Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

GENERAL OVERWIEW OF TRAINING

EFFECTIVENESS AND MEASUREMENT
MODELS
İpek Kalemci TÜZÜN*

ABSTRACTS
Any organization that wants to succeed, and to continue to succeed, has to maintain
workforce consisting of people who are willing to learn and develop continuously. Train-
ing and developing human capital is tremendously important in the effective manage-
ment and maintenance of a skilled workforce. Training is one of the ways of improving
organization’s effectiveness. In order to implement right training methods, organization
should be aware of the training methods and their effectiveness. Study provides con-
ceptual framework of determining which methods to use when developing training pro-
gram. The various training methods- both off-the-job and on-the-job- are described
along with their strengths and limitations. Paper also explores the measurement meth-
ods of training evaluation which is very crucial for the training effectiveness. This study
tries to give general overview of training methods and measurement models.
Key Words: training, on-the-job training, off-the-job training, measurement, effective-
ness

EĞİTİM METOTLARININ ETKİNLİĞİNE VE ÖLÇÜM

MODELLERİNE GENEL BİR BAKIŞ
ÖZET
Bir örgüt başarılı olmak ve bunu sürdürmek için, sürekli öğrenmek ve gelişmek isteyen
insanlardan oluşan işgücünü oluşturmalı ve bunu koruyabilmelidir. İş gücünün gelişimi
ve eğitimi, becerikli işgücünü koruyabilmek ve etkin bir yönetim sağlayabilmek için ol-
dukça önemlidir. Eğitim örgütün, etkinliğini geliştirebilmenin bir yoludur. Örgütler, doğru
eğitim programlarını uygulayabilmek için, eğitim yöntemlerinin ve bu yöntemlerin etkinli-
ğinin farkında olmalıdır. Çalışma, eğitim programı oluştururken hangi eğitim yönteminin
ne zaman uygulanabileceğine dair kavramsal bir duruş sergilemektedir.İş dışında ve iş-
başında eğitim yöntemlerinin güçlü ve zayıf yönleri tartışılmış, bununla birlikte, eğitim
etkinliğini belirleyebilmek için koşul olan ölçüm modellerine de yer verilmiştir. Bu çalış-
ma eğitim yöntemlerine ve ölçüm modellerine genel bir bakış açısı sunmaya çalışmıştır
Anahtar Kelimeler: Eğitim, iş dışında eğitim, iş başında eğitim, ölçüm, etkinlik

INTRODUCTION
Training is a part of the human resource development, along with the other human re-
sources activities, such as recruitment, selection and compensation. The role of human re-

* Başkent Üniversitesi Ticari Bilimler Fakültesi (Öğretim Görevlisi)

144 Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1
 Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

source department is to improve the organization’s effectiveness by providing employees with

knowledge, skills and attitudes that will improve their current or future job performance. In
order to implement the right training methods, the training specialist should be aware of the
pros and cons and effectiveness of each training method. Besides, for evaluating training
effectiveness, measurement should be done according to the models.

1. TRAINING
The verb “to train” is derived from the old French word trainer, meaning “to drag”.
Hence such English definitions may be found as; to draw along; to allure; to cause; to grow in
the desired manner; to prepare for performance by instruction, practice exercise, etc. Training
can be described as “providing the conditions in which people can learn effectively”. To learn
is “to gain knowledge, skill, ability” (King, 1968:125).
Knowledge refers to the information we acquire and place into memory, how it is or-
ganized into the structure of what we already know and to our understanding of how and
when it is used. Thus knowledge can be seen as three district types; declarative, procedural
and strategic (Kraiger and Salas, 1993:311).
Declarative Knowledge is a person’s store of factual information about a subject matter.
Procedural knowledge is the person’s understandings about how and when to apply the facts
hat has been learned. Strategic Knowledge consists of the person’s awareness of what he
knows and the internal rules for accessing relevant facts and procedures to be applied toward
some goal. Strategic knowledge is used for planning, monitoring, and revising goal-directed
activity (Blanchard and Thacker, 1998:6).
Skill is the capacities needed to perform a set of tasks that are developed as a result of
training and experience (Dunette, 1976:8). A skill is a proficiency at doing something beyond
just knowing what something is about. Abilities have been defined as general capacities
related to performing a set of tasks that are developed over time as a result of heredity and
experience (Flesihman, 1972:28).
To understand the function of training in a company, it is needed to ask the question of
what training is state for the company. Training is an “opportunity” for learning and it is ac-
complished by providing employees with opportunities to learn how to perform more effec-
tively and by preparing them for any changes in their job. Training focuses on the acquisition
of knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to perform more effectively on one’s current job.
Role of training may be seen as “ensuring that the organization has the people with the
correct mix of attributes, through providing appropriate learning opportunities and motivating
people to learn, and thus enabling them to perform to the highest levels of quality and ser-
vice” (Bentley, 1990:25 Training must be therefore managed as a frontline business activity.

Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1 145
Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

The investment in people, both in developing and maintaining the appropriate skills, becomes
a vital part of the organization’s strategy for the future. Like any investment, investment in
training should produce an effective and measurable payback. Effective training enhances the
knowledge, skills, attitudes and behavior of people and hence their performance.
Training activities and businesses objectives are related to each other as links. Effective
training program helps organizations to achieve their objectives. General objectives of training
activities are; orienting new employees to the organization and their job, helping employees
perform their current jobs well, helping employees qualify for the future jobs, keeping employ-
ees informed of changes within the organization, providing opportunities for personal devel-
opment (Drummond, 1989:165).
In order to achieve organizational objectives, organizations should be aware of the
training methods and their effectiveness

2. TRAINING METHODS
Many training techniques are created almost every year by the rapid development in
technology. Deciding among methods usually depends on the type of training intended, the
trainees selected, the objectives of the training program and the training method. Training is a
situational process that is why no single method is right for every situation. While some objec-
tives could be easily achieved through one method, other objectives could necessitate other
methods. Many training programs have learning objective in more than one area. When they
do, they need to combine several training methods into an integrated whole.
Training methods could be classified as cognitive and behavioral approaches. Cognitive
methods provide verbal or written information, demonstrate relationships among concepts, or
provide the rules for how to do something. These types of methods can also be called as off-
the-job training methods. On the other hand, behavioral methods allow trainee to practice
behavior in real or simulated fashion. They stimulate learning through behavior which is best
for skill development and attitude change. These methods can be called as on-the-job training
methods. Thus; either behavioral or cognitive learning methods can effectively be used to
change attitudes, though they do so through different means. Cognitive methods are best for
knowledge development and behavioral methods for skills (Blanchard and Thacker,
1998:277). The decision about what approach to take to training depends on several factors
that include the amount of funding available for training, specificity and complexity of the
knowledge and skills needed, timeliness of training needed, and the capacity and motivation
of the learner.
To be effective, training method should; motivate the trainee to improve his or her per-
formance, clearly demonstrate desired skills, provide an opportunity for active participation by

146 Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1
 Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

the trainee, provide an opportunity to practice, provide timely feedback on the trainee’s per-
formance, provide some means for reinforcement while the trainee learns, be structured from
simple to complex tasks, be adaptable to specific problems, encourage positive transfer from
training to the job (Woods, 1995:180).
2.1. Off-The-Job Training Methods
Training which takes place in environment other than actual workplace is called off-the-
job training. Off-the-job training is usually designed to meet the shared learning needs of a
group rather than a particular individual’s needs. Lectures, computer-based training, games
and simulations are the common forms of off-the-job training methods.
2.1.1 Lecture Method
The lecture is best used to create a general understanding of a topic or to influence atti-
tudes through education about a topic. Perhaps the most common form of off-the-job training
is the oral presentation of information to an audience (Blanchard and Thacker, 1999:278). By
using lecture method, large amount of information can be delivered in a relatively short period
of time to a large number of people. A major concern about lecture method is that no allow-
ance is made during the lectures for clarifying the levels of understanding among participants.
Trainees do not actively involve training process and they may forget much information when
it is presented orally. When the only training objective is to gather specific factual information,
learning can be accomplished by putting information into the text material. (Drummond,
1999).
2.1.2. Computer Based Training
Computer based training can be defined as any training that occurs through the use of
computer. Many companies are implementing computer based training as an alternative to
classroom based training. Some of the reason for this thinking is;reduces trainee learning
time, reduces the cost of training, provides instructional consistency, affords privacy of learn-
ing, trainees can study only what they need to know, increases access to training, allows
trainee to master learning, that is the best way to keep interest and motivation high (Jerris,
1999:330). Perhaps the most important advantage of computer based training is its control
over the content of the material, method of presentation, and movement of the trainee
through sequentially structured learning episodes based on previous trainee responses
(Kearsly, 1984). On the other hand, companies have to realize that although E-learning pro-
vides a more cost-effective method of knowledge dissemination, there are drawbacks to this
type of delivery. Primarily, predictions of others behavior and reactions is impossible. E-
learning should never replace in-person training, but should reinforce company values and
provide foundations for learning. There is a totally different dimension in dealing with human

Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1 147
Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

problems and behaviors; important dimensions that can never be fully conveyed through
computer based training (Lee, 2000).
2.1.3. Games and Simulation
Training games and simulations are designed to reproduce or simulate processes,
events, and circumstances that occur in the trainee’s job. Trainees can experience these
events in a controlled setting area, where they can develop their skills or discover concepts
that will improve their performance. Many organizations also develop games that are de-
signed to introduce or reinforce important concepts. These games often involve group partici-
pation, so that the team members working in harmony are required to make decisions or
formulate a course of action that will help resolve a particular problem or create opportunity
for the organization. The most important part of this training is not the activities in which the
participants engage, but processing the results when the game is completed (Newman and
Hodgets, 1998:195). Vestibule training, business games, in basket exercises, case studies,
role plays, sensitivity training and behavior modeling are the methods used in games and
simulations.
Vestibule Training involves the virtual duplication of work environment in an off-site set-
ting. Simulation exercises, place the trainee in an artificial environment that closely imitates
actual working conditions where the trainer demonstrates on the same kind of machine and
using the same procedures that trainees will use on the job. The theory is that if managers or
employees have faced with similar situations, even if they were simulated, they will be more
likely to make the right decisions (Woods, 1995:180).
Business Games are another form of simulations that participants learn how to deal
with a variety of issues in a simulated business environment. Trainees are provided with
information describing a situation and are asked to make decisions about what to do. The
system then provides feedback about the impact of their decisions, and they are asked to
make another decision. This process continues until some predefined state of the organiza-
tion exists or specified number of trials has been completed (Blanchard and Thacker,
1998295). Business games involve an element of competition, either against other players or
against the game itself. The puposes of business games woul be; strengthening executive
and upper management skills, improving decision making skills at all levels, demonstrating
principles and concepts, integrating separate components of training into a integrated whole,
exploring and solving complex problems, developing leadership skills(Kaplan, and at all
Lombardo, Mazique, 1985:241).
In Case Study method, detail of series of events, either real or hypothetical, takes place
in a business environment. When this method of training used, participants asked to sort
through data provided in the case to identify the principal issues and then propose solutions

148 Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1
 Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

