CERAMICS

Concept
- Ceramics comes from the Greek word keramos which means ‘potter’s clay’.
- Another commonly used word is ‘pottery’.
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Definition
- Ceramics refers to the art and technique of producing clay or porcelain
objects/articles which are fired in a kiln to turn them into a hard, brittle material.
Historical background
- Ceramics is one of the oldest art forms known to man.
- It is believed that the art of ceramics was first discovered around the 6 th millennium
BC in the Middle East; from here the art probably spread to North Africa.
- Elsewhere in Africa, the earliest of the discovered pottery appears to date back to the
4th millennium BC.
- The most well-known pottery in Africa is that of the Nok Culture of Northern Nigeria;
the Nok Culture appears to have reached its peak some 2,500 years ago.
- The most impressive of the Nok pottery are the terra cottas (hard unglazed brownish
red earthenware) sculptures which were made to near life size; the sculpture heads
and body fragments show a great deal of artistic skill; apart from the sculptures, Nok
pottery includes domestic pottery.
- The Nigerian potter Ladi Kwali, who visited England in the early 1960s, built pots
from the same type of clay and in a similar way, although she started with a lump of
clay, made a large thumb pot, and then built up the sides with coils; she only used
hands and a gourd shell in making her pot.
- Apart from Nigeria, ceramic sculptures and pots are found in other African countries;
much of the pottery in these countries consists of different-sized pots, some of which
have animal and human forms.
- In ancient Egypt pottery developed to a fine art; red, black-rimmed pottery, which
was polished and incised, was made; later, soft red, buff, or grey earthenware was
produced, and much later vitreous glazes were used.
- Some of the earliest pottery in Africa have been discovered to be of Egyptian origin;
the pottery was finely made with black-burnished insides and red-painted
decorations on the outside.
- The patterning sometimes imitated basketry.
- Bulbous jars and pots with wavy ledge handles were also discovered.
- Some of the pots were incised and the incisions filled with white pigment.
- The Kerma pottery of Nubia was produced on a potter’s wheel; some of these pots
were animal-shaped, or decorated with animal motifs; the pots were thin and highly
polished black-topped red ware.
- In Aksum (Axum), the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia, red and black earthenware pots
were made; some were smoothened and coated in red slip.
- The pots which have been discovered vary in size from tiny cups to vats 80 cm high.
- Different forms such as bowls, jars, jugs, pans, basins, and cups have also been
found.
- Sometimes the pots were decorated in geometric designs, either carved, painted, or
stamped.
- Motifs such as zigzags, discs, checks, bars, etc., were used.
- The Ethiopian cross is found on the rims, sides, or bottoms of many of these pots.
- Elsewhere in Africa and in the world, pottery traditions and many different types of
pottery are still practiced and produced.
- Most of those traditional ceramic pots are incised or left plain and are sometimes
highly burnished.
- Some of the most beautiful pots are made by American Indians; their pottery and
baskets are similar in many ways, style, and patterning to African pottery; they are
hand-built and are decorated with incised and painted designs; many are burnished
to a high, beautiful sheen.
- In America and Europe artists use both traditional and contemporary methods of
potting, according to their preference; hand-building is enjoying a revival in some of
these countries, however, thrown pots are the prevalent types made.
- In the Far East, the Chinese reigned supreme in ceramic traditions.
- During the Stone Age and Bronze Age, Chinese pottery consisted of unpainted grey
vessels decorated with impressions of woven materials or with incised lines.
- Another type of pottery produced at this time was a highly fired red ware made on a
potter’s wheel.
- Some of the earliest Chinese pottery was porcelain ware; porcelain is believed to
have been first made by the Chinese as early as (AD 581 – 617) in the Sui Dynasty.
- The Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220) is considered to be one of the outstanding
periods in Chinese pottery.
- Han pottery was hand-made earthenware in red, grayish or whitish colors and
covered in lead glaze.
- During the Tang period (AD 618 – 907) different glazes were invented and many
experimental shapes and techniques were used.
- Colored glazes were used and the firing of porcelain perfected.
- Rich blues, greens/yellows and browns were produced by mixing copper, iron or
cobalt with colorless lead silicate.
- During the 7th and early 8th centuries, hard, translucent porcelain was made.
- White porcelain became popular among the rich.
- During the Sung Dynasty (AD 760 – 1279) grey-green ‘celadon’ glazes were produced
to resemble jade.
- Another type of pottery produced during this period was Ting ware which was a fine,
high-fired porcelain with a creamy white glaze which formed a brownish tinge where
it runs together.
- Plants, flowers and birds were incised on Ting ware.
- Under the Ming Emperors (AD 1368 – 1644) porcelain pots were decorated by
painting in under-glaze blue.
- Famous blue and white Ming pottery dates from the 16 th and 17th centuries.
- Ming porcelain was also decorated with over-glaze colors.
- As many as 70 craftsmen decorated one piece of porcelain; each craftsman worked
on a particular section, decorated care was taken to avoid mistakes.
- Today, pottery in China and Japan continues to flourish.
- Japanese pottery is exceptionally beautiful and varied.
- In the Near East, Islamic pottery is known for its richness of colors and interwoven,
rhythmic decoration.
- Chinese pottery, which arrived in the Near East at the beginning of the 19 th – c AD
influenced Arab pottery.
- In America and Europe artists use both traditional and contemporary methods of
potting, according to their preference; hand-building is enjoying a revival in some of
these countries; however, thrown pots are the prevalent types made.
- In pre-industrial Europe, potters in England and France worked in soft earthenware
and used a glossy lead glaze.
- By the 17th and 18th centuries, potters were making slipware.
- The Germans discovered stoneware and they salt-glazed their ware.
- By the end of the 17th – c English potters were also making salt-glazed stoneware
similar to the German type.
- They were also producing highly-fired unglazed red-ware.
 - One of the famous early English potters was Josiah Wedgewood who improved
Staffordshire pottery and produced the cream-colored ‘Queen’s ware’; today
Wedgewood pottery is well known world-wide.
- In all the above cited countries, ceramics continue to flourish.
- Traditionally women made pots, but there are exceptions especially where certain
ceremonial pots had to be made, then the men normally made these.
- Pottery in Kenya goes back a long time; many communities made pots for their own
use and sometimes for trading purposes.
- The pottery tradition is as active now as in the past; the traditional techniques are
still in use, but contemporary ones are also becoming increasingly popular.
- Traditional types of pots are made for many purposes; some are made for carrying
water, serving food, storing beer, storing drinking water, etc.
- Apart from pots, ceramic pipes for smoking are also made.
- Likewise in Africa, more and more contemporary ceramics are being produced.
- In Kenya, the ceramics section at the Kenya Industrial Research and Development
Institute (KIRDI) is experimenting with local clays and glazes.
- Local stones can be ground and used as glazes.
- More and more experiments of this nature will most likely lead to a thriving ceramics
industry, both as a craft and as industrial ware.
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Materials, tools and equipment
Materials
- In traditional pottery making, the only material needed is clay, and tools are simple
and can be made from materials found in the environment.
