Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research

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Hurdles and clarifications for the cultivation of saffron in Jammu

and Kashmir
Aabid M. Rather a, *, Sufiya Rashid a, Rubaya Sultan b, Irshad A. Nawchoo a, Ishfaq Ahmad Wani c,
Azra N. Kamili d
a
Plant Reproductive Biology, Genetic Diversity and Phytochemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, 190 006, J&K, India
b
Department of Botany, Amar Singh College Srinagar, J&K, India
c
Department of Botany, Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University, Rajouri, 185234, J&K, India
d
Department of Botany, Central University of Kashmir, Ganderbal, J&K, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Since saffron is a triploid crop, it does not generate seed when selfed or crossed and is passed down through the
Agrotechnology generations by daughter corms produced from the mother corms. As a result, agro-technology development is the
Weeds only viable alternative for bringing this crop to its full potential. Saffron does not have any specific habitat
Corm density
preferences, as evidenced by discovering numerous unknown saffron farmed areas during the current study. The
Saffron quality
In-vitro raised cormlets
plant grows as a mixed crop under apple (Malus domestica Borkh), almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch.), populus
Saffron cultivation (Populus alba L.), and walnut (Juglans regia L.) trees, as well as in plains, undulated soils, hills, and rice fields. It
can be found growing between 1585 and 2050 m above sea level. Different agro-techniques were standardized,
among which compost soil (compost 250 gms per pot with 2 kgs of soil; 500 gms per tray with 4 kgs of soil; 10
kgs per bed) was found to be best for early flower production. Soil and farmyard manure (1:3), UDP 0.25 gms/pot
(N-115.511+ K130.952+P-58.496 mg), soil DAP 650 mg/2 kg of soil (@P = 152.0899 mg), soil MOP 350 mg/2
kg (@ K = 183.37 mg) of soil was preeminent of procured in vitro raised cormlets in terms of their sprouting and
survival of shoots. Corm density was also checked in the offseason of the crop, with growth activity of only
saffron corms. Significant negative correlation was recorded with r = 0.82; n = 100; P ≤ 0.001. But the reverse
trend was observed in the crop’s growing season when most de-weeding and field preparations are accomplished.
The study will benefit people in near future as it emphasized the imperative proofs and picture of saffron
cultivation in Kashmir valley, reflects the realities of saffron cultivation and trounces the earlier myths.

1. Introduction agent in food and is a vital part of the dye, perfumery, and flavoring
industries [3]. Saffron also has countless biological properties like
Saffron (Crocus sativus), a monocot species, belongs to the Iridaceae anticancer, antimutagenic, and antioxidant [4]. As a result, saffron
family, whose red stigmatic styles constitute saffron, a popular food fetches the highest price as a spice globally, depending upon the country
additive with a delicate aroma and attractive color. The crop is triploid of its production. Its production is typically favored in countries where
with chromosome number (2n = 3x = 24), basic number X = 8, and labor is cheap, such as Iran and Azerbaijan, but is also produced in
never bears seeds. This crop requires human intervention and is prop­ countries like Greece, Switzerland, Spain, Argentina, or the USA and
agated by digging up, breaking apart, and replanting daughter corms [1, newer areas being brought under its cultivation viz. China and Japan
2]. Corms can survive for one season by vegetatively dividing into up to [5]. The Karewas of Kashmir and Bhaderwah of Jammu Division is one
ten cormlets, each of which can grow into a new plant in the following of the significant saffron-producing regions of the world, is employing
season. A saffron cultivator begins preparing the soil one year before, about 5% of the total rural workforce in the Kashmir Valley [6].
sowing corms because the land must be cultivated with oilseeds to be Saffron, which is recognized as the most expensive spice globally [3,
suitable for the growth of saffron corms. Thus, the saffron cultivation 7], certainly represents the most interesting and attractive species for
process is labor-intensive and costly. Saffron is a flavoring and coloring the coloring, bitterness aromatic power of its dried stigmas. It is a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.M. Rather).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100344
Received 19 February 2022; Received in revised form 16 June 2022; Accepted 17 July 2022
Available online 22 July 2022
2666-1543/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
A.M. Rather et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