to these issues (Woods, 1995:183). The learning objective is to have trainees apply known
concepts and principles and discover new ones. A variation of case study is the incident
process, in which trainees are given only a brief description of the problem and must gather
additional information from the trainer by asking specific questions (Pigor and Pigor,
1987:414).
In –Basket Exercises are form of simulation in which participants are asked to prioritize
problems, messages, reports, and other items that might be found in manager’s in-basket
(Jerris, 1999:330). As a training tool, in basket exercises aim to clarify; how to identify which
issues require the most immediate response, to teach participants how to delegate those
problems which do not require personal attention and to instruct employees how to work on
several problems simultaneously (Woods, 1995:183). This means, in basket technique fo-
cuses primarily on decision making and allows an opportunity for both assessing and devel-
oping decision making knowledge, skills and attitudes. In-basket is best at developing proce-
dural and strategic knowledge (Blanchard and Thacker, 1998:297).
The purpose of Role Playing method is to give participants a chance to experience such
situations in a controlled setting. Trainees are provided with a description of the context usu-
ally a topic area, a general description of a situation, a description of their roles, and the
problem they each face. Once the participants have read their role descriptions, they act their
roles by interacting with one another. Structured role play provides trainees with more detail
about the situation as well as more detailed description of each character’s attitudes, needs,
and opinions. This type of role play is used generally to develop interpersonal skills such as
communication, conflict resolution and group decision making. Spontaneous role plays are
loosely constructed interactions in which one of the participants plays him/her self while the
others play people with whom the first trainee has interact in the past (Goldstein, 1993).
Behavior Modeling gives participants a chance to actually see how a model would act in
a certain situation, rather than simply be told how to act. Behavioral modeling uses natural
tendency for people to observe to learn how to do something new. This technique generally
used in combination of others (Woods, 1995:185). Behavior modeling differs from both role
plays and simulations by first providing the trainee with an understanding of what the desired
skill level looks like (Goldstein, 1993). Behavioral modeling gives emphasis on doing rather
than telling. Managers can be shown how to delegate, communicate, conduct meeting, inter-
view an applicant or discipline an employee. It is useful for almost any type of skill training. It
has been used for training in interpersonal skills, sales training, interviewee and interviewer
training, safety training and many others areas (Decker and Naten, 1985). This form of train-
ing is an excellent source for managers and supervisors.

Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1 149
Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

Sensitivity Training method often used to develop interpersonal skills.It is also called as
laboratory training. It helps make participants more aware of their own behaviors as well as
their behavior towards others. Laboratory training can supplement and provide a cost effec-
tive alternative to portions of the classroom and on-the-job training programs. Sensitivity
training allows participants to see how others see them in a constructive way. The principal
disadvantage is that the process can sometimes become dangerously personal for the em-
ployee (DOE handbook, 1995).
When all these methods are analyzed, we can say which each of these methods are
appropriate in under what circumstances, such as:
• Vestibule training obviously is best at teaching people how to work with equipment.
• Business games are best for developing business decision-making skills and for
exploring and solving complex problems
• The in- basket technique is best suited to development of strategic knowledge used
in making day-to-day decisions.
• Case studies are most appropriate for developing analytic skills, and complex prob-
lem-solving strategies. Because trainees do not actually implement their decision or
solution, its focus is more on the “what to do”(strategic knowledge) than on the “how
to get it done”(skills)
• Role plays provide a good vehicle for developing interpersonal skills and personal
insight, allowing trainees to practice interacting with others and receiving feedback.
2.2. On-The-Job Training Methods
The purpose of the on-the-job training session is to provide employee with task-specific
knowledge and skills in work area. The knowledge and skills presented during on-the-job are
directly related to job requirements. Job instruction technique, job rotation, coaching and
apprenticeship training are the common forms of on-the job training methods.
Job Instruction Training is a structured approach to training, which requires trainees to
proceed through a series of steps in sequential pattern. The technique uses behavioral strat-
egy with a focus on skill development, but there are usually some factual and procedural
knowledge objectives as well. This type of training is good for task oriented duties such as
operating equipment. The instructor or supervisor prepares a job breakdown on the job, while
watching an experienced worker perform each step of the job. Job instruction technique
consists of four steps, preparation, present, try out and follow up (Blandchard and Thacker,
1999:306).
Job Rotation is the systematic movement of employees from job to job or project to pro-
ject within an organization, as a way to achieve various different human resources objectives