- Of all modeling materials plastic clay offers the greatest scope; it can be worked
repeatedly and stored easily.
- A superb medium for creative activity.
- The uses of clay extend from simple modeling to the highest forms of creative art.
- Clay is found in many parts of Kenya; it can be dug from clay-rich river banks,
anthills, swampy areas, excavation sites, etc.
- Soil can be checked to see if it is clay type by mixing the soil with some water, and
forming it into a ball; if the soil should stick together without the particles falling
apart, indicating that it is a clay type of soil; but this is by no means an accurate test
for clay.
- Dug up clay normally contains many impurities, stones, soil, sand and vegetation,
and these have to be extracted before the clay can be used.
- Glazes are needed for glazing to be carried out; these substances can be bought
from chemical and mineral suppliers.
- - Different types of soils can also be collected and tested for glazes; some of these
soils can be used straightaway without any addition of other materials.
- - Other materials needed in glazing are whiting, a form of white chalk; feldspar,
aluminum silicate of potash; flint, an impure grayish-black form of quartz; flux, a
fusing agent added to glazes to lower their firing temperature; and oxides, which are
added to glazes to give various colors.
- Beeswax should be applied to the bottom of a piece of article before firing to prevent
the piece from sticking to the kiln rack.

Tools and equipment

- Apart from smoothening tools, in traditional pottery, few tools were used.
- Contemporary pottery such as throwing requires some special tools and equipment.
 - Thin wires are used to cut kneaded clay and to remove pots from building
tables/wheels.
- Buckets or oil drums are useful for keeping clay in; alternatively, clay can be kept in
a pit lined with plastic sheeting or banana leaves.
- Sieves of different sizes and mesh gauges are needed for sieving clay to remove
impurities such as rocks, twigs, etc.; small ones are used for sieving glaze mixtures.
- Modeling tools can be made for specific types of pots being made; these are useful
when smoothening or decorating them.
- A rolling pin is necessary for making slab pots.
- A wedging table provides a useful surface for kneading clay, this can be an ordinary
table or even the floor or the ground.
- - Usually potters make plaster of Paris surfaces for wedging, but a drawing board
covered with cotton fabric also provides an adequate wedging surface.
- Pugmill machines are also used for wedging clay; these are useful for large quantities
of clay.
- Wheels are necessary for thrown pots.
- - The simplest type of wheel is the kick-wheel which is operated by kicking a lower
wheel which in turn rotates the upper wheel on which the pots are thrown.
- - The other type of wheel is the electric type which is operated by a switch; the
potter controls the switch with his/her foot at the required speed; the switch sets the
upper wheel in motion.
- The most important stage in pottery making is the firing; this is done in a special
type of oven called a kiln.
- - There are several types of kilns; the traditional type of kiln is the most
rudimentary basic type of kiln, some are fired by gas, others by electricity, wood or
oil.
- - The traditional type of kiln is the simplest and the cheapest to use; this is a
shallow pit into which pots are placed, covered with sticks, and then set alight; the
firing takes about 15 minutes to two hours; the pots are allowed to cool and then
lifted out with long strong sticks.
- - Electric and gas kilns are the most commonly used, and wood kilns are often
used by potters to obtain special effects.
- - Dustbin kilns, fired with sawdust, are also used; such a kiln is inexpensive to
make.
- - A dome-shaped kiln, with a section for placing the pots, and a firing chamber
underneath, and a chimney at the top can be used to fire earthenware pots; this type
of kiln can be simply built with metal supports and a few bricks and plastered with
clay.
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Designing ceramic products
- The basic elements and principles of Art & Design apply as much to ceramics as to
painting or any other art forms in the designing of ceramic products; pieces should
be well-planned and designed.
- When designing 2D or 3D ceramic pieces, questions of use, applicability, type of clay
bodies, types of decorations, and firing methods must be considered; in addition,
overall shapes and sizes are important.
- Tiles and wall-plaques are examples of 2D surfaces while bowls, cups, jars, etc., are
examples of 3D works.
- When designing 3D pieces, it is important to consider the following:- function, type of
clay, decoration, glazes, and kilns.
- Sketches, studies of plant forms, etc., and actual ceramic pieces should be made;
these studies form the basis of designs both for form and decoration.
Clay
- Of all modeling materials clay offers the greatest scope.
- It is cheap and in good supply; it can be worked repeatedly and stored easily.
- A superb medium for creative activity; the use of clay extend from simple modeling
to the highest forms of creative art.
- It can be found in many parts Kenya, abundant supplies lying just under the soil.
- Clays vary from place to place in color and quality, e.g., white, grey, black and red
clay.
- Dug up clay contains many impurities, stone, soil, sand and vegetation, and these
have to be extracted before the clay can be used.
-
Types of clay
- Clay is the primary material in ceramics.
- Clay is a special kind of earth formed by changes in the rocks of the earth; the
formation takes place either when the earth cools down or through weathering of
rocks; clays vary from place to place in color and quality e.g., it is found in several
colors such as red, blue, grey and brown.
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- Clay is obtained along the banks or dry river beds of streams and major rivers; also
found in low places such as swamps where water collects and thereby being
deposited in form of layers.
- Clays are usually classified as residual (primary) and sedimentary (secondary) clays.
- Residual (primary) clays are those found in their place of origin (on location) near the
original rock source; they are the purest types and less plastic sometimes referred to
as china clay, mainly white in color, because they are not subjected to the conditions
of sedimentary clay; they can be excavated in large sizes or chunks.
- Sedimentary (secondary) clays are those that have been carried from the higher
grounds, their original source by water, ice, erosion, and wind to the river beds and
plains; they are usually the finest because they have been subjected to various
conditions such as weathering, impacting, grinding, etc., because of being carried
away from their original source, they are therefore found along river banks, swamps,
plains, and even anthills; they are more plastic than the china clay; these types
contain a lot of other substances; the common colors are black, grey, red and brown.
- The composition of clay is determined by the original or secondary source.
- Clay is a complex chemical compound which involves molecules of aluminum (Al),
silicon (Si), oxygen (O), and hydroxyl groups (OH).
- Simply put, clay is Al2Si2O5(OH)4, as combined by chemists and mineralogists; a
potter would say that clay has one molecule of alumina, two molecules of silica, and
two molecules of water.
- Clay particles have a high degree of plasticity, so it is rather difficult for water to
penetrate clay easily; pools of water collecting on the surface of clay take a long time
before evaporating; because of the slow gradual loss of water from clay, it ends up
cracking badly with excessive sunlight affecting more the already drying parts – i.e.,
it shrinks much faster in the drying parts and hence tends to give way to cracks.
- Clay is also a refractory material which is capable of withstanding high temperatures
without fusion or decomposition.
Decomposition of clay
- The first decomposition of clay occurs when the parent rock granite is broken down
by borun (which occurs in borax) and fluoride (salt of hydrofluoric acid) into feldspar,
quartz, and mica.
