impedance supply, constant output current
VAN VBN VCN
VX
𝑬 D5
D1 D3

Phase
Voltages

D2 D4 D6 VY
AB AC BC
𝟑𝑬

VXY

Line
Voltages 600
1200

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 3-phase diode bridge rectifier
Ideal operation, zero impedance supply, constant output current
V 𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡

A
𝛼 t
𝛽

vMean (DC value) of output voltage?

vThis is given by (area under voltage against time
graph)/period.

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 3-phase diode bridge rectifier
Ideal operation, zero impedance supply, constant output current
vA useful general formula for voltage-time area
X
vShaded area, 𝐴 = cos 𝛼 − cos 𝛽 in Volt-sec
Y
v𝛼 and 𝛽 measured from zero crossing

v Consider the VX waveform between 300 and 1500

when D1 is ON. Area in Volt-sec

𝐸
𝜔 cos 30° − cos 150° 3 3𝐸
𝑉X&Z = =
5𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
( 6 − 6)/𝜔

time in sec

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 3-phase diode bridge rectifier
Ideal operation, zero impedance supply, constant output current
vClearly, 𝑉X[Z = −𝑉X&Z

\ \X
Þ 𝑉X&[ = ]

Or directly from VXY Area in Volt-sec

3𝐸
cos 60° − cos 120° 3 3𝐸
𝑉X&[ = 𝜔 =
2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
( − )/𝜔
3 3
time in sec

v So if 𝐸 = 240 2 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑉X&[ = 561 𝑉

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 3-phase diode bridge rectifier
Ideal operation, zero impedance supply, constant output current
A B C
D1 D3 D5

Phase
Voltages D2 D4 D6

+ID
iA
1200

1200
-ID

Input Current Waveforms

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54
 Introduction to Power Quality Issues
v The current drawn from the AC supply by the rectifier is not
sinusoidal (the ideal shape)
v Non-sinusoidal currents give rise to Power Quality issues due to the
harmonics present in the distorted waveforms.
v Harmonic currents are problematic for several reasons
v Harmonic currents cause voltage drops across the supply impedance at the
harmonic frequency – the supply voltage waveform becomes distorted
v Harmonic currents injected into the network by one piece of equipment can
flow unintentionally into another piece of equipment and damage it (for
example, in filters fitted at the input of equipment)
v Harmonic currents can cause an extra loss in network components – for
example, in transformers and cables

v Network and equipment Power Quality is a large and complex

issue and is controlled by extensive regulatory frameworks
v We will just look at some very simple measures of power quality
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 Introduction to Power Quality Issues
v Consider a piece of equipment drawing a non-sinusoidal current
from an AC supply with an angular frequency w

IS

Equipment
AC VS P(t)

v We can express the voltage and current as a Fourier series with a

fundamental frequency of w
v In doing so, we assume there are no DC components and that all
the distortion is at harmonic frequencies (i.e. multiples) of w (this
may not always be the case – but often is and is good enough for
an introductory study)

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Introduction to Power Quality Issues

?@A

𝐼= (𝑡) = 𝐼> 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − ∅ + 0 𝐼? 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃? )

?@+

FUNDAMENTAL FUNDAMENTAL PHASE SHIFT HARMONICS

?@A

𝑉= (𝑡) = 𝑉> 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 0 𝑉? 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜔𝑡 − 𝛾? )

?@+

PEAK VALUE ASSUME VOLTAGE PHASE = 0

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 Introduction to Power Quality Issues
vIn many (most) power systems – due to power
quality regulations, the voltage distortion is
slight, so we will neglect it to leave:

?@A

𝐼= (𝑡) = 𝐼> 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − ∅ + 0 𝐼? 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃? )

?@+
DISTORTED UNDISTORTED
CURRENT VOLTAGE

𝑉= (𝑡) = 𝑉> 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡

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 Introduction to Power Quality Issues

vThe average power supplied to the load

is given by:

"#/%
𝜔 𝑉' 𝐼'
𝑃= ' 𝐼& 𝑡 𝑉& 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅
2𝜋 2
!

vNote that the harmonic currents do not

give rise to any power at the load if the
voltage is undistorted – why?
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 Introduction to Power Quality Issues
vConsider the identity:
1
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝑛 − 𝑚 𝜔𝑡 − cos(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔𝑡
2
vWhen we multiply two AC frequencies, we get
“sum” and “difference” frequencies
vThe average value of the product will be zero
unless the difference frequency is zero (n=m) to
give a DC component
vTo get (average) power, the voltage and
current MUST be at the same frequency

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 Some Power Quality Measures
v Current Distortion Factor (y) (or just Distortion
Factor)
v This is a measure of how distorted the current is
and is defined by:
y = RMS fundamental current/Total RMS current
𝐼^/ 2
𝜓=
𝐼^_ + ∑`ab _
`a_ ` / 2
𝐼 ç Total RMS

v y = 1 represents a perfect sine wave with no

distortion
v y < 1 è DISTORTION
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 Some Power Quality Measures
v Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
v Another measure of distortion (also popularly used for
audio equipment etc.)
v Defined as (Total RMS value of all harmonics)/(RMS
fundamental). It is often quoted in percentage.
∑#$& %
#$% d# / _
ç RMS of harmonics alone
THD= d' / _
^
v y and THD are clearly related THD= f%
−1
v THD = 0 represents a pure sine wave
v THD > 0 è DISTORTION
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 Some Power Quality Measures
v Displacement Power Factor (df)
v Displacement power factor (or often just displacement
factor) is used to quantify that not all of the
fundamental current gives rise to power when there is
a phase shift between voltage and current. The
definition is:
Real work

($% )& *& /" +,- ∅

df = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅
)& / " *& / " )& / " *& / "

Apparent power due to fundamental components

(Fundamental RMS product)
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 Some Power Quality Measures
v Power Factor (pf)
v Power factor quantifies that not all of the total RMS current
(including the harmonics) gives rise to power. The definition
is
Real work
5'( 6)8)/7 ;<! ∅
pf = = =𝜓𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ = 𝜓. df
6)/ 7 8)*9∑+,- *
+,* 8+ / 7 6)/ 7 8)*9∑+,- *
+,* 8+ / 7

Total RMS product including harmonics

v When y = 1 (no distortion) we get pf = cos(f) which is of
course the result we know from 1st year lectures
v When we have distortion, the power factor gets worse since
the harmonics increase the total RMS current but do not
produce power at the load
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 Diode Rectifier Power Quality
v Consider the supply current waveform for the 3-phase diode
bridge rectifier (when the DC side current is smooth).

v Because of symmetry, the fundamental component of the

current is in phase with the voltage.
v Hence f = 0, and the displacement power factor (df) is unity.
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 Diode Rectifier Power Quality
vConsider the harmonics
vHarmonic components of the current
waveform are given by:
4𝐼B
𝐼? = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑛 𝜃⁄2)
𝑛𝜋
+ CD"
vFor q = 1200 we get 𝐼? = ,𝑛 = 1, 5, 7, 11, 13
?.

and 𝐼? = 0 otherwise

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 Diode Rectifier Power Quality
vNote that there are no even harmonics (n = 2,
4, 6 etc.)
v this is because the waveform is “half-wave
symmetric.”
v f(t +T/2) = -f(t), where T is the period
vThere are no triple harmonics (n = 3, 9, 15 etc.)
v This is always the case in a 3-phase system with no
neutral connection
vOnly harmonics of order 6k±1 (k=1, 2, 3 etc)
exist
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 Diode Rectifier Power Quality
v Now we can calculate the distortion factor.
v Need to determine the total RMS current – which we
could get from the harmonics – but that is a very
complicated way for this simple waveform!
ID ID2 ID2
f(t) 600
1200 1200 f2(t) 1200 1200