Fig. 1. Distribution of saffron.

geophyte herbaceous plant whose stigmas have been used from ancient with three carpels, a single three-branched style, and an inferior ovary.
times as a spice in food, as a dye, in perfumes and cosmetics preparation, Several phenotypic flower mutants have been described, such as flowers
and for medicinal purposes [5]. Nowadays, it is almost exclusively used with larger numbers of styles and stamens and flowers without stamens.
for food coloring and flavoring, even though recent studies boost interest After mechanical separation of tepals, the stigmas are hand separated
in its medical properties [8,9].. Saffron is cultivated in various envi­ from carpels and dried. The size and the number of individual stigmas
ronments with mild to dry climates. For a long time, saffron has been collected from each flower influence the total yield and quality of
neglected by researchers and farmers since it was considered a minor saffron. Between 70,000 and 200,000 flowers are needed to produce 1
crop used only for agricultural diversification. However, it has been kg of dried saffron, equating to around 370–470 h of work. Conse­
gaining a more interesting role in low-input agricultural systems and as quently, the cultivation of this crop for its flowers and specifically its
an alternative crop in the last few years. The central management stigmas is very labor-intensive, leading to high costs. Thus, under­
techniques such as corm planting, flower harvest, stigma separation, and standing of cultivation of Crocus could reveal ways to increase yield and
corm lifting are carried out manually, contributing to its high price. lower production costs since the crop is commercially used based on its
Saffron is cultivated in very different environmental conditions and at cultivation. The problem with saffron is its sterile nature and slowly
different altitudes in different parts of the world [10,11]. growing as a genetically monomorphic clone. Development of daughter
Crocus blooms only once a year and is hand-harvested. Its collection corms of optimum size and minimum time and early flowering focuses
period is short (3–4 weeks in October–November). The flower of Crocus much on agronomic practices. Modified and standardized agro-
is bisexual. Perianth has no distinct sepals, and it only consists of six techniques of saffron are essential [12,13]. However, lower in quan­
petaloid tepals in two whorls, three tepals in whorl 1 (outer tepals), and tity, manures and fertilizers play an essential role in saffron cultivation.
three tepals in whorl 2 (inner tepals). The androecium consists of three The use of manures generally improves the physical condition and
distinct stamens and the gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil structure of the soil and its water-holding capacity [14,15]. By

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A.M. Rather et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

Table 1
Habitat distribution, altitudinal gradients and geographical co-ordinates of Crocussativus.
S. Name of Area/Village Altitude m.a.s. Longitude Latitude Habitat
No. l.