150 Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1
 Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

such as: simply staffing jobs, orienting new employees, preventing job boredom or burnout,
rewarding employees, enhancing career development, exposing employees to diverse envi-
ronments (Woods, 1995:188). Excellent job rotation program can decrease the training costs
while increases the impact of training, because job rotation is a hand on experience. Job
rotation makes individuals more self-motivated, flexible, adaptable, innovative, eager to learn
and able to communicate effectively. One of the possible problems with the rotation programs
is the cost, because job rotation increases the amount of management time to spend on lower
level employees. It may increase the workload and decrease the productivity for the rotating
employee’s manager and for other employees. Job rotation may be especially valuable for
organizations that require firm-specific skills because it provides an incentive to organizations
to promote from within (Jerris, 1999:329).
Coaching is the process of one-on-one guidance and instruction to improve knowledge,
skills and work performance. Coaching is becoming a very popular means of development,
and often includes working one-on-one with the learner to conduct a needs assessment, set
major goals to accomplish, develop an action plan, and support the learner to accomplish the
plan. The learner drives these activities and the coach provides continuing feedback and
support (DOE Handbook1074, 1995). Usually coaching is directed at employees with per-
formance deficiencies, but also used as a motivational tool for those performing well. Coach-
ing methods solve precise problems such as communication, time management and social
skills. Executive coaching generally takes place on a monthly basis and continues over a
period of several years. Often, coaches are brought in where there is a change in the struc-
ture of the company, when a team or individual is not performing well or where new skills are
required. Coaching assumes that you are fine but could be even better (Kirwan, 200).
Apprenticeship is one of the oldest forms of training which is designed to provide
planned, practical instruction over a significant time span. Apprenticeship was the major
approach to learning a craft. The apprentice worked with a recognized mastercraftperson
(McNamara, 2000).
Blanchard and Thacker (1999:304), discuss various training methods to address differ-
ent knowledge, skills, and attitudes learning objectives which are shown in Table 1. This table
represents a general guide for the effectiveness of training models.

3. MEASURING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING

Measuring the training effectiveness should be an important asset for the organizations.
There are some criteria for measuring the success of training; direct cost, indirect cost, effi-
ciency, performance to schedule, reactions, learning, behavior change, performance change
(Sheppard C, 1999).

Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1 151
Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

3.1. Measurement Models

3.1.1. The Kirkpatrick’s Four Level Approach
Beginning with World War II, evaluation research has developed as a result of substan-
tive support by the U.S. federal government in training and evaluation activities. It provides
answers to the questions of “do we implement or repeat a program or not?” and “if so, what
modifications should be made?” (Stone and Watson, 1999).
In order to classify areas of evaluation, the first one would be Kirkpatrick Four Levels of
Evaluation. It was created by Donald Kirkpatrick in 1959, at the time; he was a professor of
marketing at the University of Wisconsin. It is still one of the most widely used approach. His
four level of evaluation are: reaction – a measure of satisfaction, learning – a measure of
learning, behavior – a measure of behavior change and results- a measure of results (Phillips
J., 1997:39). This conceptual framework answers four very important questions, as shown in
Table 2.

Table 1: Training Method Effectiveness at Meeting Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes

Objectives
GOAL OF TRAINING
Knowledge Skills Attitudes
TRAINING METHODS Decla Proce Stra Tech Inter
rative dural tegic nical personal
LECTURE 3 2 1 1 1 3
COMPUTER BASED 5 4 3 2a 2 3
SIMULATION
Equipment 1 3 2 5 1 2
Case Study 3 2 4 2 2 3
Business Game 2 3 5 2 2b 2
In-Basket 1 3 4 1 2c 2
Role Play 1 2 2 2 4 5d
Behavior M. 1 3 3 4 5 3
OJT
JIT 3 5 4 4 2 5
Apprentice 5 5 4 5 2 5
Coaching 3 5 4 4 4 5
Scale: 1=not effective 2= mildly effective 3= moderately effective
4= effective 5= very effective
a This rating is for general technical skills. For some specific skills the rating would be 5
b If the business game is designed for interpersonal skills, this would be 4.
c If multiple in-baskets were used this rating would be 3.

152 Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1
 Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

d Specifically role reversal.

Resource: Blanchard, N. and Thacker J., (1999), Effective Training: Systems, Strategies and Practices,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, p:304.

Kirkpatrick model is now nearly 45 years old. Its elegant simplicity has caused it to be
the most widely used methods of evaluation training programs. ASTD’s (American Society for
Training Development) survey, which reports feedback from almost 300 Human Resource
executives and managers, revealed that 67% of organizations that conduct evaluations use
the Kirkpatrick model (Stone J and Watson V, 1999).