- The feldspar is subsequently decomposed by carbon dioxide and water into pure clay
(kaolinite), quartz, and potash.
- Kaolinite clays are basically porcelain (china) clays and high fire clays which are not
highly plastic.
- Secondary kaolinite clays are further decomposed by carbon dioxide and water and
carried away from their original source.
- There are many types of clay, each of which contains various substances which gives
clays their particular characteristics and properties.
- The most important characteristic of clay is its firing temperature.
- The following are some of the common types:
Earthenware clay
- They are porous, non-waterproof, opaque and do not vitrify (fire above a certain
temperature to convert into a glassy substance).
- It is a coloring agent and a filler.
- They are known as low-fire clays because they usually fire between 1050˚C and
1200˚C.
- Above 1200˚C, earthenware clays deform.
- Traditional earthenware clays do not vitrify because they are low-fire clays.
- This means that traditional earthenware are generally not waterproof and have to be
sealed with resinous substance immediately they are removed from the kiln.
- Earthenware A clay body composition is 55 parts local red clay, 20 parts frit, 15 parts
silica, 10 parts ground Kisii soapstone, fire at 895˚C – 1125˚C.
- Earthenware B clay body composition is 55 parts ball clay, 20 parts frit, 9 parts Kisii
soapstone (finely ground and sieved), 8 parts fire clay, 3 parts red iron oxide, 2 parts
cobalt oxide, 2 parts manganese dioxide, 1 part copper black oxide, fire at between
895˚C – 1125˚C; by adding oxides to the clay, interesting colors can be produced.
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Stoneware clay
- Sedimentary clays which fire at a much higher degree than earthenware, i.e., above
1200˚C (1260˚C).
- Used for bricks, tiles, terra cotta and pots.
- They vitrify (to convert into a glassy material) and are able to hold water even when
not glazed.
- When glaze is applied on stoneware, the two materials mature at the same time
temperature to form an integrated glaze fit.
- Many stoneware clays contain feldspar and silica which fire to a dense, non-porous
state because they are able to vitrify.
Porcelain clay
- Prepared clays also called kaolin or china clay; kaolin is the main ingredient used in
mixing these clays; very vitreous clays.
- The word is derived from the French word porcelaine which means cowrie shell
because of their similarity in color.
- Porcelain clay contains about 50% china clay and 25% feldspar and 25% silica.
- Porcelain which is used in hand-building contains porcelain grog, or iron free silica.
- The famous ‘bone china’ is made up of roughly 45% bone ash, 30% china clay, and
25% flux.
- Bone ash contains calcium, phosphate, calcium carbonate, and other substances; the
bone is calcined (to heat a substance in the temperature necessary to drive off the
chemical water, carbon dioxide, and other volatile gases) into ash.
- A popular and common porcelain body is composed of 25% each of ball clay,
feldspar, china clay, and silica; most porcelain clays fire at very high temperatures
from 1260˚C to 1465˚C.
- When fired, porcelain has a creamy, whitish, translucent effect and very vitreous.
- Good quality porcelain ware is very expensive, and it is usually white and
translucent.
- Some industrial porcelain wares are made very, very thin, and appear transparent
when held up to the light.

Talc clay
- Contain magnesium silicate, also known as chalk, steatite, or soapstone.
- The magnesia acts as a flux (fusing agent) at high temperatures.
- In low temperatures talc increases the thermal expansion of clay bodies.
- Talc bodies fire anywhere between 875˚C and 1125˚C.
- Talc body A composition is 55 parts ball clay, 35 parts Kisii soapstone, 10 parts
borate, fire at 875˚C – 1125˚C.
- Talc body B composition is 50 parts ball clay, 50 parts Kisii soapstone, 30 parts silica
sand, fire at 1015˚C – 1125˚C.
- Slip-casting talc body composition is 38 parts ball clay, 38 parts Kisii soapstone, 24
parts silica, fire at 1015˚C – 1160˚C.
- The addition of talc to stoneware bodies reduces the amount of feldspar needed to
produce the desired strength because the talc acts as flux.
- High percentage talc bodies don’t craze, and they have a low-firing temperature
range, fire fast, and have a white body which enriches brightly colored glazes.
- In Kenya Kisii soapstone is an excellent talc; it fires into a pure white body.
-
Kaolin clay
- Nearly pure residual clay.
- White coloring agent which has low plasticity and a high degree of resistance to heat
which is termed as refractoriness; it is able to withstand high temperatures without
fusion or decomposition.
- Fires to a white color.
- Kaolin is the same as china clay which is used in the manufacture of ceramic tiles,
toilets bowls, sinks, bath tubs, utensils such as plates, cups, serving bowls and
kettles.
Ball clay
- Ball clay is very plastic (plasticizer).
- Used to blend with clays which have low plasticity because of its degree of plasticity.
- Ball clay cannot be used alone for forming pots because the forms would collapse.
Shale clay
- The commonest of the clays.
- Used for making bricks, building blocks, tiles and earthenware pots.
- Has a low resistance to heat.
Fire clay
- Has low plasticity, but has a high resistance to heat and is used for making fire bricks
and insulating bricks.
- It is a filler, coloring agent, graining agent and stiffener.
- Can be mixed with other clays.
Properties of clay
- All clays contain several substances, and have certain firing temperatures; some
clays contain a lot of iron, some have a lot of feldspar; some have sand with quartz;
and some are more or less free of these substances; because of these different
substances, some clays are only suitable for certain types of ceramic ware.
- Depends on various factors such as the location of formation, the length of formation
(i.e., maturity of the clay deposit) and the process of formation.
- Clays used in ceramics must possess 3 main qualities:- plasticity, porosity and
vitrification.
Plasticity
- The elasticity of clay.
- Clay must be plastic in order to be worked into a form, it is this quality that makes it
a very special material.
- This plasticity allows clay to be manipulated into all sorts of shapes and can be
worked to a very fine degree.
Porosity
- The ability of clay to absorb water, air, and other fluids.
- This porosity allows the clay to ‘breathe’ and dry without cracking before firing.
- However, clay must be dried in a cool place to prevent rapid drying which leads to
cracking.
Vitrification
- The ability of clay to convert into a glassy substance (vitreous state) during firing to
turn it into a strong and hard material which is glass-like.
Clay bodies composition
- Most manufacturers’ clay bodies are an amalgam of several clays that are prepared
ready for use in factories for ceramic works; they can be bought in dry powder form
or as a plastic body.
- Clays are blended for certain types of ceramic wares; potters mix their own types of
clay bodies for particular type of work they are doing, and according to the
temperature they want; they mix basic clay bodies such as ball clay with feldspar
and silica in the proportions necessary for their type of work.
- Blended clays are made to suit particular techniques and firing methods.
- There are 3 main ingredients necessary in the preparation of clay bodies:-
- - Plastic clay such as kaolin and ball clay.
- - Stiffening such as ground flint, grog, bone ash, silica, sand, or talc.
- - Fusing agents such as ground feldspar, whiting, frit, or ground glass.