1. Patal Pampore near National 1580 74◦ 55′ 160′′ 33◦ 57′ 980′′ Plain and partial shady places
highway
2. Letapora 1643 74◦ 57′ 610′′ 33◦ 57′ 980′′ Plain fields
3. Nagbal 1650 74◦ 54′ 000′′ 33◦ 56′ 103′′ Plain and moist places under apple orchards
4. Ladu 1655 74◦ 59′ 422′′ 33◦ 59′ 456′′ Plain and open sunny fields
5. Khrew 1680 74◦ 56′ 061′′ 33◦ 59′ 026′′ Open and sunny Karewas
6. Khrew near military camp 1720 74◦ 59′ 115′′ 34◦ 01′ 153′′ Plain, dry and cement dusted areas
7. Khrew near cement factory 1800 74◦ 58′ 511′′ 34◦ 02′ 500′′ Sloppy dry and cement dusted soils
8. Batind 1850 74◦ 56′ 265′′ 34◦ 04′ 439′′ Open, sunny and dry cement dusted places
9. Somber 1548 74◦ 55′ 147′′ 33◦ 57′ 244′′ Open and sunny dry Karewas
10. Wayun Near Panthawchok 1630 74◦ 57′ 580′′ 34◦ 01′ 347′′ Open sunny and plain fields
11. Nehama 1631 74◦ 52′ 918′′ 33◦ 58′ 258′′ Plain moist, with partial shade (mostly cultivated under apple orchards)
12. Magraypora 1631 74◦ 51′ 905′′ 33057′ 844′′ Plain and dry places (mostly cultivated in apple and walnut orchards)
13. KuzurChadoora 1643 74◦ 51′ 064′′ 33◦ 57′ 566′′ Sloppy and less moist places in apple orchards and under populous trees
14. Wadpora 1712 74◦ 49′ 233′′ 33◦ 55′ 361′′ At Karewas under almond trees
15. Hussipora 1622 74◦ 48′ 011′′ 33◦ 56′ 081′′ Moist plains, under apple and peach orchards
16. Nagam 1734 74◦ 48′ 115′′ 33◦ 55′ 099′′ Open sunny fields and under apple orchards
17. Badipora 1746 74◦ 46′ 590′′ 33◦ 55′ 081′′ Open dry Karewas under almonds and lower sloppy areas under apple orchards
18. Nowpora Chadoora 1794 74◦ 45′ 000′′ 33◦ 54′ 103′′ Steep sloppy and dry areas
19. Hayatpora 1678 74◦ 49′ 233′′ 33◦ 54′ 768′′ At Karewas both under almond and apple trees
20. Kakawring Charasharief 1757 74◦ 48′ 265′′ 33◦ 54′ 439′′ Karewas of gorges with sloppy and dry habitats either open or under almond
trees.

employing different agro-techniques, the quantity and quality of Crocus 2. Materials and methods
will get enhanced in shorter durations. Keeping in view the above
mentioned reasons, the present study was designed to develop suitable 2.1. Study site
and standardized agro-techniques for producing better quality saffron.
The survey was carried out in cultivated sites located in the Kashmir

Fig. 2. Morphometric characters of saffron.

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A.M. Rather et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

Fig. 3. Comparative study of qualitative and quantitative morphological characters of Crocus sativus L. in Budgam and Pulwama district.

Table 2
Comparative analysis of quantitative and qualitative characters of saffron in cultivated areas of District Pulwama, Budgam and KUBG.
S.No Traits Budgam Pulwama KUBG

1 Average weight of corms (g) 6.72 ± .42 6.66 ± .58 6.79 ± .62
2 Average number of cormlets per corm 3.60 ± 1.50 6.40 ± 2.95 6.60 ± 2.83
3 Survival rate of corms (years) 8.5 16 -
4 Flowering duration (days) 33 25
5 Flowering initiation 22 October 16 October
6 Average flower dimensions (across) 4.29 ± 0.15 4.33 ± 0.12 4.39 ± 0.16
7 Tepal length (cm) 4.5 4.8 5
8 Anther length (cm) 1.33 ± 0.25 1.40 ± 0.23 1.34 ± 0.29
9 Average fresh weight of stigma (g) .31 ± .039 .39 ± .039 .35 ± .036
10 Average dry weight (oven dry) of stigma (g) .07 ± .008 .087 ± .009 .078 ± .008
11 Average stigma length (cm) 6.44 ± .67 6.44 ± .70 6.13 ± .53
12 Dry weight of stigmas (shade dry for two days) (g) 5.88 ± 0.020 .130 ± 0.009 .099 ± 0.018

valley. It is situated in the north fringe of the Indian sub-continent be­ 2.2. Procurement of the material
tween 330 22′ and 340 50′ N latitudes and 730 55′ and 730 33′ E longi­
tudes covering an area of 16000 sq. meters. Twenty (20) sites in both From 2011 to 2016, plant material was purchased regularly from all
districts (District Pulwama and District Budgam) were documented study sites. Corms, cormlets, leaves, flowers, and allied weed species are
along with geo-coordinates and regularly monitored from 2011 to 2016. among the materials obtained. Information regarding the crop’s culti­
Representative grade saffron crop sites from both districts were chosen vation and the farming practices/methods used was acquired from the
for the current study. Sampling was piloted using the 1 × 1 m2 quadrant locals. Also information was sorted for superior variety and application
size (Fig. 1). of inorganic and organic treatments/fertilizers.