Table 2: Kirkpatrick Four Levels of Evaluation

Were the participants pleased?
Level 1: Reaction
What do they plan to do with what they learned?
Level 2: Learning What skills, knowledge, or attitudes have change? By how much?
Did the participants change their behavior based on what was learned in
Level 3: Behavior
the program?
Level 4: Results Did the change in behavior positively affect the organization?
Resource: Stone J. and Watson V., 1999, Evaluation of Trainig, www.ispi-atlanta.org,

3.1.2. Kaufman’s Five Level of Evaluation

Some researchers, recognizing some shortcomings of Kirkpatrick’s four level approach,
have attempted to modify and add to this basic framework. Kaufman offers one such presen-
tation. As shown in Table 3, Kaufman has expanded the definition of Level 1 and added a fifth
level addressing societal issues (Philips, 1997:40).

Table 3: Kaufman’ Five Level of Evaluation

Level Evaluation Focus

Societal and client responsiveness, consequences and
5 Societal Outcomes
payoffs.
4 Organizational Output Organizational contributions and payoffs.
Individual and small group (product) utilization within the
3 Application
organization
2 Acquisition Individual and small group mastery and competency
Methods’, means’ and processes’ acceptability and
1b Reaction
efficiency
Availability and quality of human, financial, and physical
1a Enabling
resources input
Resource: Phillips, J. Handbook of Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods, 1997, Houston
Gulf, p.41

At level 1, the factor of the concept enabling the addresses the availability of various
resource inputs necessary for a successful intervention. At Level 5 is the evaluation of

Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1 153
Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

societal and client responsiveness, and consequences in payoff. This moves evaluation
beyond the organization, and examines the extent to which the performance improvement
program has enhanced society and environment surrounding the organization.
3.1.3. CIRO (Context, Input, Reaction, Outcome) Approach
Another four-level approach originally developed by Warr, Bird, and Rackham, is a
rather unique way to classify evaluation processes. Originally used in Europe, this framework
has much broader scope than the traditional use of the term “evaluation” in the United States.
As with other approaches, four general categories of evaluation are described, which form the
letters CIRO (Context, Input, Reaction, Outcome) (Phillips, 1997:39).
Context evaluation includes obtaining and using information about the recent
operational conditions or context to determine training needs and objectives. Input evaluation
includes gathering and using information about possible training resources to select between
alternative inputs to training process. Reaction evaluation includes obtaining and using
information about the learner’s reactions o improve the training process. Outcome evaluation
includes gathering and using information about the findings and outcomes of training, and
generally regarded as the most important part of the evaluation. If outcome evaluation is to be
successful, it needs careful preparation before training program begins (Phillips, 1997:41).
3.1.4. The Five Level Return on Investment Framework
Return on Investment (ROI) is a measure of the monetary benefits obtained by an or-
ganization over a specified time period in return for a given investment in a training program.
Looking it another way, ROI is the extent to which the outputs of training exceed the inputs.
ROI can be used both to justify a planned investment and to evaluate the extent to which
desired return was achieved. However, it can not measure all the aspects of training success:
whether the learners liked the training or not, the numbers of learners participating in the
training, the extents to which learner’s personal objectives were accomplished (Shepperd,
1999)

Table 4: Five Level ROI Framework

Level Evaluation Focus

1 Measures participant’s reaction to the program and out-
Reaction & Planned Action
lines specific plans for implementation
2 Learning Measures skills, knowledge, or attitude changes
3 Measure change in behavior on the job and specific
Job Applications
application of the training material
4 Business Results Measures business impact of the program
5 Measures the monetary value of the results and cost for
Return on Investment
the program, usually expressed as a percentage
Resource: Phillips, J. 1997, Handbook of Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods, Hous-

154 Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1
 Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

ton Gulf, p.43.