-ID
600

2
v The total RMS of the current is given by: 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼1 3

2 39.
v The RMS of the fundamental current is: 𝐼4_678 = : 2

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 Diode Rectifier Power Quality
v The distortion factor is defined as:
2 3𝐼1
𝐼4 / 2 𝜋 2 3
𝜓= = = = 0.9549
2 ;<= 2 2 𝜋
𝐼4 + ∑;<2 𝐼; / 2 𝐼1
3

v This is also the power factor since the displacement factor

(df) equals 1.
3 3
pf = 𝜓. df=1× = = 0.9549
𝜋 𝜋

v Thus, the total harmonic distortion is given by:

>
THD = − 1 = 31.08 %
?&

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 Operation with finite supply inductance - Overlap

v Operation with finite supply inductance – still assume

smooth output current (i.e. big smoothing inductor)
VX ID

D1 D3 D5
VAN LSA
A
A’ Big!
VBN
iA LSB
B VXY
B’
iB LSC
VCN
C C’ LOAD
iC

D4 D6 D2
VY

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 Operation with finite supply inductance - Overlap
v We get “OVERLAP” with finite supply inductance because the
current cannot commutate instantaneously from one diode to
another.
v Consider the overlap between D1 and D3. D2 is on in the lower
part of the bridge and D4, D5, D6 are off – the equivalent circuit is:
ID
VX
VAN LS D1 D3
A
A’
iA VAB VLA
VBN VA’B VXY
B
’ B’
iB VLB LOAD
VCN
C
C’
iC VLC
D2

Assume LSA = LSB = LSC = LS VY

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 Operation with finite supply inductance - Overlap
v Note that during overlap, A’ and B’ are at the same
potential, so VA’B’ = 0
v Equations:
𝑖! + 𝑖# = 𝐼% = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
gh( gh)
⇒ gi
= − gi ⇒ 𝑉j! = −𝑉j#
k()
𝑉!# = 𝑉j! − 𝑉j# = 2𝑉j! ⇒ 𝑉j! = _
𝑉!#
𝑉& = 𝑉!* Z = 𝑉!Z − 𝑉j! = 𝑉!Z −
2
k(+ k)+ k(+ lk)+ Average of
= 𝑉!Z − _ + _ = ⇒
_ 𝑉!Z and 𝑉#Z
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Operation with finite supply inductance – Overlap
VAN Waveforms VBN
VXN

D1 ON D3 ON

D1 and D3 ON
𝜇
𝑉!Z + 𝑉#Z
2
ID1 +ID +ID ID3
0

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Operation with finite supply inductance – Overlap
VAN Waveforms VBN
VXN
THIS AREA AA
APPEARS
THIS AREA AB ACROSS LSA
APPEARS
ACROSS LSB 𝜇

SUM OF AREAS VAB

AA AND AB
EQUALS AREA = 2IDLS
THIS AREA

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Operation with finite supply inductance – Overlap
Waveforms

LS

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 Operation with finite supply inductance – Overlap
Waveforms
v Loss of DC output voltage due to overlap

Area lost from 𝑉&Z at D1 to D3 overlap causes change of

current from 0 to +𝐼% in 𝐿m#

Þ VOLTAGE-TIME-AREA = 𝐼1 𝐿8

We lose this six times per cycle from 𝑉&[ .

Þ TOTAL AREA LOST = 6𝐼1 𝐿8

>9. ?/ 3B9. ?/
Þ LOSS IN MEAN VOLTAGE = =
2:/A :
𝟑 𝟑𝑬 𝟑𝑰𝑫 W$ 𝝎 𝟑 𝟐𝑽𝑳𝑳 𝟑𝑰𝑫 W$ 𝝎
?
Þ𝑽𝑿𝒀 = − = −
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
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 Operation with finite supply inductance – Overlap
Waveforms
vCalculation of overlap duration

From earlier waveforms, we can see that:

𝟑𝑬
𝟐𝑰𝑫 𝐿= = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝁)
𝝎

Þ𝟐𝑰𝑫 𝐿= 𝝎 = 𝟑𝑬 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝁)

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 Overlap – effect on AC system voltage

v Overlap distorts the voltage at the rectifier

terminals – an effect called “notching.”
v Consider the voltage VA’B’ at each point in the
waveform when the overlap is present
(remember that ID is assumed constant – so
each VLs = 0 except during overlap)

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 Overlap – effect on AC system voltage 135
462
Top Diode(s) Lower Diode(s) VA’N VB’N VA’B’ Comment

D1 D2 VAN VBN VAB

D1+D3 D2 0 D1 and D3 overlap
D3 D2 VAN VBN VAB
D3 D2+D4 (A+C)/2 B (AB + CB)/2 D2 and D4 overlap
D3 D4 VAN VBN VAB
D3+D5 D4 A (B +C)/2 (AB + AC)/2 D3 and D5 overlap
D5 D4 VAN VBN VAB
D5 D4+D6 0 D4 and D6 overlap
D5 D6 VAN VBN VAB
D5+D1 D6 (A +C)/2 B (AB + CB)/2 D5 and D1 overlap
D1 D6 VAN VBN VAB
D1 D6+D2 A (B +C)/2 (AB + AC)/2 D6 and D2 overlap
D1 D2 VAN VBN VAB

A ≡VAN AB ≡VAB
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Overlap – effect on AC system voltage
Rectifier terminal voltage with overlap

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 Overlap – effect on AC system voltage
v In practice, 𝐿= includes all of the supply
inductance and is distributed across the
network (not just localised at the rectifier)
v A significant proportion of the inductance
may be shared with other users who will see a
distorted voltage due to the notches.

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 Overlap – effect on AC system voltage

Point of common coupling

Very simplified representation (PCC) to other users

VAN Lsystem Llocal

A

VBN VA’B’
B
N
VCN
C
RECTIFIER
+
LOAD
Total LS consists of LS local
to the converter + LS of the
rest of the system.

Connection to other users

Voltage partially distorted by notching

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Worked Examples on
Diode Rectifiers

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 Example 1

A single-phase diode rectifier feeding a

constant current (ID) on the DC side
draws a current waveform on the AC
side, a square wave (1800 at ID and
1800 at –ID) in phase with the supply
voltage. Determine the:
1) current distortion factor,
2) current THD and
3) power factor.
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Solution

+ID

1800

1800

-ID
' - , ,0C
v Fundamental RMS 𝐼'_)*+ = 𝐼
, . /
= .
v Total RMS 𝐼1_)*+ = 𝐼/
, ,
1) Distortion factor 𝜓 = .
= 0.9

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Solution
v Harmonic RMS
,
, 2 2 8
𝐼2_)*+ = 𝐼/ − 𝐼/ = 𝐼/ 1− ,
𝜋 𝜋

2) Total harmonic distortion

8
1− ,
𝜋
𝑇𝐻𝐷 = = 48.3 %
2 2
𝜋
3) Power factor, pf = 𝜓 = 0.9 as the phase shift is
zero, and hence the displacement factor is unity
(cos 0 = 1).
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 Example 2
A single-phase diode bridge rectifier is fed from a 240 V,
50 Hz supply. The supply inductance is 10 mH. On the DC
side, the output of the rectifier is smoothed using an
inductor, and the mean DC current is 20 A. Determine:

(i) the mean rectifier output voltage.