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A.M. Rather et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

Fig. 4. Standarziation of agro-technological methods/practices.

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A.M. Rather et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

Table 3
Different agro-techniques and practices used by saffron growers in Kashmir valley.
S.No. Agro-techniques employed Budgam District Pulwama District

1 Av. Bed dimensions (L × B × H) 11’ × 3’ × 10 ′′

8’ × 4’ × 10′′
2 Harrowing of land 2-3 times (mostly by ploughing) 5-6 times (by tractors)
3 Transplantation of corms (Row spacing) 6′′ between corms and 8′′ between rows 4′′ between corms and 10′′ between rows
4 De-weeding 4-6 times 3-4 times
5 Sowing of corms Sept–Oct Sept–Oct
6 Corm sowing depth 6′′ 4′′
7 Irrigation 1-2 times 2-3 times
8 Fertilizer application 15kg/12/kg/8kanal (6 DAP+ 4 Urea) or 1:1 ratio
8 DAP/4Urea/2 MOP
12kg/10kg/7kg/Kanal
7 DAP/5 Urea/2 ½ MOP
As per Govt. Saffron mission (for 2 kanal land)
FYM-10ets; Urea-14.55 kg; DAP-13.2 kg; MOP-8.30 kg; V.Compost-50kg; g
9 Rodenticide treatment 3-4 times or 2–3 times Wheat/Rice + Sugar + Oil/Walnut + sugar
10 Plucking of flowers After 2–3 days After 3–4 days
11 Flower production per Kanal 15–20 kg/kanal 20–25 kg/kanal
12 Saffron yield 50–60 g/kanal 100–200 g/kanal)
13 Effect of climate on saffron production and yield Less rains Less rains
(Not so hindered) (Least production)
14 Age of Corms 8–9 years 15–17 years
15 Flowering 10 Oct. − 25 Nov. 15 Oct.-20 Nov.
(470 days – Flowering) (35 days- Flowering)
16 Detrimental weeds Iris reticulata; Allium wallichi
17 Corm yield (after 6–7 years) 1 quintal corms sowed – provides 3 quintal corms or 5 quintal corms after 7 years

2.3. Agrotechnology employed of Research and Development) Kashmir University based on a pre­
determined standardized technique. Both inorganic fertilizers (UREA,
On the observations from the selected studied saffron cultivation DAP, and POTASH), as well as vermiculite and organic manures
sites, a similar type field was prepared in KUBG (Kashmir University (Compost, Vermi-compost and FYM) were added to the pots. The
Botanical Garden) to cultivate saffron. The field was prepared by organic treatments were given for pot volume (25% of pot volume, 50%
ploughing it 5–6 times a year, and beds of uniform size (6 m length, 4 m of pot volume, and 75% of pot volume). The chemical fertilizers were
width, and 0.30 m height) were prepared. The beds were supplemented given for the weight of the soil: sand permutation in the pot (0.25g/1 kg,
with inorganic chemicals/fertilizers (UREA, DAP, POTASH) and organic 0.50g/2 kg, and 3g/3 kg).
manures (FYM, Compost). Un-treated beds were reserved as control
sites. Thus, 6–7 beds were prepared and retained for saffron cultivation 2.4. Growth parameters
with or without the association of weeds in enclosures (using Net cloth).
Pots containing 1 kg, 1/2 kg, and 2 kg of soil: sand (50:50; 25:75; The growth parameters studied during the study include; flower
75:25); soil (100) were made to systematize agro technology (in diameter, flower length, tepal length, stigma length and anther length,
experiment number 1), and these pots were supplemented with inor­ weight and number of corms, number of cormlets per corm, dry weight
ganic fertilizers and organic fertilizers. Ten cormlets procured from of stigmas, corm size, and corm density. From 2011 to 2016, all of these
selected sites of Budgam and Pulwama districts were sown in these pots growth characteristics from all study locations were examined contin­
proportionally. The organic treatments were given depending on the ually. Weed prevalence and growth during and after the saffron growing
weight of the soil (100 g/1 kg of soil, 200g/2 kg of soil, and 400 g/4 kg of season were also investigated. The characteristics of saffron growth were
soil). In experiment number 2, 60 distinct pots in permutation of soil and studied with and without weeds. The weed cycle and the most prevalent
sand (70:30) with 6 pots per treatment were produced for in vitro weeds were also recorded.
developed cormlets purchased from IHBT Palampur and CORD- (Centre