- The amount of fusing and stiffening determines the maturing temperature of the
clay; stiffening is used to give stiffness to clay and to control shrinkage and cracking.
- An example of blended clay is one which contains about 55% local clay, 20% frit,
15% silica, and 10% talc.
- When preparing clay bodies, it is important to consider factors such as stickiness,
shrinkage, grittiness, and firing.
Correcting clay bodies
- Some clay bodies may not be quite right for a particular technique or firing range;
with experience a potter can correct a particular clay body.
- Sticky body
- If a body is too sticky, more fire clay needs to be added, or less ball clay should be
used.
- Gritty body
 - Has too much sand or grog in it or has not been screened properly.
- Grog/sand
- A stiffener and body opener.
- Shrinking body
- A clay which tends to shrink too much or to warp needs more fire clay and less
earthenware.
- Brittle body
- A clay which fires to a brittle state has been fired at too high a temperature, or does
not contain kaolin or silica in it.
- It may also have too much flux.
- Vitrification
- Kaolin or silica raises the vitrification temperature of a clay body.
Low-shrinkage clay bodies
- Porcelain and stoneware bodies have a tendency to shrink because they contain
more water than earthenware bodies which contain coarser clays and grogs.
- Ground fired clay, calcined kaolin and grog can be added to a body to reduce
shrinkage.
- If porcelain and stoneware bodies are fired at lower temperatures, this will reduce
their shrinkage.
- Shrinking can also be lessened by adding to moist clay bodies, 2% to 6% crushed and
screened organic materials such as nutshells, walnut shells, straw, or sawdust; these
materials will burn out leaving the clay body more open, lighter in weight, and with
less chance of cracking and warping.
Preparation of clay for formation of ceramic ware
- Freshly dug clay must undergo certain preparation before it can be used; it must be
properly prepared and thoroughly wedged to ensure that no lumps or air-pockets are
present in a ceramic ware before firing.
- Not all clays are the same, some clays are much more elastic (have more plasticity)
and some have less plasticity.
- Some clays can be used without adding anything to them, while some need to have
other clays, soil, or grog (ground up fired clay) added to reduce their plasticity.
- The various preparation stages are:- digging, slaking, mixing, wedging, and storing.
Digging
- Clay is dug from localities rich in clay; one needs a fair-sized open space where it is
dug and then left to weather for a period of time.
- Clay is lumpy when it is dug and it cannot be used in this state; some traditional
potters sometimes find clay that they can use straightaway.
- After obtaining clay from its source, leave it for some days so that it can dry
thoroughly.
- After drying, place it on a hard board presumably wooden/stone board and grind or
pound it into fine particles.
- Put the powdered clay into a container such as a bucket or debe and add water.
- ILLUSTRATION
- Impurities include stones, glass, pieces of wood, etc which must be removed.
- If these impurities are not removed, they can cut the potter’s hands and cause the
ceramic wares to explode during the firing process because they have different
expansion and contraction rates from the clay.
- If the clay is wet after digging, remove all the stones particles and vegetable matter
using fingers; if on the other hand the clay is dry, then grind it and in the process
remove all the stone particles and vegetable matter; once all the clay is ground,
sieve it if it is possible to do so.
Slaking
- A process of soaking clay in a container of water (bucket, old sink or bath) for a
period of 3 to 4 days, if it has not been crushed beforehand; crushed clay needs only
about 2 days of soaking.
- Clay and water mix to reduce the lumps of clay into a homogenous mass.

Mixing
- While clay is soaking in a container, stir it vigorously now and then; leave it for some
time after stirring in order to settle down.
- Impurities such as sticks and leaves and vegetation will float on top which can then
be removed.
- After slaking, the clay is mixed with a wooden stick (or electric mixer) into a porridge-
like consistency.
Sieving
- The clay is then sieved through a fine sieve to remove any other impurities such as
lumps, stones and small objects which were not previously visible; use a small ‘lawn
brush’ with stiff bristles to push the slip, as liquid clay is called, through the sieve in
small amounts.
- The sieve should be washed regularly throughout the procedure to remove the grit,
stones and any other objects which have been left over; the slip that is left can now
stand for a day or so.
- The finely sieved clay is put into a bucket and at this stage grog (ground broken
pieces of fired pottery or bricks) or kaolin or sieved fine sand can be added if
necessary; some potters mix two different types of clays to achieve the right
plasticity for potting, it is up to the potter/artist to use his discretion to judge whether
the clay has some grog in it already.
- After the clay has been thoroughly mixed, leave the mixture to settle down in the
container.
- Slowly siphon off (drain) the surplus water, thereby leaving clay behind; it is allowed
to partially dry in the sun in drying chambers of shallow wooden boxes/moulds/bats.
- When the drying chambers are lined with plaster, they are known as plaster
beds/bats; this can be made by obtaining a polythene bowl of any shape, with a flat
bottom, and a mixture of Plaster of Paris of the strength 1 part water to 1½ parts
plaster; stir this well and leave it in the bowl until the mixture sets; when the bat has
dried the bowl can easily be removed, and the bat should be dried out thoroughly.
- - When the bat is completely dry, the rough edges and corners need smoothing
and cleaning with surform; ensure the plaster is absolutely dry or it will clog the
blade; it is important that no plaster breaks off in the wedging process later on, as
this would damage the clay and possibly cause pots to explode during firing.
- A pugmill can be used to mix clay and additives; this is a device which thoroughly
mixes clay and water to form a malleable mass; it is composed of 3 main sections:
the motorized part which rotates the pugmill, the container at the top to which is put
clay and which has a cover which also acts as a tool to push down the clay, and a
cylindrical section through which the clay comes out in a well-kneaded cylindrical
shape.
- The clay is then wedged by hand to remove air bubbles before it is used.
- The clay is ready to be used when it is sticky to the touch, and when it rolls easily
into a ball or sausage-shape.
- When clay is mixed to porridge consistency it is referred to as ‘slip’.
Wedging
- A process of kneading (banging and pressing) clay which is sticky to the touch in
order to remove all the air bubbles.
- Kneading is a necessary process which expels air and renders the clay into a smooth
consistency before it can be formed into pots.
- It is important to remove air from clay to prevent pots from distortion, cracking and
exploding during the firing process.
- Wedging is done on a solid table covered with plaster of Paris; however, an old
wooden table is adequate, this can be covered with a piece of sugar paper placed on
a layer of newspaper.
- The plaster of Paris absorbs the excess water but does not allow the clay to dry out
too rapidly.

- Process
- - Take a lump of clay and carefully knead the clay by using the heel or the palm of
your hand; proper kneading requires that you press the clay lump downwards, push
away and pull it towards you as you continue rolling; lift the clay after each time and
work another surface.
- Take a lump of kneaded clay and throw it on a plaster slab/bed/bat.
- - Using a thin wire (this can be made by looping thin copper/steel wire ends around
toggles or pieces of wood twigs/stumps), cut the lump into two.
- - With a sharp bang, place the cut side of one lump against the cut side of the
other.