(ii) the overlap angle (µ).
(iii) the value of DC side smoothing inductance required
to ensure the ripple in the DC current is 4 A peak to
peak.
(Note: In this question, the supply inductance has been made
unusually large to give a large overlap angle so that the
waveforms can be sketched easily – it is about 10 times greater
than you might expect for this sort of supply).
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Solution

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Solution

(i)
2𝐸 2𝐼B LS𝜔 2 2𝑉[\] 2𝐼B LS𝜔
𝑉M = − = −
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

Note 𝜔LS = reactance (Ω)

LS = inductance (H)

2×240√2 2×20×10×10^C ×100𝜋

𝑉M = −
𝜋 𝜋

𝑉M = 216 − 40 = 176 𝑉
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Solution

(ii) 𝝁 ?

!"i #j $
⇒ = 1 − cos(𝜇)
%

=> 𝜇 = 51° (BIG!)

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Solution

(iii)
Area A = Area under V – Area under 𝑉M

33D 4F>×(4HI.IKL4)×2E×4E01
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 = cos 51 − cos 148.8 −
4EE: 3>E

=> Area A = 0.646 Vs

_`a
Use ∆𝐼 = W

_`a b.cde
⇒𝐿= = = 162 𝑚𝐻 (BIG!)
∆D d
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 Example 3
A particular rectifier circuit draws the following components of current (i.e.
the table gives the spectral components of the current) from a 300 V, 50 Hz
AC supply (assume the voltage is undistorted).
Frequency Peak Amplitude Phase shift w.r.t. voltage (degrees)
(Hz) (A)
50 10 20 (lagging)
150 10
250 6
350 5
450 4.5
550 4
650 3
>650 Negligible
Explain why this must be a single-phase rectifier and not a 3-phase rectifier.
Calculate the power that the rectifier delivers to the DC side (assuming
there are no power losses in the rectifier). Determine the rectifier’s current
distortion factor, current THD and power factor.

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 Solution
We need to be careful with peak and RMS here.
This must be a single phase as triple harmonics
are present (i.e. 3, 9, etc.)

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝐼 cos(𝜃)

>b
Þ𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 300× × cos 20g = 1993 𝑊
√+

Note that there is no power due to the

harmonics because the voltage is undistorted.

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Solution
1 17.5
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 102 + 102 + 62 + 62 + 4.52 + 42 + 32 = = 12.37 A
√2 √2

^•⁄√_ ^•
Þ𝜓= ⁄ = = 0.57
^€.• √_ ^€.•

1 14.36
𝐻𝐴𝑅𝑀𝑂𝑁𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 102 + 62 + 52 + 4.52 + 42 + 32 = = 10.155 A
√2 √2

^‡.\ˆ⁄√_
ÞTHD = ^•⁄√_
= 143.6 %

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜓× cos(𝜃)= 0.57× cos(20° ) = 0.5356.

Š‹Œ•J ^‘‘\
Check: Ž‹i•• k! = \••×^_.\€ = 0.537 (Error due to rounding)

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Example 4
A three-phase diode rectifier feeds a
smooth current of 100 A to a load on the
DC side. Ignoring the overlap effects,
sketch the current the rectifier draws from
the AC side. Determine the:
1) RMS fundamental current,
2) total RMS current,
3) current distortion factor and
4) current THD.

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 Solution

ID=100A (SMOOTH)
IS

LOAD
x6
No overlap, IS looks like
+100 A
1200
0
1200
-100 A

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 Solution
i) RMS Fundamental
> d >+b°
𝐼>_ij= = × ×100 ×sin = 77.97 𝐴
+ . +

ii) Total RMS

2 2
𝐼`_ij= = 𝐼B = 100 = 81.65 𝐴
3 3

iii) Current distortion factor

77.97
𝜓= = 0.9549
81.65
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 Solution
iv) Total harmonic distortion
vEither calculate directly from 𝜓 or calculate harmonic
RMS
vEither way, you take the difference of similar numbers, so
it is important to take at least 4 significant figures to get a
reasonable answer.
Harmonic RMS:
_ _
I“_2•m = 𝐼Ž_-./ − 𝐼^_2•m

I“_2•m = 81.65_ − 77.97_ = 24.24 𝐴

Note: NOT (Total RMS – Fundamental RMS)

24,24
⇒ THD = = 31.08%
77.97
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 Example 5
A three-phase diode rectifier is fed from a 415 V AC
supply, providing a smooth current of 50 A on the DC
side. Overlap can be ignored. By considering the AC
current, calculate the power drawn from the AC side –
check that this is the same as the power delivered to the
DC side (obtained by calculating the mean voltage on
the DC side).

AC current:
+50 A
1200
0
1200
-50 A

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 Solution
AC side phase shift = 0

⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉>_ij= 𝐼>_ij=

Need fundamental RMS current.

1 4 120°
𝐼>_ij= = × ×50 ×sin = 38.99 𝐴
2 𝜋 2

Power for a 3-phase system:

𝑃 = 3𝑉WW 𝐼W cos ∅ = 3×415×38.99 = 28.026 𝑘𝑊
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 Solution
DC side
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉MBl ×𝐼Bl , assuming the current is constant.

Mean DC voltage

𝟑 𝟑𝑬 𝟑 𝟐𝑽𝑳𝑳 3×415 2
? 𝑫𝑪
𝑽 = = = = 560.45 V
𝝅 𝝅 π

⇒ 𝑃 = 560.45×50 = 28.022 𝑘𝑊

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 Thyristors
vThyristors are 4-layer (p-n-p-n) devices with a “latching
type” switching action. There are 3 terminals on the
device; anode(A), cathode(K) and gate(G).
Gate

Anode Cathode

VAK

vWhen the thyristor is reverse biased (VAK negative), it

behaves like a diode and blocks current – regardless of
the gate voltage/current.
vWhen the device is forward biased (VAK positive), two
states are possible – next slide.
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 Thyristor – forward states – turn on
v Forward blocking (OFF)
v the thyristor supports a large applied voltage with very little
current flow (effectively a switch in the OPEN position)
v Forward conducting (ON)
v the thyristor conducts forward current with very little forward
voltage drop (1V to 2V - effectively a switch in the CLOSED
position)
v Turn-on
v The transition from OFF to ON occurs when a gate pulse is
applied to the thyristor when it is forward-biased. The gate
pulse is applied by a suitable gate drive circuit which
applies a voltage to produce sufficient gate current for the
thyristor to switch (further gate circuit details not given here)

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 Thyristor – forward states – turn off
v Turn-off
v Once the thyristor is conducting, it “latches” and cannot be
turned off by removing or reversing the gate current.
v To get from the ON state to the OFF state – it is necessary to
reduce the anode current to zero and to reverse bias the
thyristor – it will not turn off otherwise.
v Hence – the gate can control the turn-on of the
thyristor, but NOT the turn-off (unlike a transistor-type
device when ON and OFF can both be controlled by
the gate/base)
v The main circuit conditions which dictate the anode
current and the voltage applied to the thyristor
determine when it turns-off

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 Thyristor – other considerations
v Turn off reverse bias time
v When the thyristor turns off, it must be reverse-biased for
sufficient time to remove excess charge – otherwise, it will turn
on again when it is forward-biased – even if a gate pulse is not
applied. The required time is a parameter of the specific
device (tq) - generally between 10µs and 300µs, depending
on the application that the device is intended for
v Turn off dv/dt
v When a device turns off, the voltage across it rises rapidly in
many circuits. The capacitance in the thyristor between the
Anode/Cathode and Gate can cause the thyristor to turn on if
the dv/dt is too high because of the current injected into the
Gate (i = Cdv/dt). Hence the maximum dv/dt is also specified
as a parameter of the thyristor