Table 4
Different agro-technique used for corms collected from saffron cultivation sites of district Pulwama and Budgam.
Agro-technique methods/ FYM/fertilizer to 2 kg of %Survival FYM/fertilizer to 4 kg of %Survival 10 × 15 m %Survival
practices soil soil

(in Pots) (till (in Trays) (till (in beds) (Till

flowering) flowering) (with different Bed size and bed flowering)
depth)

Soil Controla 83.3 Controla 91.1 - 78

Compost + soil 250 gms 100 500 100 10 kg/bed 100
Sand:Soil 01:01 50 01:01 76.8 01:01 60
N (Urea) 250 gms 77.6 500 86.6 500g 73
P (DAP) 250 gms 61 500 80.5 500g 64
K (MOP) 200 gms 46.7 400 46.4 500g 54
N+P+K 300 gms 86.6 600 92.8 600 (200 each) 85
a
Control = Pulwama, Budgam and KUBG soils, n = 4 (No. of corms per pot), n = 8 (No. of corms per tray), n = 12(No. corms of per bed), N- Nitrogen (Urea); P-
Phosphorus (Di-ammonium phosphate), K (Potassium phosphate).

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A.M. Rather et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

Fig. 5. Types of weeds and their impact on saffron cultivation.

2.5. Data analysis interesting observation documented during the survey was the saffron to
be cultivated on undulated lands, cement dusted sites, slopes, and rice
The data was examined using ANOVA, and final means were calcu­ fields (Fig. 1).
lated at P ≤ 0.001. A correlation was done at P ≤ 0.001 to check the
growth characters of saffron at the selected sites. The number and 3.1. Growth characters
prevalence of particular weed species were calculated by the quadrant
method (1 m × 1m2) and at the mature stage (flowering stage). The growth parameters include; cormlets per corm, the survival rate
of corms, and dry weight of stigmas execute superior by recording upper
3. Results values in shady cultivated areas than in open sunny cultivated sites
(Figs. 2 and 3; CI = 0.95, N = 35). Flowers are purple and bear dark red
The present work was carried out in two districts of Kashmir valley- colored stamens, which are longer than flowers. The flowering duration
Pulwama and Budgam. During the present study, 20 sites of saffron of shady cultivation sites was maximum (33 days), while it was minor in
cultivation were monitored regularly from 2011 to 2016. During the open sunny cultivated sites (25 days). The growth parameters between
survey, it was found that saffron grows along an altitudinal gradient of two districts viz –a- viz the control cultivation sites (KUBG) were set for
1585 (Pampore in Pulwama) up to 2050 m. a.s.l. (Buzgam in Budgam) correlation which includes (survival rate of corms (years), the average
(Fig. 1; Table 1). This study broke the myth of saffron cultivation. The weight of corms, flowering initiation, average flower dimensions
first time it was reported that saffron is cultivated as a mixed crop under (across), average fresh weight of stigmas, average stigma dry weight
walnut, apple, and almond plantations. One interesting observation was (oven dry) and average stigma length. The comparison range was
that there were highly asynchronous and temporarily isolated vegetative examined (CI = 0.95; N = 25). It was found that stigma dry weight,
and flowering/fruiting phases between saffron and the associated length, and the number of cormlets per corms at KUBG were found more.
fruiting trees. The mixed cultivation of saffron was found most dominant The average number of cormlets per corm in Pulwama district mounted
in Budgam district (83%) than Pulwama district (55%). Also, another more than Budgam district. Flowering started one week earlier in