- - Pick up the two pieces and throw them down to land on their inverted sides, so
joining them together.
- - Pick up the lump and throw it down again; cut it in half and check that all the air
pockets have been removed, and begin exerting pressure as before.
- - Using thin wire, test whether there are holes in the clay lump; cut/slice the clay
into slabs.
- - Continue until no more air pockets are visible; all air must be removed to prevent
pots from cracking during firing; any section of the clay form where air is trapped will
explode during firing.
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- - Properly kneaded clay should not have air bubbles or even stick to the hands; it
should also not be too hard to press.
- - Kneading can also be done on the ground covered with banana leaves or
polythene or on a prepared old table or on a piece of sugar paper placed on a layer
of newspaper on a desk.
- - Traditional potters wedge their clay on the ground covered with banana leaves or
in troughs like those used to feed animals.
- - Clay is kneaded until it is smooth.
- Grog (clay which has been fired and then ground into coarse powder) may be added
to clay; this helps to strengthen the clay and minimizes the risk of cracking for
articles which will be fired in open/home-made kilns.
- Grog is mixed with clay in the ratio of 1 : 2 or 3 (1 part grog to 2 or 3 parts clay or
10% grog), grog is usually put into clay when it is cut into thin slices using a wire and
then mixed thoroughly ready for use; this clay lends itself to being pulled about, and
can be worked over a period of days as it doesn’t dry out too quickly.
- - The purpose of using grog in clay is twofold; one, it helps reduce the degree of
shrinkage in clay and two, it makes clay slightly porous so that water loss when
drying is even.
Storing
- Wedged clay is stored in polythene bags or plastic buckets with lids to prevent it
from drying out.
- It can also be put into ground pits lined with plastic (polythene bags/papers) or
banana leaves.
- If the clay dries out, it can be remixed with water and left to stand until it can be re-
wedged or re-kneaded.
- Prepared clay can be stored in a clay bin or galvanized dustbin lined with polythene
paper; prepare the bin by building a slatted wooden grille and putting it in the base;
pour in enough water so that the grille is nearly covered; then place a floor-cloth or a
piece of sacking on top and allow one end to drop into the water, so keeping the
cloth damp.
- - Now place the clay carefully onto the cloth; the clay can be cut and knocked into
balls/bricks of manageable size; keep the clay covered at all times with a floor-cloth
or a piece of sacking and then the lid; occasionally dampen the cloth and the clay will
remain in good condition for a long time (even months) and improve its plasticity
with keeping; this is the seasoning of clay, it undergoes some chemical change which
makes it better for work; serious artists or large ceramic firms normally find it
necessary to season clay over long periods of time.
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Reclaiming clay
- Clay which has completely dried out can be re-slaked; but clay that has been fired
cannot be reworked/reclaimed by soaking in water.
- Clay which remains after modeling or which is not for immediate use should be
stored for future use; it should be carefully wrapped in plastic papers or kept in
plastic containers with close fitting lids so as not to allow air in; if the containers
allow air in, the clay will dry up and harden and make it unsuitable for immediate
modeling.
- Clay that has become hard may be through lack of care, together with pots, models,
and figures that are hard and broken, can be remade into soft useable clay.
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- Always keep clays of different colors and types apart; keep a strong cardboard
box/container for the broken clay, and break up larger pieces; if the clay is in a lump
and is fairly thick, break it into smaller pieces.
- When you have sufficient to make a bucket full of clay, break up the dried-out clay
pieces by pounding with a hammer or rolling pin until they are quite small and
powdery; place these in a bucket and cover with water.
- - Leave the clay to decompose into slip in the bucket for a few days.
- - Siphon off the surplus water when the slip has settled.
- - Remove the wet clay from the bucket, sieve it, and place it between plaster
bats/beds; it is slimy at this stage, and it is advisable to put plenty of newspaper
under the buckets and bats.
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- - After several hours the water will have been absorbed into the plaster bats, and
the clay is ready for wedging.
- After wedging, place the clay in bins and cover with sacking until needed.
- If you use polythene sheeting as a cover for the clay in the bin, you may find that, as
time goes on, the clay on the sheet dries out and clay bits drop onto the floor each
time the sheet is moved, so sacking or an old floor-cloth is more suitable.
- Small pieces, which inevitably break off the clay being modeled, or small amounts
which stick to the paper, can be emptied onto one piece of paper and placed in the
reclaiming bin or a waste bin at the end of the lesson.
 - A piece of soft plastic clay can be used to pick up dried pieces of clay from the paper
or table top.
- While working with clay, it is important for one to have some form of protective
covering; a very old shirt or apron is recommended for this purpose.

Hand-building techniques
- There are various techniques in hand-built ceramic forms, these include:- pinch, coil,
slab, ball, moulding and throwing.
Pinch (thumb pottery)
- A simple one in which a lump of wedged clay is rolled into a ball and then pinched
with the thumb and fingers to form a hollow form/shape.
- The most natural way of making a pot is to hold a clay ball in one hand, and poke the
thumb of the other hand into the middle of the lump; this hole is then widened as the
lump is rotated, by pinching with fingers on the outside, and thumb on the inside; the
rotation should be towards the body, and the fingers will gradually move up the pot,
thinning the sides in the process, the cavity will become larger, the walls thinner,
taller and wider as required.
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- The walls of the clay form can be as thin or as thick because the form will be heavy
and may even crack during firing.
- The surface of the pots can be left smooth and when leather-hard, polished with
fingers or a piece of leather.
- These pots will fire easily, provided that they are not too thick and contain no air
bubbles.
- If you intend firing in a sawdust kiln in which you will put pots made in this way,
ensure that they are not too thin as they are more easily broken in this type of firing.
- Procedure
- Knead/wedge clay thoroughly until smooth so as to expel all air.
- Take a lump of the wedged clay and roll it into a ball.
- Hold the ball in the left hand and push the right thumb into the middle of the ball to
form a hollow.
- Gently but firmly shape the ball into the required form ensuring that the walls of
hollow ball remain even.
- Cup the left hand to hold the form while it is being shaped.
- Put/place the completed form aside to dry; don’t place it in direct sunlight otherwise
it will dry too rapidly and crack.
- When the pot/form is partially dry but no longer pliable, it can be decorated; this is
the leather-hard stage.
- - At this stage, when the decoration is being done, handles or spouts being fixed,
the form should be dried in a damp cupboard, covered with polythene or wet fabric.
- Allow the form to completely dry before firing; if the pot is fired when still wet, it will
crack and break.
- Fire the dry form in a traditional, gas, electric, wood or sawdust kiln, whichever is
applicable.
-
Coil
- A very natural way of making pots and has a long tradition; it was probably the
method used by Neolithic man when he discovered pottery.
- Coiling technique involves the use of even rolls of clay built successively as are
applied on top of each other to create the required shape or a hollow form.
- Fine sand is kneaded into the clay and then it is prepared by rolling in long rolls; the
sand which is mixed with the clay makes it very pliable, and it will stand a great deal
of pulling, pushing and smoothing.