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 Thyristor – other considerations
v Turn on di/dt
v During the early stages of the turn-on process, the current is
concentrated into areas of the silicon wafer near the gate
since these begin to conduct first. If the current rises too rapidly,
too much current will go through a small area of the wafer,
and the thyristor will be destroyed. Hence the maximum di/dt is
also specified for the thyristor

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 Thyristor circuit types
v Naturally Commutated
v In thyristor circuits fed from AC supplies, such as controlled
rectifiers, the necessary conditions for the turn-off of each
device occur at the desired instants because of how the
supply voltage varies with time. This is called natural
commutation.
v Force Commutated
v In thyristor circuits fed from DC supplies, such as DC-DC
converters and inverters, a natural commutation does not
occur, and extra commutation circuits must be provided so
that the conditions for turn-off can be forced on the thyristor
at the desired time. This is called forced commutation.
v Force-commutated thyristor circuits are now rare (having
been replaced by transistors of various kinds). We will only
study naturally commutated circuits – controlled rectifiers
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Naturally commutated Thyristor circuit applications
v Historically, thyristor-controlled rectifiers were used to
control DC motors fed from an AC supply and were used
widely in industrial and transport applications
v These are largely now replaced by AC drives because:
v We now have the controlled devices (Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistors, MOSFETs etc.) needed to make high switching
frequency inverters (see later) needed to control AC
machines
v We now have easy access to the digital processing power we
need to do high-performance control of AC machines (which
is more complex than control of DC machines)
v AC machines are preferred to DC machines in nearly all
applications because they do not have a commutator

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Naturally commutated Thyristor circuit applications
v One of the most important present applications is in
High Voltage DC (HVDC) transmission – such as the UK-
France link.
England Û France Link
Sellindge (Kent, UK) Les Mandarins (France)
+270kV
AC DC
0
V
DC -270kV AC

+270kV
AC DC
0V
DC -270kV AC
400kV, 50Hz 400kV, 50Hz
AC Undersea cables (70km) AC

2000MW
Thyristor
converter
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Naturally commutated Thyristor circuit applications
v Thyristor converters (rather than “transistor” based
ones) are still used in the highest power HVDC links
because:
v Thyristors can be made at higher current ratings
than other devices
v Thyristors are more robust (more difficult to damage
with a fault) than other devices
v Because of the latching action, thyristors have a
lower forward voltage drop than transistors –
conduction losses are lower (losses are very
important in electricity network applications)

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Other Thyristor types
v It is possible to make a thyristor that can be turned off
with the gate using a negative pulse of current.
v These are called GTOs (Gate Turn-Off Thyristors) – and
there are various other devices derived from them –
such as IGCTs (Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors)
v They have been used in some circuits – particularly at
high power where you might otherwise use some sort
of transistor
v We will not consider them further and will just
concentrate on conventional thyristor applications
here.

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Three phase fully controlled Thyristor Rectifier
v Assume smooth output current (i.e. big smoothing inductor)
VX ID

T1 T3 T5
VAN LS
A
A’ Big!
VBN iA LS
B VXY
N B’
iB L
VCN LS O
C C’ A
iC D

Thyristor gating circuits

not shown T4 T6 T2
VY

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Fully controlled bridge – basic operation
v Each thyristor has a gate firing circuit associated with it
(not shown) which provides gate current when
required to do so to fire the device
v A control circuit, synchronized to the supply voltages,
controls the firing of the thyristors via the gate firing
circuits
v Each thyristor is fired (turned on) with respect to the
point on the supply voltage waveform where the
corresponding diode in a diode rectifier would have
started conducting

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Fully controlled bridge – basic operation
v Each thyristor firing is delayed with respect to the
corresponding diode turn-on point. The delay (a) is
normally measured in degrees and is called the
“delay angle” or “firing delay angle.”
v For example, T3 is fired a degrees after the negative
zero crossing of VAB since D3 in a diode bridge starts
conducting at the negative zero crossing of VAB.
v Provided a < 1800 (see later), firing T3 will automatically
reverse bias T1 and turn it off (natural commutation –
the same for the other thyristors)
v Controlling the delay angle allows the average output
voltage to be controlled (see Waveforms)

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Fully controlled bridge – Drawing waveforms
v Don’t panic!
v It is straightforward if you understand the waveforms for the
diode rectifier and are METHODICAL
v Do not guess
v you will DEFINITELY get it wrong if you do!

v At each commutation (for example, T1 to T3), identify what happens

in the diode bridge for the equivalent commutation (i.e. D1 to D3)
and which waveforms are involved
v The thyristor commutation involves exactly the same waveforms – but
is just delayed by a from the diode commutation
v Draw the waveforms for the commutations and then join them up to
get the complete waveform. The waveforms should have a pattern
that repeats every 1200 on the phase voltages (i.e. VX and VY) and
every 600 on the line voltages (i.e. VXY)
v If you don’t have repeating patterns like this, it is wrong (probably
you guessed!)
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Waveforms - 𝜶 = 𝟒𝟓°, LS = 0 (no overlap)

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Waveforms - 𝜶 = 𝟗𝟎°, LS = 0 (no overlap)

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Waveforms - 𝜶 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎°, LS = 0 (no overlap)

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Waveforms - 𝜶 = 𝟒𝟓°, 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟓°, (finite LS)

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Calculation of output voltage – no overlap

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Calculation of output voltage – no overlap
!" !"
Shaded Area = cos(0) − cos(𝛼) = 1 − cos(𝛼)
# #

This is lost six times per cycle from 𝑉&[.

$ !"(&'()* +) #
Þ Loss of MEAN VOLTAGE × = 3 3𝐸(1 − cos 𝛼)/𝜋
# -.

\ \X \ \X \ \X
X
Þ 𝑉&[ = − 1 − cos 𝛼 = cos 𝛼
] ] ]
Diode
value

Note 𝑉X&[ is < 0 for 𝛼> 90°

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Loss of voltage due to overlap
LS
LS

LS

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Operation with finite supply inductance –
loss of voltage due to overlap

LOSS OF VOLTAGE-TIME-AREA DUE TO

OVERLAP IS EXACTLY THE SAME AS THE DIODE
CASE EVEN THOUGH THE AREA IS IN A
DIFFERENT PLACE

ÞLOSS OF VOLTAGE IS THE SAME

𝟑 𝟑𝑬 𝟑𝑰𝑫 𝑳𝒔 𝝎 𝟑 𝟐𝑽𝑳𝑳 𝟑𝑰𝑫 𝑳𝒔 𝝎

?
Þ 𝑽𝑿𝒀 = cos 𝜶 − = cos 𝜶 −
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅

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Operation with finite supply inductance –
loss of voltage due to overlap
vCalculation of overlap duration

From waveform we can see that:

𝟑𝑬
𝟐𝑰𝑫 𝑳𝒔 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜶 + 𝝁)
𝝎
⇒ 𝟐𝑰𝑫 𝑳𝒔 𝝎 = 𝟑𝑬 cos(𝜶) − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜶 + 𝝁)

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Controlled rectifier – Power Quality
v Ignoring the effects of overlap, the current
waveform for the thyristor rectifier (assuming
constant current on the DC side) is identical to
that for the diode rectifier – except that it is
delayed with respect to the voltage by the
firing angle a
v For the diode rectifier, the fundamental phase
shift was zero, but for the thyristor rectifier, it is a
v Consequently, the Displacement Power Factor
(df) is equal to cos(a)