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A.M. Rather et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

Fig. 6. Development of different permutations/combinations for in-vitro raised cormlets procured from CORD and IHBT Palampur.

Budgam district sites than Pulwama district. (Figs. 2 and 3). 90% sur­ The fields were supplemented with applying different organic (farm­
vival rates of saffron corms were perceived in Pulwama saffron growing yard) and in-organic (NPK) fertilizers appropriately. Beds of different
sites compared to Budgam growing sites, which showed only 62% sur­ sizes were prepared, and the corms were planted within the rows during
vival rates. (Table 2). The data showed a more positive correlation for the plowing time. The plowed fields/beds are regularly de-weeded until
growth characters of the Pulwama area than Budgam district at CI = flowering (Fig. 4). Detailed agrotechnology methods/practices
0.95, N = 25 (Fig. 2). employed for saffron cultivation are provided in Table 3. After scruti­
nizing the possible and preeminent organic and in-organic treatments
and field preparations for quality saffron cultivation, various permuta­
3.2. Agrotechnology employed tions and combinations of organic and in-organic treatments were
settled along with the best possible agro-technological methods/prac­
Field surveys and seasonal interviews were piloted with the saffron tices. Out of all the combinations, the compost soil (Compost 250g per
cultivation field experts, a businessman associated with saffron import pot with 2 kg of soil, compost 500 g per tray with 4 kg of soil; compost10
and export, and locals of saffron cultivation areas. The different agro- kg per bed) was found to be finest for flower production and flower
techniques affianced were netted, and the core agrotechnology ap­ quality in respect to stigma shape and length.
proaches with better saffron production were standardized. Different The combination was also significantly improved for corm survival
agro-technique approaches differ in various areas of saffron cultivation and cormlet regeneration from the parent corm. The data analyzed
depending upon the soil texture, soil fertility, and cultivation landscape. statistically showed significant differences in flower number per corm
Fields were plowed thoroughly using block carts, tillers, and tractors.

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A.M. Rather et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

Fig. 7. Preparation of various pots with different concentrations/combinations/permutations of chemical fertilizers and organic treatments and sprouting of in vitro
raised corms.

and the survival rate of corms recorded (Fig. 4; Table 4). An essential cormlets were prepared. The treatments include farmyard manure
aspect of agrotechnology is field management, which mainly includes (FYM), vermi-compost, compost, Vermiculite, Garden manure, and
de-weeding methods. During the survey, 35 weed species were reported chemical fertilizers. The organic manures and chemical fertilizers were
to be growing with Crocus, and the dominant family was Asteraceae given for pot volume (25% of the pot volume, 50% of pot volume, and
representing about 23% of these weeds, followed by Brassicaceae, 75% of pot volume). Cormlets of similar size, age, and related weight
Fabaceae, and Lamiaceae (9% each). The weed density (m− 2) was with the range of 2 to 3 g were transplanted in these pots (Fig. 7). The
positively correlated with corm density and saffron yield. A significant pots were first kept in the glasshouse (KUBG) to maintain the proper
decreasing trend (at p ≤ 0.05) was recorded in corm density associated temperature for successful regeneration. After two months, the pots
with weeds. It showed that weeds need to be removed at every growth were put in an open place in the Botanical garden for cormlet acclima­
stage of saffron (Fig. 5, Table 6). tization. After successful survival and acclimatization of cormlets, the
fully regenerated cormlets were transplanted in already prepared beds
3.3. Procurement of in-vitro raised cormlets from IHBT Palampur and in KUBG and were set for future observations. The contemporary study
CORD revealed that soil and farmyard manure 1:3, UDP 0.25 g/pot (N-
115.511+ K130.952 + P58.496 mg), soil DAP 650 mg/2 kg of soil (@P
Six hundred fifty (650) cormlets (tissue culture raised) were pro­ = 152.0899 mg), soil MOP 350 mg/2 kg (@ K = 183.37 mg) of soil was
cured from IHBT–Palmpore and CORD, the University of Kashmir for best in terms of sprouting of corm-lets and survival up to second year
their acclimatization and to develop suitable agro-techniques for their and emergence of shoots (Figs. 6 and 7; Table 5).
survival till flowering (Fig. 6). The pots with different permutations and
combinations of treatments for in-vitro raised cormlet proliferation;
cormlet growth, survival, and flowering time for age and weight of