ROI adds the fifth level to the Kirkpatrick for some reason. There are some pros and
cons of calculating ROI of a training program. The costs of training are known and expressed
in monetary terms, but the benefits are often soft, subjective, and difficult to quantify and
convert into the monetary terms. Costs are known up front, before training, but benefits may
accrue slowly over time. But on the other hand, course objectives and content will become
more lean, relevant, and behavioral with focus on monetary results rather than on the acquisi-
tion of information. And by calculating ROI on the courses where it is possible, it is more apt
to be trusted on the ones can not evaluate at four level (Parry, S, 1996:72).

CONCLUSION
Training is a substantial organizational investment getting a satisfactory return on
investment means linking the training function and activities to the company’s overall
business activity. The investment in people, both in developing and maintaining the
appropriate skills, is vital part of the organization’s strategy for the future. Like any
investment, investment in training should produce an effective and measurable payback.
Effective training enhances the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour of people and
hence their performance. The improved performance of individuals leads directly to profit.
Such a payback can be rapid and significant, yet it is rarely measured or presented in
financial terms.
If an organization wants highly motivated, up to date, creative and productive workforce,
they need to start and build a strategy for the future. This strategy has to recognize that
corporate performance is totally dependent upon the performance of the organization’s
people. This leads to a clear commitment to invest in these people through training.
Organization which implements training gives emphasis on; what percentage of employees
have individual challenge, growth and learning plans, the number of hours of training that the
average worker gets each year.
A training program is not complete until you have evaluated methods and results. A key
to obtaining consistent success with training programs is to have a systematic approach to
measurement and evaluation. Recognition of the training methods and measurement tech-
niques are crucial for the organization’s training success.

RESOURCES
BENTLEY T. (1990), The Business of Training, , 2nd edition, Mc Graw Hill Book Company, New
Jersey.

Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1 155
Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Yıl: 2005 Sayı: 1

BLANCHARD P. N. and Thacker J.W. (1998), Effective Training: Systems, Strategies and Practices,
Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
DECKER P. and Naten B. (1985), Behaviour Modeling Training: Principles and Applications, Prager,
NY.
DOE, (January 1995), Alternative Systematic Approach to Training, HANDBOOK 1074.
DRUMMOND K.E. (1989), Human Resource Management for the Hospitality Industry, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, NY.
DUNETTE M. (1976), Aptitudes, Abilities and Skills, Randy Macnally, Chicago.
FLEISHMAN E, (1972), “On The Relation Between Arbilities, Learning And Human Performance”,
American Psychologist, 27:1017.
GOLDSTEIN L. (1993), Training in Organizations, , Pacific Grove CA: Brooks/Cole.
JERRIS L.A. (1999), Human Resources Management for Hospitality, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
KAPLAN R. and at all Lombardo M. Mazique M., (1985), “ A Mirror for Managers: Using Simulation to
Develop Management Teams”, , Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, 21:241.
KEASRLY G., (1984), Training and Technology, Addison-Wesley, NY.
KING, D, (1968), Training within the Organization, Cox & Wyman Ltd.
KIRWAN T. H. (2000), “Coaching Champion”, Management Today, November.
KRAIGER, F. and Salas E. (1993), “Application of Cognitive, Skill based and Affective Theories of
Learning Outcomes to New Methods of Training Evaluation”, Journal of Applied Psychology,
78:2.
LEE Katherine, March (2000), “The Future of Training Programs”, www.hr.com.
MCNAMARA C. (May 2000), “Various Ideas for Learning Activities and Documentation Results”,
www.mapnp.com.
NEWMAN D. and Hodgets R.(1998), Human Resource Management, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
PARRY S.(1996) “Measuring Training’s ROI”, Training and Development, May 50:5.
PHILLIPS, J. (1997), Handbook of Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods, Houston Gulf,
Texas.
PIGORS P. and Pigors F., (1987), The Case Method, in Training and Development Handbook,
McGraw Hill, London.
SHEPHERD C., (1999), “Assesing the ROI of Training”, www.fastrak-conculting.com.uk.
STONE J. and Watson V., (1999), “Evaluation of Training”, www.ispi-atlanta.org.
SULLIVAN J. (June 1999), “Why Corporate Training Does not Work”, www.hr.com.
WOODS, R., (1995), Human Resources Management, AHMA, Michigan.

156 Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty, Year: 2005 No: 1