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Controlled rectifier – Power Quality
v The distortion factor (y) is the same as for the
diode case (3/p) – since the waveform is the
same shape.
v Hence the overall Power Factor (PF = y*df) is
(3/p)cos(a)
v Note that the power factor is very poor for firing
delay angles near 90o
v This is because the thyristor rectifier reduces the
power for a given DC side current by creating a
phase shift on the AC side (rather than by
reducing the amplitude of the AC side current)
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126
“Notching” – effect of overlap on AC voltage
v This is the same effect as for the diode circuit – consider the voltage
VA’B’ during the overlaps (VA’B’ = VAB at all other times)

Top Bottom VA’N VB’N VA’B’ Overlap

T1+T3 T2 0 T1/T3

T3 T2+T4 (VAN + VCN)/2 VBN (VAB + VCB)/2 T2/T4

T3+T5 T4 VAN (VBN + VCN)/2 (VAB + VAC)/2 T3 /T5

T5 T4+T6 0 T4/T6

T5+T1 T6 (VAN + VCN)/2 VBN (VAB + VCB)/2 T5/T1

T1 T6+T2 VAN (VBN + VCN)/2 (VAB + VAC)/2 T6/T2

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Notching - 𝜶 = 𝟒𝟓°, 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟓°

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“Notching” – effect of overlap on AC voltage
v Each line voltage at the converter terminals has 6
notches (2 large ones dropping to zero and 4 smaller
ones) corresponding to the 6 overlaps per cycle.
v Distortion due to notching is most severe at the
converter terminals, but distortion is seen at other
points in the network since the supply inductance is
distributed – as we discussed for the diode circuit.
v Notching is worse for thyristor circuits than diode
circuits since the notches are bigger (deeper)
because of where they occur on the waveform – for
example when a = 90°, the large notches occur at
the peak of the waveform.
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129
“Notching” – effect of overlap on AC voltage
v As we discussed for the diode circuit, the
effect of the notches on other users of the
supply (connected at the PCC) can be
reduced by increasing the inductance near
the converter (although there is a compromise
as this will make the notches wider)
v Remember (from diode rectifier notes) the
notches are attenuated at the PCC by the
ratio 𝐿[m[ /(𝐿[m[ + 𝐿ngopn )

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130
“Notching” – example for you to do
v Doing this example will test your ability to draw rectifier
waveforms and clearly illustrate the distortion caused by
notching.
v On a 3-phase template, draw VXN, VYN and VXY for a firing delay
angle of 60O and an overlap angle of 15O
v Label next to each overlap the thyristors involved in each
overlap
v Draw up a table listing the overlaps in order and, corresponding
to each overlap, the voltages Va’N and Vb’N. Hence determine
the voltage Va’b’ at each overlap and add this to the table (note
– do this yourself starting with a blank table – don’t just copy or
memorise mine – you need to be able to work it out)
v Hence draw the waveform of Va’b’ and see the distortion due to
notching. Note that Va’b’ = VAB except during overlaps
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Thyristor rectifier – Inverting Operation
v If a > 90O, then the mean converter output voltage
(VXY) will be negative, and power can flow from the
DC side to the AC side – this is called INVERSION (note
that the DC current direction stays the same)
v For this to be sustainable, there must be a source of
energy on the DC side – e.g. battery, or motor acting
as a generator.
POWER ID
SOURCE
VXY
AC SIDE x6 VL
PHASE
SHIFT>900 𝑉X&[ < 0
a > 900 POWER
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Thyristor rectifier – Inverting Operation
v The thyristor rectifier is therefore a 2 quadrant
circuit. Io

Vo
2Q(a)

Power flow AC-DC – rectifying operation

Power flow DC to AC – inverting operation

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Inverting Operation – Maximum Delay Angle
v Consider the voltage across one of the Thyristors (T1)
for a complete cycle of operation (VT1 = VA’N – VXN)
VX ID

T1 VT1 T3 T5
VAN Ls
A
A’ Big!
VBN iA Ls
B VXY
N B
VCN
iB Ls ’
C C LOAD
iC ’

T4 T6 T2
VY

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 135
Inverting Operation – Maximum Delay Angle 462
Top Bottom VA’N VXN VT1
T1 T2 0
T1+T3 T2 Don’t care: T1 is ON so VT1=0 0
T3 T2 VAN VBN VAB
T3 T2+T4 (VAN + VCN)/2 VBN (VAB + VCB)/2
T3 T4 VAN VBN VAB
T3+T5 T4 VAN (VBN + VCN)/2 (VAB + VAC)/2
T5 T4 VAN VCN VAC
T5 T4+T6 (VAN + VBN)/2 VCN (VAC + VBC)/2
T5 T6 VAN VCN VAC
T5+T1 T6 0
T1 T6 0
Don’t care: T1 is ON so VT1=0
T1 T6+T2 0
T1 T2 0
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Voltage across T1: 𝜶 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎°, 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟓°
3 A B VYN 1 C
5 3
5 1 3 5

4 6 2 4
6 2 VXN 4 6
AB AC BC BA CA CB AB AC

VT1

Reverse Bias
(a + µ)

tRV
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Inverting Operation – Maximum Delay Angle
v From the waveforms, we can see that:
v T3 is fired a degrees after the negative zero crossing of VAB.
v T1 turns off at the end of the overlap with T3
v Hence T1 turns off (a+µ) degrees after the negative zero
crossing of VAB.
v T1 will be reverse biased when it turns off provided (a+µ) <
180o, so the turn-off occurs before VAB becomes positive.
v T1 will be reverse biased after the turn-off for a time
equivalent to [180 – (a+µ)] degrees.
v In seconds, the reverse bias time is given by:
v trv = [180 – (a+µ)]p/(180w)
v For T1 to turn off properly, trv must be greater than the required
turn-off reverse bias time (usually given the symbol tq) for the
particular thyristors used.
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Inverting Operation – Maximum Delay Angle
v If the reverse bias time is not long enough, T1
will start conducting again when VAB goes
positive (even though it isn’t fired), and a
catastrophic short circuit of the DC side will
occur when T4 is fired.
v This is called a COMMUTATION FAILURE and
cannot normally be recovered from without
isolating the converter on the AC side with fuses
or circuit breakers.
v To avoid commutation failure, (a+µ) is limited to
typically 150o
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Inverting Operation – Maximum Delay Angle
v Even so, commutation failure can occur in
practice due to abnormal conditions such as:
v Excessive DC side current, resulting in an increase in µ
v Reduction in supply voltage, resulting in an increase in µ
v a too large due to control circuit error (loss of
synchronisation, for example)
v Note that a thyristor converter can only deliver
power to the AC side if the AC voltages are
already present for commutation – for
example, in a live AC network. It cannot feed a
passive load or a “dead” network – this is a
significant limitation
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Inverting Operation – Applications
v Historically – a very important application was
in DC motor drives.
ID
AC

DC VXY

Torque w
ID → Torque

a < O
a >a 90 a 90
O O
> 90 < 90O Pulley Direction
Power flows
Power from Power
from
flows flows
Power from
flows from
Mechanical to
Mechanical to AC to DC and from
AC to DC and from Force
Electrical and
Electrical from
and from Electrical to to
Electrical
DCDC to to
ACAC Mechanical
Mechanical
Lift
VXY → w
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Inverting Operation – Applications
v A 4-quadrant drive can be made with two rectifiers –
allowing torque and speed in both directions.