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A.M. Rather et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

Table 5
Standarized agrotechological methods used to check the survival rate of in-vitro raised cormlets till the shoot emergence.
(Size range of cormlets used − 1 to 3 g).
Treatments Ratio Ratio of manure and fertilizers w.r.t Number of in vitro- cormlets Survival rate upto shoot
Pot Volume sown per pot emergence (%)

Soil: FYM 03:01 25 36 91.66

01:01 50 97.22
01:03 75 100
Soil:Vermi compost 03:01 25 36 91.6
01:01 50 86.11
01:03 75 58.33
Soil: Vermiculite 03:01 25 36 80.5
01:01 50 33.33
01:03 75 22.22
Soil:Garden manure 03:01 25 36 75
01:01 50 27.77
01:03 75 33.33
Soil: Urea 650mg/2 kg of soil @ N- 36 86.11
303.624 mg
550mg/2 kg of soil @ N- 94.44
256.452 mg
350mg/2 kg of soil @ N- 77.77
163.16 mg
Soil: DAP 650mg/2 kg of soil 36 100
P @ 152.089 mg
550mg/2 kg of soil 94.44
P@ 128.662 mg
350mg/2 kg of soil 88.88
P@ 81.894
Soil: MOP 650mg/2 kg of soil 36 100
K@ 340.476 mg
550mg/2 kg of soil 44.44
K@ 288.695 mg
350mg/2 kg of soil
K@ 183.335 mg
U + D + P (N-115.511 + K130.952+P- 1:1:1 (0.25g/pot) 36 100
58.496 mg)
U + D + P (N231.023 + K261.90 + 1:1:1 (0.50g/pot) 18 91.6
P116.99)
U + D + P (N-462.04+ K523.80+P- 1:1:1 (3g/pot) 18 86.11
227.85 mg)
Pampore soil (Control) 18 88.88
Budgam soil (Control) 18 83.33
KUBG (Control) 18 83.33