- One or two of these are formed into a collar shape, or coil; then with one hand inside
and the other outside, the potter moulds them into the top half of pot, adding coils
to the shape to build it larger.
- The coils are smoothened down inside and outside the form, though the outside can
be left un-smoothened for textural effects/interests.
- Each coil is smoothened into each other, so that a good bond is made and a smooth
even surface results.
- The coiling method is a versatile one which can be used to produce small, medium,
and large ceramic ware.
- There are several ways of making coils:
- - One way is to squeeze a lump of clay in the hand until it becomes long and
irregular; then, using the palms and fingers, roll it along a flat surface until the
required size coil is made.
- - - It needs to be approximately the thickness of a finger.
- - - Many people find this method difficult, and end up with coils of irregular
section; however, the following guideline may be helpful:-
- - - - Make a circular guide out of wire.
- - - - This can then be drawn across the top of a rectangular brick of clay, to
produce even and uniform coils of the required size.
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- - Thumb pots or a piece of slab can be used to start off a coil pot, and quite often a
coiled base is used; this has one disadvantage in that cracks may appear in the base
after firing; this is because the coils have not been sufficiently smoothed out.
-
- Procedure
- Take a lump of kneaded clay and place it on a flat board, using the palms of the
hands, roll it into fairly thin round coils pieces; mould the coil round the base of an
old pot, bowl, or calabash, covered in banana leaf, Vaseline, or piece of polythene, so
that the finished pot can be removed without it sticking to the base.
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- Roll out an even sized sausage coil or pencil coil and coil it round the clay mould.
- Smoothen the coil onto the clay mould from the inside and outside taking care that
the size and thickness remains even/constant all round; each coil is smoothened into
each other, so that a good bond is made and a smooth even surface results.
- Roll out another coil and add to the previous one and join as before.
- Roughen up the surface of the lower coil before joining the next coil to it; slip can be
used to help the join, but it is not essential unless you want to preserve the coils as a
 decoration; it is equally effective to smooth one coil into the next using the thumb, so
that a really good weld results.
- Always support the shape with one hand while smoothing the coils into each other
with the thumb of the other hand.
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- Continue in this manner, building up the form as required.
- The shape of the article is begun after making enough coils; this is done on a flat
base.
- If making a pot with a narrow neck, gradually reduce the size and length of the coils.
- As the coils are being joined together, they should be gently pushed inwards to
narrow the shape.
- If you want a shape to slope inwards, you need to make a smaller coil than the
previous one to place slightly inside it; if the opposite effect is desired, place a
slightly larger coil on the outside of the coil below, and weld in with the thumb.
- The inside and outside walls of the form are thinned by scraping away clay, but care
should be taken that too much is not removed to cause the pot to collapse.
- The walls should not vary in thickness as the form will be distorted when fired.
- Another way of forming the base of a coil pot is to take a coil of clay in one hand and
turn the clay so that a hollow basin is made; coils are then added to the base as
above.
- Some pellets and slip are used to join the coils together.
- When building large shapes, build slowly, section by section; each section can be
covered by a moist cloth until you are ready to add the next part; polythene bags can
also be used to keep the shape moist overnight if you have no damp-cupboard.
- Dry the pots to leather-hard and decorate as required.
- Allow the pots to dry thoroughly before firing.
Slab
- Method of making pottery which is used after one has an experience with the other
methods; various techniques can be combined with slab work, but can be
challenging.
- A slab is a thin even layer of clay to about the thickness of a pencil, with rectangular
corners at 90˚; these are in the best condition for cutting after being left to dry for a
day or so at normal classroom temperature; keep them on flat boards, so that they
don’t buckle while they dry.
- It can be made by rolling a lump of clay on a flat board (top of a table or a piece of
plywood) using a rolling pin or a round bottle.
- ILLUSTRATION
- The slab technique is used to create forms using slabs of flat clay cut into the
required shape; a sharp instrument like a pocket knife is used to trim the slab into
the required shape (square, rectangular, triangular).
- Several slabs are made for whatever structure of the object one intends to model.
- The slabs are joined together at all sides with slip or by carefully smoothening clay
over the joins to make the required shape.
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- For a cylindrical slab pot, the clay needs to be just stiff enough to bend without
cracking, but not soft enough to collapse; a roll of stiff paper such as sugar/manila
paper in the centre gives good support when the cylinder is being built; if a pattern is
required, it is usually best to do this on a flat surface before the clay dries out or
before it is coiled into the cylindrical shape.
- Use slip for the join and press soft clay into the crack.
- In joining any slabs, it is necessary to score both surfaces to be joined, and use
plenty of slip; any crack can be sealed with soft clay; small pieces of slab added to
 any shape should be well scored and covered with slip before being pressed into
position.
- When clay is in leather-hard state, it can be cut away to give a shape like a mask.
- Procedure
- Wedge clay and roll it out into an even sized slab.
- Cut the slab into the required shapes and sizes.
- Join the slabs by smoothening them into each other at all sides and corners, both on
the inside and the outside of the form; use slip if necessary.
- Dry to leather-hard and decorate; leather-hard clay can be cut to give interesting
designs.
- Allow to dry thoroughly then fire.
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Ball (embossing)
- The ball technique is very similar to the pinch method; sometimes called the thumb
or embossing method.
- A lump of clay is rolled into a big ball using the palms of the hands and the elbow/fist
is used to shape the clay to the required form by gradually enlarging and scooping
out the clay.
- The size of the ball depends on the object to be modeled.
- ILLUSTRATION
- Many balls of clay can also be joined together and carefully built up into a 3D form.
- Procedure A
- Take a big lump of kneaded clay and roll it into a ball of a desired size.
- Push a fist into the clay ball and form a hollow.
- Carefully but firmly push out the walls of the ball, ensuring they remain even, and
shape the clay to the required form and size; the thumbs or a thumb is pressed
inside the clay ball and rolled to bring about the shape of the object needed; this is
continued until the article attains its form.
- Dry to leather-hard and decorate as desired.
- Dry thoroughly then fire.
- Procedure B
- Form small balls out of wedged clay.
- Stick the balls with slip (clay mixture with water to a creamy consistency); never use
water to join sections because this will make the clay crack.
- Form the required shape by sticking more balls onto the previous ones.
- When the article has been formed, dry it thoroughly before firing.

Moulding
- A technique of making clay objects by the use of natural or man-made items.
- A process by which many wares of the same shape and size can be made from one
mould.
- A mould is used when a potter wishes to produce the same form many times over to
save time or to get more or less the same consistent shape (more of a duplicating
technique to produce many articles).
- Simple clay moulded objects such as glasses, bowls, mugs, cans, etc., can easily be
made.
- Mould-making tends towards industrial ceramics where thousands of the same shape
are mass-produced.
- There are two types of moulding:- slip moulding and press moulding.