B2
AC
B1
w

Torque

Torque
B1 B1 Typical Application – transport
a > 90O a < 90O (tram, locomotive etc.)
w
B2 B2
a < 90O a > 90O
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Inverting Operation – Applications
v DC machine drives are now rare (replaced by AC
machine drives in most applications)
v The most important application of thyristor converters
now is in HVDC power transmission – where the inverting
mode is utilised.
a1 a2 AC system 2
AC system 1
HVDC Link

Power flow from System 1 to System 2 → a1 < 90o a2 > 90o

Power flow from System 2 to System 1 → a1 > 90o a2 < 90o

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Inverting Operation – Applications
v Note: HVDC converters are more complex than
the 6 device circuits we have looked at – but
the concept is the same – see later
v Note that an HVDC link like this can only work if
both AC networks are already “live” – it cannot
feed power into a dead network.

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Inverting Operation – example for you to do
v This example will test your ability to draw rectifier waveforms and illustrate
the reverse bias period following thyristor turn-off.
v On a 3-phase template, draw VXN, VYN and VXY for a firing delay angle of
120o and an overlap angle of 15o
v Label next to each overlap the thyristors involved. Label the conducting
thyristors during the non-overlap periods.
v Draw up a table listing the thyristor conduction patterns in sequence
(including overlaps) for a whole cycle.
v Next to each conduction pattern, tabulate the voltages VXN and Va’N and
hence tabulate the voltage VT1 (voltage across thyristor 1)
v On another template, re-draw VXN and VYN on the upper part and draw
VT1 on the lower part using the table.
v Make sure you can identify the reverse bias time on the VT1 waveform and
make sure it is equal to [180 – (a+µ)] degrees
v Note: this exercise will take some time and methodical work, but it will be
invaluable practice. Do it yourself – don’t copy mine from earlier in the
notes (for actual practice, try one of the other thyristors, T4, for example)

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Rectifier smoothing
v Diode/thyristor rectifiers do not provide a smooth DC output, and
usually, some smoothing circuit is needed to provide the load with
either a smooth voltage or a smooth current.
IR

Unsmooth Smoothing Load

Rectifier DC Circuit

Smooth DC

LDC LDC
CDC CDC

Inductive smoothing – Capacitive smoothing – LC smoothing – smooth

smooth current supplied to smooth voltage supplied to voltage supplied to load. L
load load “helps” C
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Rectifier smoothing
v How the rectifier operates is influenced by whether the
current at the output of the rectifier (IR) is continuous or
discontinuous.
v INDUCTIVE SMOOTHING – current is normally
continuous except at very small output currents.
Inductive smoothing is used for diode and thyristor
circuits. Often LDC is partially (or possibly completely)
supplied by the load itself (i.e. when used to feed a
DC Motor)
v CAPACITIVE SMOOTHING – current is normally
discontinuous except at high output currents if
significant supply inductance exists. Normally only
used for diode rectifiers.
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Rectifier smoothing
v LC SMOOTHING – depends on design parameters –
transitions between continuous and discontinuous at
some load current depending on the value of L. Most
often used for diode rectifiers.
v We will analyse INDUCTIVE smoothing for the thyristor
circuit (the diode circuit can be treated as a special
case with a=0) and look qualitatively at Capacitive
smoothing (no analysis). LC smoothing can be
considered a special case of one or the other,
depending on whether the current is continuous or
discontinuous.

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Inductive smoothing – continuous current
IL

VXY LDC LOAD

VL

𝑉3 = 𝑉—45
VXY VL

𝛼
Example
a = 45O

∆𝐼3 𝐼3

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Inductive smoothing – continuous current
v Analysis method to find DI for a given L or vice versa
v Assume VL is smooth
v Use the mean value of ID to determine µ and hence VXY
waveform
v VL = mean value of VXY (mean voltage across inductor = 0)
v Draw VXY on a template and superimpose VL
v Determine whether VL crosses VXY above or below the
overlap part of the waveform.
v Calculate the easier of the two areas (above or below VL)
and use DI = voltage-time area/L
v If VL happens to cross through the overlap part of VXY, then
neglect the smaller of the two little “triangular” areas
formed
v See worked example
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 Worked Example – Thyristor rectifier
Inductive smoothing
A 3-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier is fed from a 415 V, 50 Hz
supply. The supply reactance is 0.2 W per phase. The mean DC
side current is 100 A.

Determine:
(a) The mean output voltage when the firing delay angle is 45o
and the corresponding overlap angle.
(b) The DC side inductance required to limit the DC side current
ripple to 10 A peak to peak for the conditions in (a)
0.2W a =45o
L
IL
415V,
VXY VL LOAD
50Hz
IL (mean) =100A
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 Solution

a) We need to be careful here over two things:

1. To use the correct value for E in the expression for
the mean of VXY
2. Need to realise that “supply reactance” means wLS
and not just LS (which would be the supply
inductance with units of Henries, not Ohms)

In calculating the mean of VXY and the overlap angle

µ, we use the mean value of ID – it is not exact since ID
has a ripple, and we should really use the value at
the instant of the overlap – however, it is accurate
enough and allows “hand calculation.”

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Solution
3 3𝐸 3𝐼% 𝐿m 𝜔 3 2×415 3×100×0.2
:𝑉&[ = cos 𝛼 − = cos 𝛼 −
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

⇒ 𝑉X&[ = 560 cos 𝛼 − 19.1

Putting 𝛼 = 45° gives 𝑉X&[ = 377.2 𝑉

3𝐸
2𝐼% 𝐿m = cos 𝛼 − cos(𝛼 + 𝜇)
𝜔
_×^••×•._
Hence: 𝛼 + 𝜇 = cos ˜^ cos 45° − = 50.286°
‡^• _
⇒ 𝜇 = 5.3°

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Solution

æ 377.2 ö
q = sin -1 ç ÷ = 140 O
è 415 2 ø

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Solution
b) We need to calculate either Area A or Area B –
clearly, A is easier in this case.
415 2 (140 − 110.3) 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 = cos 60° + 𝛼 + 𝜇 − cos(140°) − 377.2× = 0.16 𝑉𝑠
100𝜋 360 50

Area shaded green Area shaded blue

Now we can calculate the required inductance.

𝑉𝑇𝐴 𝑉𝑇𝐴 0.16

∆𝐼% = ⇒𝐿= = = 16 𝑚𝐻
𝐿 ∆𝐼% 10

Note that in the calculation of Area A, it is necessary to take care

over precision since the two terms in [] are very similar, and their
difference is relatively small
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Complication Sometimes – for
particular values of a
and µ, the mean value
may cross somewhere in
the overlap part of the
VXY waveform.
IGNORE

If you encounter this

problem – you can
ignore the two small
areas in calculating the
area across the
smoothing inductor.
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Inductive smoothing – discontinuous current
v If the mean value of ID is progressively reduced (due to the load
changing, for example), the ripple in ID means that it will eventually
touch 0 (before the mean value gets to zero), and all the devices in
the rectifier will turn off
v The current will stay at zero until another pair of devices is forward
biased (diode circuit) or another pair of devices is fired (thyristor
circuit)
v This is a discontinuous current operation – see the next slide for
waveforms
v Things to note:
v There is no overlap
v Each thyristor must be fired twice (once at the normal place and again 60O
later) to get proper operation if the current is discontinuous – otherwise, we will
never get a current path.
v The expression for VXY(mean) derived before no longer holds – VXY(mean) is
bigger than this.
v VXY(mean) depends strongly on the load current – can cause control difficulty
v We will not analyze the discontinuous case.
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 Inductive smoothing – discontinuous current
IL