4. Discussion Organic Carbon) but had no effect in soil with 1.0% O.C. They also
observed that the annual distribution of 50 kg/ha of nitrogen increased
The present study was carried out in the two districts of Kashmir, saffron yields, and phosphorus and potassium seemed unnecessary.
where saffron was found growing at different altitudes ranging from Sadeghi [22] reports promising results of applying chemical fertilizer,
1585 to 2050 m. a.s.l. It was also cultivated under walnut, apple, and while, in a three-year experiment in two sites in Iran, Behnia et al. [23]
almond plantations. It was cultivated on undulated lands, slopes and found contrasting results on nitrogen fertilizer, and the application of
was also cultivated along rice fields. In Italy, saffron is cultivated in phosphorus showed no effect. Urea foliar fertilization applied on saffron
Navelli, from 650 to 1100 m above sea level (m.a.s.l.) with an average in winter (from January to March) resulted in a significant increase in
annual rainfall of about 700 mm, and in Sardinia in S. Gavino Monreale, flower number in a two-year experiment carried out in Iran [24].
from 50 to 140 m a.s.l. with 300–600 mm rainfall. In Greece, cultivation Mohammad et al. [25] studied the effect of animal manure on saffron
areas are located in Kozani Macedonia, about 650–700 m above sea and found that application of cow manure plus N fertilizers increased
level, and precipitations are around 560 mm per year, while in Spain, La yield components of saffron.
Manchaand Castille, it is cultivated under 250–500 mm rainfall, usually
in irrigated conditions [16]. 5. Conclusions
FYM (250g/2 kg of soil) was found significant (P ≤ 0.05) for flower
emergence, the survival rate of corms, and the emergence of cormlets The current study highlights the imperative proofs and pictures of
per corm. The application of about 20–30 tons per ha of organic manure saffron cultivation in Kashmir valley, and this study could be benefited
is the most common fertilization practice all over the world [17], while researchers and associated people involved in saffron cultivation. The
40 units of N, 30 units of P2O5, and 40 Units of K2O are applied in current study deliberates upon the realities of saffron cultivation and
Greece [18]. Mature horse manure and cow manure of about 25–30 trounces the earlier myths. The study revealed as it can be grown at
t/ha, without any chemical fertilization, determined good results in different altitudes ranging from 1585 to 2050 m. a.s.l. It was also found
Navelli [19]. On the contrary, incorporation of organic matter before that this crop can be cultivated as a mixed crop under walnut, apple, and
planting did not improve saffron yields in New Zealand [20]. Behzad almond plantations. It can be cultivated on undulated lands, slopes and
et al. [21] found that 25 t/ha of cow manure significantly increased the can be cultivated along rice fields. The data collected also accentuates
dried stigma production in soil with low organic content (0.3% in that soil and farmyard manure (FYM) 1:3, UDP 0.25 g/pot (N 115.511+

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A.M. Rather et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 10 (2022) 100344

Table 6
Weeds and their association with saffron viz-a-viz their impact in both districts.
S. No. Species Family Impact

1 Xanthium spinosum Asteraceae Low

2 Sonchus asper Asteraceae Moderate
3 Cotula anthemoides Asteraceae Moderate
4 Artemisia absinthium Asteraceae Not identified
5 Taraxacum officinale Asteraceae High
6 Cirsium arvense Asteraceae Moderate
7 Galinso gaparviflora Asteraceae Low
8 Tragopogon spp. Asteraceae Moderate
9 Thymus linearis Lamiaceae No impact
10 Salvia moorcroftiana Lamiaceae Low
11 Marrubiumvulgare Lamiaceae Low
12 Chenopodium album Amaranthaceae Low
13 Polygonumn hydropiper Amaranthaceae High
14 Polygonum aviculare Polygonaceae Low
15 Setaria viridis Poaceae High
16 Stellaria media Caryophyllaceae High
17 Euphorbia helioscopia Euphorbiaceae Moderate
18 Euphorbia prostrata Euphorbiaceae Moderate
19 Anagallis arvensis Primulaceae No impact
20 Iris reticulata Iridaceae Low
21 Tribulu sterrestris Zygophyllaceae Moderate
22 Amaranthus spp. Amaranthaceae Low
23 Vicia sativa Fabaceae Low
24 Medicago lupulina Fabaceae High
25 Trifolium pratense Fabaceae Low
26 Erodium spp. Geraniaceae Moderate
27 Geranium spp. Geraniaceae No impact
28 Ranunculus arvensis Ranunculaceae Moderate
29 Descurainia sophia Brassicaceae Moderate
30 Lepidium virginicum Brassicaceae High
31 Sisymbrium loeselii Brassicaceae Moderate
32 Tulipa stellate Liliacae High
33 Bothriochloai schaemum Poaceae High
34 Lithospermum spp. Boraginaceae Moderate
35 Cynoglossum glochidiatum Boraginaceae Low

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