Physics

Density- the number of particles packed into a specific volume

How to calculate density:

Density = mass
Volume

We measure mass in g and volume in cm3 – the unit of density is g/cm3

Matter consists of particles
These particles are arranged in a certain pattern; in solids the particles are closer
together and arranged in a crystal lattice.

The density of an object depends on the mass of the individual particle.

Oil has lower density to water so it does NOT mix.

Density tells us how tightly packed; a material is. Density is a measure of how
much mass of a material fits into a given volume. We say density is the ratio of
mass to volume.

Mass is measure with a triple beam balance or an electronic scale.

The volume of a regular shape is measured using the formula:
Vol = lxbxh
The high density of a solid material explains why it cannot be compressed. The
particles in a solid are tightly packed and cannot be squeezed closer together into
a smaller volume. Liquids are also very dense. The density of a liquid is roughly
the same as the density of the solid state of the same substance. This is because
their particles are close together, even though they are not locked into fixed
positions. Most liquids cannot be compressed into smaller volumes. Liquids are
slightly less dense than their solid states but water is an important exception.

Ice:
The solid state of water (ice) is less dense than the liquid, because in ice the water
molecules are packed in a unique way. The image below on the left shows that
water molecules in ice are packed in such a way that there are open spaces
between them. On the right, the same water molecules are shown in the liquid
state.

How to measure an irregular shape:

- use a measuring cylinder and place some water in it and measure the
volume of the water.
- then if the object was placed in the water and the water level rose.
- it would tell you that the object displaced the water and therefore you can
work out the volume of the object.

How to determine the density of a liquid:

- measure the mass of an empty measuring cylinder and record it in grams
- pour the given liquid in the cylinder and take readings in cm3 (same as ml)
- now measure the mass of the measuring cylinder again and record in grams
- calculate the mass of liquid: mass = mass 1 – mass 2
- calculate the density of liquid density = mass of liquid/ volume
expansion and contraction:
 matter consists of particles
 the particles have a certain amount of energy
 particles are is constant motion
 spaces occur between particles
 forces of contraction and repulsion occur between particles

heated:
1. when solid is heated particles gain energy.
2. Kinetic movement increases + particles increase
3. Particles move further away and solid expands
Cooled:
1. Particles lose energy
2. Kinetic movement decreases + particles decrease
3. Particles move closer and solid contracts

The general rule is heating will cause expansion and cooling will cause
contraction, but the exception is water when cool it expands. Ice is less dense
than water but only if the water is 0 – 4 degrees. Ice floats as the particles are
arranged in a more spatial orientation, resulting in bigger spaces between
particles.

When designing big buildings, designers use materials that expand or contract
similarly, or sled the walls or floors will buckle or crack.
(Expansion joins are added into the construction allowing for expansion and
contraction when building roads and bridges)
When very tight fits of bolts are needed in huge industrial installations the bolts
are cooled with liquid nitrogen to fit into the nut, when the bolt returns to normal
temp it is so tight nothing can loosen it

How does a thermometer work

The common glass thermometer is called a bulb thermometer. All bulb
thermometers have a fairly large bulb that is connected to a long, thin tube. The
thermometer has a brightly coloured liquid on the inside. Some thermometers
contain mercury as it expands and contracts quite a lot when heated or cooled.

The atmosphere (air) is a gas made of mainly particles of

- Nitrogen
- Oxygen
- Carbon dioxide
- Water vapour
Gas has many particles and move fast over great distances

The atmosphere stretches up to 10,000km into space but its density is much
higher at lower levels.

Air pressure is cause by collisions of gas particles with surfaces, gas has lots of
energy and move fast so when these prices bump int walls of a container, the
effect of the collisions are known as pressure the more collations the higher the
pressure

Pressure is measured in:

Pascals
Air pressure at sea level is 101,3 KPa (79mmHg)
Air pressure is measured with a barometer, various designs exist.
Pressure is sometimes given as mmHg, which means the height a column of
mercury will rise in a thin tube when pressure is exerted

Straw:
1. You don’t really suck up the liquid, you suck up the air from the straw
2. Atmospheric pressure pushes the liquid in the straw

Rubber sucker of plunger:

1. Same principle as straw
2. Air is removed from under the rubber dome
3. Air pressure from the outside pushes the dome down
4. Fixing it to a surface (using the vacuum to suck out anything blocking the
drain)

Liquid pressure is exerted in all directions

Aneroid barometer is much easier to use, it consists of:

- A metal box contain air at low pressure
- The walls of the box are corrugated to make it more flexible as atmospheric
pressure tries to squash the box
- As are pressure changes so does the size of the box
- Movement magnified by a lever, attached to a dial
- Can be calibrated to measure height since pressure drops will increase with
height

P=F/A
bulk of air lies at 10km on the surface of the earth
Charles Du Fay discovered the negative and positive charges as well as the
difference between insulators and conductors.