VXY LDC LOAD

VL

Example
a = 450

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Capacitive smoothing
v Capacitive smoothing – attempt to smooth rectifier
output voltage
v Only used with diode circuits
v Extensively used as the “front end” to provide the DC
link (DC supply) needed for PWM inverter variable
speed drive systems (see the introduction and later in
the course), often the LC version is used at higher
powers.
v The current is normally discontinuous unless extra AC or
DC side inductance is added and/or the current is
high.
v See the next slide for waveforms in the discontinuous
case.
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Capacitive smoothing – discontinuous current
LS IR IO

CDC LOAD
E

1 3 5
4 6 2

D1 D1 D3 D3

Example with D6 D4 D4
very large CDC

56 16 12 32 34 54

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Capacitive smoothing – discontinuous current
v Things to note:
v There is no overlap in discontinuous current
operation
v The DC voltage is very close to the peak of
the line voltage
v The expression that we derived for the
continuous current case for the diode circuit
no longer holds
C C,
𝑉 ≠ . since 𝑉M ≅ 3𝐸
M

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Capacitive smoothing – discontinuous current
v The supply current has very high harmonic
distortion (we don’t prove this, but it is obvious
looking at the waveform!) – distortion factor is
poor (displacement factor is OK) – hence power
factor is poor
v The power factor can be improved by adding AC
side inductance to make pulses of current
broader and lower – this reduces the THD and is
often done in practical circuits.
v Poor power quality aspects of this circuit are
making it increasingly unacceptable – but it is still
used in very large numbers.
v We will not analyse capacitive smoothing.
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Multi-pulse Rectifiers
v The diode/thyristor rectifiers we have looked at are
called 6-pulse rectifiers.
v This is because the ripple frequency at the DC side is 6
times the supply frequency – for example, in the case of
discontinuous current – there are 6 distinct pulses per
cycle.
v If we want to make a very high power circuit – we
would not be able to do it with only 6 devices (if the
voltage and/or current rating required is not available
in single devices)
v One approach would be just to put many 6-pulse
circuits in series and/or parallel – or to build one big 6-
pulse circuit using diodes or thyristors connected in
series
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Multi-pulse Rectifiers
v This is generally not done since as soon as we need
more than six devices, it is better to go to a multi-pulse
circuit (i.e. pulse number > 6)
v Multi-pulse circuits use more than six devices – but
have lower DC side ripple and better AC side
power quality.
v Sometimes, multi-pulse circuits are used at relatively
low powers –to get better power quality –
aerospace is a good example – Airbus 380 and
Boeing 787 both have 18-pulse rectifiers on-board
v Generally, the pulse number is a multiple of 6
(assuming a 3-phase system), so 12, 18, 24-pulse circuits
etc., are possible.
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Multi-pulse Rectifiers
v A 12-pulse converter, for example, consists of two 6-pulse
converters fed from a 6-phase supply and connected in
series or parallel on the DC side (18-pulse has three 6-
pulse circuits and so on)
v Since a 6-phase supply is not normally available, it is
generated from the 3-phase supply using a phase shifting
transformer (a 6-phase source is equivalent to two 3-
phase sources with 30o phase shift between them)
v By using phase-shifted 6-pulse circuits to create multi-
pulse circuits, rather than just using multiple 6-pulse circuits
without the phase shift, the cancellation of some
harmonic frequencies results and the power quality at
the input and output is improved

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Multi-pulse Rectifiers

Pulse Number Harmonics in input Ripple frequency

current (K=1,2,3,4...) on DC side
6 6K±1 6*supply
12 12K±1 12*supply
18 18K±1 18*supply
24 24K±1 24*supply

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Multi-pulse Rectifiers
v A higher pulse number means fewer input harmonics
(better power factor), and smoother output (smaller
smoothing components)
v Multi-pulse circuits are used at high power levels (>500 kW)
for this reason (and at lower power levels where power
quality is critical)
v The need for a transformer may seem a big disadvantage –
but large rectifiers normally need a transformer anyway for
isolation or to change the voltage.
v In some cases, a phase-shifting auto-transformer may be
used to save weight (as in A380 and B787) – not considered
further here.
v For example, the cross-channel (UK-France) electricity link
(2000 MW, 270 kV) uses 48-pulse converters at each end.
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12-pulse Converters
N1=N2=N3 = N, assume N4=N5=N6=N, then N7=N8=N9= Ö3N
COULD BE A THYRISTOR
CIRCUIT IA1 A1 ID SMOOTH
A IA
N4 VA1O
B1
Vxy1
O C1
N5
N1 VAN
6
N6 VB1O
N N2

C N3 VBN VA2B2 IA2

A2

N8 B2
VC2A2 N7 Vxy2
B N9 C2
I7 6

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12-pulse converters
v Star-Delta transformer provides two 3-phase outputs
with a 30o phase shift between them. We assume a 1:1
ratio between the two-star windings for simplicity –
obviously, it can be anything we choose, provided the
star-delta ratio is Ö3

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12-pulse converter – DC Side
v Ripple voltages on the DC side are displaced from each
other by 30o
v The components at 6 times the supply frequency cancel to
leave a smaller ripple at 12 times the supply frequency

VXY1

VXY2

VXY
30o 12 pulse ripple

60o
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12-pulse converter – AC Side
v Line current waveform IA (vertical axis not exactly to scale)
2.16ID

1.58ID

0.58ID

300

v Note that it has much better waveform than the standard

6-pulse case.
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12-pulse Converter – parallel connection
v The transformer arrangement is the same as before

IA1 A1
N4 VA1O B1 Inter-Phase
C1 Vxy1 Reactor (IPR)
O N5
6
N6 VB1O
IA2
VA2B2
A2
N8 B2
VC2A2 Vxy2
N7
C2
I7 6
N9

v Same basic operation as before – but with increased

output current capability rather than increased voltage. IPR
is needed because of the instantaneous voltage difference
between VXY1 and VXY2
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Worked Examples on
Thyristor Rectifiers

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Example 1
A 3-phase fully controlled rectifier is fed by a 415 V, 50 Hz
supply via a transformer of negligible resistance whose
effective reactance is 0.122 Ω per phase. The bridge provides a
smooth load current of 120 A at 380 V. Determine the delay
angle, overlap angle, rms line current, displacement factor,
distortion factor and power factor for this condition.

If the turn-off time (𝑡I ) of the thyristors in the bridge is 250 𝜇𝑠

and an extra 3o is added to ensure safe commutation,
calculate the maximum delay angle and the corresponding
inverter voltage when the converter is acting as an inverter
supplying 120 A. Draw the waveform of the voltage across one
of the thyristors for this condition and indicate the critical
reverse bias region.

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Solution
0.122 Ω
120 A
415 V
50 Hz VXY 380 V LOAD

3 3𝐸 3𝐼% 𝐿m 𝜔 3 2×415 3×120×0.122

:𝑉&[ = cos 𝛼 − = cos 𝛼 −
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

⇒ 𝑉X&[ = 560.4 cos 𝛼 − 13.98 = 380

380 + 13.98
⇒𝛼= cos ˜^
560.4

⇒ 𝛂 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟑𝟎
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Solution
0.122 Ω
120 A
415 V
50 Hz VXY 380 V LOAD

3𝐸
2𝐼B 𝐿= = cos 𝛼 − cos(𝛼 + 𝜇)
𝜔
Hence:
^>
2×120×0.122
𝛼 + 𝜇 = cos cos 45.3° − = 49.19°
415 2
⇒ 𝝁 = 𝟑. 𝟗°
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Solution
Line current: +120 A
1200
0
1200
-120 A

Assumption: Neglect effect of overlap

,
𝐼+_)*+ = 120 3
= 97.98 𝐴
Displacement factor: 𝑑𝑓 = cos 𝛼 = cos 45.3° = 0.703
J L JKN
× ×',5× 678( )
K M K
Distortion factor: 𝜓 = = 0.9549
K
',5
O
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Solution
Power factor: pf = 𝑑𝑓×𝜓 = 0.703×0.9549 = 0.671