- Some of the materials and tools required are oil (Vaseline, petroleum jelly, grease),
clay, an article with a smooth surface such as a can; the oil is applied on the whole
 inside surface of the container; the aim of applying oil on the surface is to prevent
clay from sticking on the surface as this would spoil the result and create difficulties.
- - The clay is applied on the external surface of the mould; it is evenly spread and
made as smooth as possible; clay can be applied on either the internal or external
walls of the mould.
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- - The clay is left to dry; when it dries, the clay inside the mould shrinks and
because of the oil or grease, the clay model comes out easily; the object so made is
similar to the mould, it has a smooth surface all over the area/sides which were in
contact with the mould.
- At times, we can apply the technique of embossing and that of moulding to make
containers; the mould would be used on the external surfaces of a container e.g., a
bowl; the thumb and fingers would be used to press the clay to have an inner surface
which would be a container; by doing this, we can have a container within a
container.
- Slip moulding
- Prepared slip, that is, clay mixed with water to pouring (porridge) consistency , is
poured into a prepared plaster mould and is left for a few minutes to absorb an even
layer of clay and then the remainder of the slip is poured out.
- The length of time the slip is left in the mould determines the thickness of the piece.
- Press moulding
- Clay is usually laid over a mould for flat dishes, and in bowls and cups the clay is
pressed evenly inside them.
- In order that the clay does not stick to the mould, very often a piece of thin muslin is
placed over the outside or inside of the mould and then the rolled out clay is placed
over the muslin.
- When the clay is firm enough it is removed together with the muslin which is
removed when the clay is fully dry.
- If fired ware is used as moulds, the muslin is not required because the clay will not
stick to the fired mould.
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- Plaster moulds
- Can be simple or complex depending on the type of form being cast.
- Single plaster mould (bowl, cup, etc)
- - Choose a suitable mould such a bowl.
- - The form should not have any projections such as handles.
- - Plug the inside of the form with clay.
- - Place it upside down and build a clay wall round it, ensuring to leave space
between the clay and the form, all round.
- - Build the wall so that it is higher than the height of the mould.
- - Once this is done, laminate the mould with cooking oil or with liquid soap; this is
to prevent the plaster from sticking to the mould.
- - Prepare the plaster by slaking it in water; this is done by sieving the plaster onto
the surface of the water and allowing it to sink to the bottom of the bucket.
- - Slake the plaster until no more water is visible.
- - Let the plaster stand for a few minutes and then stir it with the hands to break up
any lumps.
- - The amount of plaster needed is usually about 4 volumes to 3 volumes of water,
but the amount required can be estimated according to the size of the mould.
- - The plaster is ready for pouring when it no longer drips off the hand but rather
sticks to it.
- - Bang the bucket gently to release any air present.
- - Pour the plaster round the sides of the mould right up to the top of the clay wall
so that the base of the mould is covered with plaster.
- - Leave the plaster to set for about 30 minutes.
- - Check to see if the plaster is ready by pressing a finger into it; if it leaves no
impression the plaster is ready.
- - Remove the clay wall surrounding the plaster and then turn the plaster and
mould upside down and gently remove the mould from the plaster.
- - Leave the plaster mould to fully dry before using it for casting.
- - Prepare a suitable slip for casting and pour it into the plaster mould.
- - Leave it for some minutes to be absorbed by the plaster mould and then pour out
the excess slip.
- - The thickness of the cast form depends on the length of time the slip is left in the
plaster mould.
- - Allow the slip to dry before attempting to remove it; if it is removed before it is
sufficiently dry the form will be distorted.
- - When the form is dry and has been removed it can be decorated as desired.
- Two-piece plaster mould (jug, etc)
- - Prepare a clay base and half-bury the mould in it so that it is precisely and
accurately halved.
- - Surround the mould with clay so that the wall is higher than the mould.
- - Slake the plaster as described above and pour it into the form so that it runs
down the sides of the mould into the space between the clay wall and the mould.
- - Don’t pour the plaster into the space as the details of the mould will obscured.
- - Pour the plaster up to the top of the clay wall; leave it to set for about 30
minutes.
- - Test if the plaster is ready by pressing a finger into it; if it leaves no impression
then the clay wall can be separated from the plaster and mould.
- - Turn the plaster with the mould upside down.
- - Remove the clay from the bottom of the mould.
- - Build a clay wall round the plaster and mould so that it is higher than the mould.
- Hollow out holes in the plaster ledges and laminate them with oil or liquid soap; when
the second half of the plaster mould is made these holes will allow projections to be
cast and these will eventually fit into the holes to form locks or keys to fix the two
sections of the plaster moulds together during the casting process.
- - When ready slake and pour the plaster over the form and into the space created
by the clay wall; allow the plaster to set for about 30 minutes and remove the clay
and mould from the plaster; leave the two sections of the plaster mould to fully dry
before using it.
- - When the two plaster sections are ready to use they should be fitted together so
that the projections fit into the holes; the two sections should be securely tied
together so that no space is left between them; a suitable slip is prepared and
poured into the mould and left to be absorbed for a few minutes, or longer depending
on the thickness required; the mould must be tied securely together before pouring
occurs.
- - The cast form should be left to dry properly before being removed.
- - The cast forms can be decorated as required and then fired.
Storage and preservation of ongoing work
- One needs a fairly large space to keep ongoing work moist for a length of time.
- Work can be kept moist, either by covering each piece with a polythene bag and
storing in a cool space, or by constructing a damp-cupboard, where the work can be
kept in good condition for some time; whichever method one chooses, always mark
the work for identification.
- Making a damp-cupboard
- One can adapt a shelf in a classroom cupboard into an efficient damp space; cover
the space with a thin gauge polythene sheet; each surface should be covered, and
drawing pins can be used to keep the polythene in place.
- Leave enough material to drape as a curtain over the front of the shelf/shelves.
- Small containers of water can be kept among the work to keep it moist.
- ILLUSTRATION
- Tidiness during work
- While working with clay, occasionally check to see if any has been brushed or
dropped onto the floor.
- Don’t use anything other than a slightly damp cloth to clear up any spillage of slip or
clay; water makes more slip.
- Brush up all dried clay off the floor when the tables have been cleared of papers; a
small knife will remove pieces of clay that have been trampled onto the floor; place
all chairs/stools on desk or table tops.
- Use a soft brush or a polishing mop to sweep around the floor, under desks and
tables, etc; if pieces of clay cannot be removed from the floor, use a damp but not
wet mop to wipe away; water will spread the clay further around the room, turning
the clay into slip and leaving a film of white, grey, brown or red on the floor,
depending on the color of the clay used.
- The most sensible way of dealing with mess is to recognize that there will be some,
and do your utmost to clear as much as possible at the end of the lesson period.
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Throwing on the potter’s wheel

- A faster method of making ceramic ware; many articles can be modeled within a
short time; the method is mainly used in the production of commercial articles.
- It involves the use of the potter’s wheel on which wedged clay is placed and formed
while the wheel is rotating.