Static electricity is a charge that doesn’t move

Static=still, no movement and is generated by friction

Like charges always repel (- + -)

Opposites charges always attract (- + +)
It’s a force that acts over distance, an object becomes positively charged when
electrons are removed
e.g.: when Perspex is rubbed on silk or wool

becomes negatively charges when electrons are added

e.g.: when PVC is rubbed on fennel (cotton cloth)

The Van De Graaff Generator:

- Used to generate electrostatic forces
How it works:
1. A rubber belt runs over two pulleys
2. Brush over two toothed metal combs
3. Charge is generated by the build up of friction

The apparatus is insulated and charge cannot escape into the earth, when the
generator is used you must stand on a rubber mat or and insulated chair so the
charge doesn’t leak into the earths surface, newly washed hair with no oil build
up can act as an insulator
Blankets:
- Contain synthetic fibres such as nylon
- They tend to build up electrostatic charge
- So, when against your body it may cause friction
- The crackling sound is from the tiny charges jumping

Metal shopping trolleys:

- Parts can build up electrostatic charges from friction
- The charges cannot leak to the earth as its wheels are insulated by rubber
- So, when you touch the trolley, you act as the earth leakage
- And you may get a nasty shock

Filling up at the petrol station is a constant hazard, as petrol, paraffin and diesel
gushes the pipe the friction builds up electrostatic charge

Petrol vapours can ignite in the presence of oxygen and air, this can also a plastic
can is filled with petrol.

Lighting- electrical discharge caused by imbalance between storm clouds and the
ground

Electrical current is a flow of charge (flow of electrons)

In order for and electrical current flow you need:

 A source of energy e.g., cell (battery)
 A closed circuit
These electrons flow from the negative pole of the cell along the conducting wire
towards the lamp through the filament of the bulb and once again along the
conductor back towards the positive pole of the cell

The amount of charge that flows past a certain part as a certain time is an
indication of the strength of the current.

Q = amount of charge measured in coulomb ©

I = current strength measured in Ampere (A)
t = time measured in seconds (s)

a chemical reaction occurs inside the battery, this provides energy to the
electrons of the metal

chemical potential energy of the battery is converted to electrical current

chemical energy electrical energy kinetic energy

electron flow
the electrons leave the battery at the negative pole and flow through the circuit
towards the positive pole

conventional current flow

in the old days people thought electric current was caused by some sort of
positive particle that moves from the positive pole of the battery through the
circuit towards the negative pole
components of a circuit
 Cell or battery – provides energy for the flow of charge
 Conducting wires – made of metal, usually copper or optic fibre
 Switches – controls flow of current by closing or interrupting circuit
 Resistor – resists flow of current in a circuit, influences the amount of
charge
 Light bulb – type of resister, filament that glows the actual resistor part
 Rheostat – variable resistor, amount of resistance can be changed egg
dimmer
 Ammeter – measures current strength in Ampere , always connected in
series
 Voltmeter – measures potential difference over cell, battery or resistor in
volt, always connected in parallel

Connecting components in a circuit

- More cells in a series the stronger the current that flows
- Regardless of how many cells are connected in parallel, the current will stay
the same, however the cells will last much longer
- A voltmeter is always connected in parallel
- The more resistors in series, in higher the total resistance and lower the
current
- The more resistors un parallel, the lower the total resistance

Resistors
They are devices made of material that resist the flow of electrons in an electrical
circuit.

Resistors converts some of this electrical into another form of energy, the
filament in a light bulb will convert some of the energy into light energy (and
heat)
The higher the resistance offered by a resistor or the higher the total resistance
the Lowe the current flowing in the speck circuit

How a light bulb works:

 Whole system is enclosed by and airtight glass envelope filled with a
mixture of insert gases at low pressure (no other chemical reactions will
occur inside the light bulb)
 2 electrical wires leading to and from the filament are insulated from each
other from each other in the casing of the light bulb
 Electrical contact points at the bottom
 When electrical current flows through the tungsten filament, the high
resistance of the filament will cause the electrical energy to be converted
into light and heat energy
 The filament will heat up to become white hot
 The white-hot filament of a light bulb also illustrates the heating effect of
an electric current

When a circuit overheats which occurs when a current becomes to high the
conductor can melt or do damage to the circuit and can cause a electrical fire

A fuse is a short piece of wire which overheats and melts if current of more than a
certain value flows through, its placed in the circuit in the form of a small
cartridge
If a fault develops in an apparatus or part of a circuit, the fuse ‘blows’ and breaks
the circuit before the cable can overheat and catch a fire, fuses are essential in
the case of a short circuit

A short circuit can occur when wires inside a plug melts and touch, or when a
breakage or fault in the construction of a building or apparatus causes wires to
touch.

The wire in the fuse has a low melting point (it will melt and break the circuit long
before the circuit wire starts to melt)

In a fuse box each individual part of the circuit or apparatus will have its own fuse,

If a fuse box is ‘blown’ fuses have to be replaced all the time, especially if circuits
are overloaded or apparatus are faulty, these days other types of circuit breakers
are used to perform the same function

How does the circuit breaker work

The strength of the electromagnet in a circuit breaker will vary as the current
strength varies, the lower the current, the weaker the magnet. The stronger the
magnet

If the current is so high it will pull the contact points apart breaking the circuit

In some circuit breakers a ‘trip switch’ will go off, needing to be resetting by hand

When components are connected in series it means that there us only one
pathway for the current to pass through.
The more resistors are added into the circuit, the total resistance in the circuit
increases and the overall current will decrease

When more resistors are connected in parallel, there is more than one pathway
which the current can travel, the overall current will increase with every new
resistor added in parallel but the total resistance will decrease