'<5
Reverse bias time ≡ 180 − (𝛼 + 𝜇) must be > 𝜔𝑡; × .
'<5
Limit is 180 − 𝛼 + 𝜇 *=> = 𝜔𝑡; ×
.
180
⇒ 𝛼 + 𝜇 *=> = 180 − 𝜔𝑡; ×
𝜋
?@
180
⇒ 𝛼 + 𝜇 *=> = 180 − 100𝜋×250×10 × = 175.5°
𝜋
This is the absolute limit. If 3o is added for safety then
the maximum value is

𝛼+𝜇 *=> = 175.5° − 3° = 172.5°

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Solution
3𝐸
2𝐼% 𝐿m = cos 𝛼 − cos(𝛼 + 𝜇)
𝜔

2×120×0.122
cos 𝛼•!& = + cos 172.5°
415 2

⇒ 𝛼•!& = 𝟏𝟔𝟎. 𝟑°

⇒ 𝑉Mrs = 560.4 cos 160.3° − 13.98

𝑉X&[ = −541.58 𝑉

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Solution
3 A B VYN 1 C
5 3
5 1 3 5

4 6 2 4
6 2 VXN 4 6
AB AC BC BA CA CB AB AC

VT1

Reverse Bias
(a + µ)

tRV
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Example 2
A 460 V, 200 A DC supply, inductively smoothed, is to be
created using a fully controlled 3-phase bridge rectifier fed
from a 415 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz supply. The AC lines to the
converter include inductive reactors of 0.2 Ω/phase.
1. Calculate the rectifier delay and overlap angles when the
output current is 200 A. Stating any assumptions you make,
estimate the RMS line current, distortion factor and
displacement factor.
2. Assuming that the load on the converter consists of a
smoothing inductor and a DC machine armature (which
can be modelled as a constant voltage), calculate the
value of the smoothing inductor required to limit the peak-
to-peak ripple current in the armature to 50 A if the mean
armature current is 200 A.

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Solution
0.2 Ω
200 A
415 V
VXY 460 V LOAD
50 Hz

3 3𝐸 3𝐼% 𝐿m 𝜔 3 2×415 3×200×0.2

:𝑉&[ = cos 𝛼 − = cos 𝛼 −
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

⇒ 𝑉X&[ = 560.4 cos 𝛼 − 38.197 = 460

460 + 38.197
⇒𝛼= cos ˜^
560.4

⇒ 𝛂 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟐𝟓𝟎
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Solution
0.2 Ω
200 A
415 V LOAD
50 Hz VXY 460 V

3𝐸
2𝐼B 𝐿= = cos 𝛼 − cos(𝛼 + 𝜇)
𝜔
Hence:
^>
2×200×0.2
𝛼 + 𝜇 = cos cos 27.25° − = 41.17°
415 2
⇒ 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟗𝟐°
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Solution
Neglecting the effects of overlap on the line current RMS and
phase shift,
_
𝐼m_2•m = 200 \
= 163.3 𝐴

Displacement factor: 𝑑𝑓 = cos 𝛼 = cos 27.25° = 0.889

' 0 '%2
×1×_••× ™š›( % )
%
Distortion factor: 𝜓 = = 0.9549
%
_•• 3

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Solution 508 V Area A
460 V

𝛼
600 𝜇

𝜃
Voltage at start of overlap = 𝟓𝟎𝟖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝟕. 𝟐𝟓° = 𝟒𝟓𝟏. 𝟔𝟐 𝑽
This implies the mean DC value crosses above the overlap
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Solution

460
𝜃= sin˜^ = 128.39°
415 2

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
415 2
= cos 101.17° − cos(128.39°)
100𝜋
(128.39 − 101.17) 1
− 460× = 0.1026 𝑉𝑠
360 50

𝑉𝑇𝐴 0.1026
⇒𝐿= = = 2.05𝑚𝐻
∆𝐼 50

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 Example 3
A three-phase fully controlled rectifier provides a direct current of up
to 300 A for the armature of a DC machine. The armature can be
modelled as a speed-dependent back-emf (which opposes the
current) in series with a resistance of 50 mΩ and an inductance of 20
mH. The back-emf is related to the speed by a constant of 3 Vsrad-1.
The converter is supplied from a 415 V, 50 Hz supply whose inductance
is 250 µH/phase, with negligible resistance.
Determine the:
a) maximum value of the mean rectifier output voltage when
supplying 300 A and the corresponding motor speed,
b) delay and overlap angles when the motor operates at 500 rpm
and 300 A,
c) peak-to-peak armature current ripple for condition (b) above
justifying any assumptions you make.
(Note to take into account the armature resistance – assume that it has a constant voltage drop
across it equal to the mean current multiplied by the resistance and add this to the back-emf – it is
not perfectly accurate since the voltage across the resistance varies with the current ripple – but it is
good enough and allows a hand calculation to be done)
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Solution
250 𝜇H ID 20 mH 50 mΩ
415V,
50 Hz VXY k𝜔

a) Maximum voltage occurs at 𝛼 = 0

3 3𝐸 3𝐼B 𝐿C 𝜔 3 2×415 3×300×250×10DE ×100𝜋

⇒ 𝑉6@A = cos 0° − = −
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

⇒ 𝑉X&[ = 560.4 − 22.5 = 537.9 𝑉

𝑘𝜔 = 537.9 − 300×50×10˜\ = 522.9 𝑉
522.9 rad 60
⇒ 𝜔= = 174.3 = 174.3× = 1664 𝑟𝑝𝑚
3 sec 2𝜋
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Solution
250 𝜇H ID 20 mH 50 mΩ
415V,
50 Hz VXY k𝜔

_]
b) At 500 rpm the back emf is 500× ˆ• ×3 = 157 𝑉

⇒ 𝑉X&[ = 157 + 50×10˜\×300 = 172 𝑉

⇒ 𝑉X&[ = 560.4 cos(𝛼) − 22.5 = 172 𝑉

172 + 22.5
⇒𝛼= cos ˜^ = 69.7°
560.4

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Solution
250 𝜇H ID 20 mH 50 mΩ
415V,
50 Hz VXY k𝜔

3𝐸
2𝐼% 𝐿m = cos 𝛼 − cos(𝛼 + 𝜇)
𝜔
Hence:
2×300×250×10˜ˆ×100𝜋
𝛼 + 𝜇 = cos ˜^ cos 69.7° − = 74.54°
415 2

⇒ 𝝁 = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟓𝟒° − 𝟔𝟗. 𝟕° = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟒°

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Solution
c) See the template

Voltage at start of overlap = 508 cos 69.7° = 176.24 𝑉

Voltage at end of overlap = 508 cos 74.5° = 135.42 𝑉

v This implies that the mean DC value 𝑉b>A crosses just

below the start of the overlap.

v The assumption to be made is that we ignore the

very small triangular area created because 𝑉b>A
crosses VXY during the overlap period.
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Solution 508 V 176 V Area A

172 V

𝛼
𝜇
600

𝜃 135 V

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Solution

172
𝜃= sin˜^ = 162.96°
415 2

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
415 2
= cos 134.54° − cos(162.96°)
100𝜋
162.96 − 134.54 1
− 172× = 0.2042 𝑉𝑠
360 50

𝑉𝑇𝐴 0.2042
⇒ ∆𝐼 = = ˜\ = 10.21 𝐴
𝐿 20×10

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End of Unit 4

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