- This technique is called thus because the clay is literally thrown on the wheel in order
to center it and manipulated to create the form; a ball of clay is placed on the
machine and supported with the palms of both hands, the machine is made to rotate
thereby rotating the clay ball, while the palms of the hands are used to bring the ball
of clay into the shape of the required article.
- - The hands must be made wet now and then while the process is going on
otherwise dry hands will make clay stick on them and spoil the sides of the article.
- The potter’s wheel is a revolving machine that is propelled with the feet like a
manual sewing machine.
-
- There are various types of potter’s wheels, but the basic ones are the kick-wheel and
the electric wheel.
- The kick-wheel has a heavy fly wheel which the potter kicks with the foot to activate
and rotate a central shaft which in turn rotates the upper wheel on which the clay is
 formed; some potters prefer the kick-wheel because they feel they can control it
better.
- The electric wheel is similar to the kick-wheel but is powered by electricity and has
an electrical pedal which the potter activates with the foot; it is faster/speedier to use
and much more mechanical.
- It is preferred by some potters while the kick-wheel is preferred by others.
- Throwing on the wheel requires a lot of practice.
- Process
- Wedge the clay and make it slightly stiffer than that used in hand-building; form the
clay into a circular shape by hand.
- The clay must be ‘thrown’ more/less accurately onto the center of the wheel and
kept centered during the formation of the ceramic form.
- If the clay mass is not centered properly, the pot will be distorted.
- The main points to remember in throwing are:- centering, hollowing, pulling up, and
shaping.
- Centering
- The clay is thrown onto the rotating wheel and pressed down.
- Cup the hands over the clay and press down at the same time, press the clay down
again, using a slight screwing motion; use a little water if necessary.
- Centering is checked with a fingertip as the wheel turns.
- If the clay is not centered properly at the beginning, the forms will be difficult to
manipulate and shape and will be distorted; the form should not wobble; wobbling,
causes the form to be difficult to create thus distorting the required shape/form.
- The clay must be kept constantly centered to prevent distortion.
- The lump of clay is pulled upwards to form a cylindrical shape.
- Hollowing
- Hollowing must be carried out only when the form has been centered accurately.
- Hollowing is done by cupping the hands around the cylindrical form and pressing the
thumb into the center and down as far as it will go (both thumbs can be used for
hollowing).
- The thumbs are taken out and the right hand is cupped around the side of the
cylinder while the other hand is used to enlarge the hollow as the wheel rotates.
- The cylindrical form is pulled up to the desired shape, while ensuring to keep the
shape centered.

- Pulling up
- Pulling up the form involves actually pulling up the clay into a cylindrical form, with a
motion of pulling up, pressing down, pulling up, and cupping the hands around the
shape to pull and manipulate the clay into the required form.
- Pulling up the form requires practice; too much pulling will distort and crack the
shape, especially if the walls of the form become too thin; too little pulling will give a
heavy form; it is important to perfect the technique by constant practice.
- Shaping
- From the cylindrical form, any type of ceramic ware can be created by pushing down
and pulling up the clay to the required form.
- Procedure
- Throwing on the wheel requires a lot of practice.
- Wedge the clay and make it slightly stiffer than that used in hand-building.
- Form the clay into a circular shape by hand.
- Throw the clay as near to the center of the wheel as possible.
- Dip your hands into water while working; the water acts as a lubricant.
- Rotate the wheel by kicking/pressing the electric switch with the foot.
 - Cup the hands over the clay and press down at the same time.
- Press the clay down again, using a slight screwing motion; use a little water if need
be.
- Check for centering with a fingertip as the wheel turns; it should not wobble, because
if it wobbles the clay has not been centered properly and this will give a distorted
shape, which will be hard to shape into the required form.
- Shape the clay into a cylinder using a twisting motion, moving the hands up and
down the sides of the form.
- The clay must be kept constantly centered to prevent distortion.
- Begin to hollow the cylinder by cupping the hands around the clay and press the
thumbs into the center and down as far as they will go.
- Take out the thumbs and cup the right hand around the side of the cylinder and use
the other hand to enlarge the hollow as the wheel rotates.
- Start to pull up the clay, ensuring to keep the shape centered.
- Pull up and shape the clay cylinder to the desired shape while rotating the wheel.
- When the desired form has been made, slip a wire across the wheel to release the
pot and then set it aside to dry to leather-hard.
- Put the leather-hard form on the wheel which has some clay slip.
- As the wheel rotates, move a wire down the edge to check the center of the form.
- Use a wire loop, or turning tool, to trim the outside of the base.
- Trim the inside to the required thickness.
- Remove the form and place it upside down on the wheel, making sure it is centered.
- Rotate the wheel and use the wire to trim the base.
- Smoothen the pot by wetting a sponge and move it up and down the pot as the
wheel rotates.
- Decorate as desired and when it is thoroughly dry, fire it.
-

Decorating techniques
- There are many different techniques of decorating ceramic wares; what makes a
ceramic form unique is the way each potter forms and decorates it, even if similar
techniques are used, some of these include:- marks, sgraffito, engobe, slip-trailing,
impressions, incising, excising, burnishing, inlaying, and resist.
Slip
- Slip, which is liquid clay, can be used to decorate dishes, flat shapes or pots; usually
a color which differs from the main body color is used, for instance red slip on a buff
(beige/fawn/off-white) body.
- A mixture of clay and water which is applied in a creamy consistency to leather-hard
ceramic ware.
- To make slip, mix 4.5 liters of water with not less than 2.5 kg ???????? and not more
than 4.5 kg of dry ball clay; this will make about 5 litres of slip.
- Alternatively, one can make slip from clay which has been left to soak in a bucket of
water, by sieving several times through 80s and 120s sieves; it can be colored in the
same way as glaze, by mixing in a suitable stain or oxide color; for storage use a well
stoppered bottle.
- If slip is too thin and does not thicken, add calcium chloride to it.
- 1 part of oxide mixed with boiling water added to 4 parts dry clay will make a colored
slip; up to 20 parts of dry clay can be used.
- Blue slip consists of 50 parts clay, 0.5 parts cobalt oxide, 1 part rutile; mix thoroughly
and apply to leather-hard forms.
- Amethyst blue consists of 50 parts clay, 0.5 parts cobalt oxide, 1 part rutile, 1.25
parts manganese oxide; mix thoroughly and apply to leather-hard forms.
- Strong dark brown consists of 5 parts clay, 1 part iron oxide, 1 part copper oxide; mix
thoroughly and apply to leather-hard forms.
- Dark slip consists of 150 g frit, 90 g cobalt oxide, 180 g red iron oxide, 120 g
manganese oxide, 90 g copper; mix enough slip thoroughly to glaze several ceramic
pieces and apply to ceramic forms.
- Medium slip consists of 150 g frit, 180 g red iron oxide, 90 g low-fire red clay, 60 g
rutile (titanium oxide), mix thoroughly and apply to ceramic forms.
- White slip for slip trailing consists of 30 g kaolin, 15 g ball clay, 15 g frit, 15 g whiting,
20 g silica, 5 g opacifer (such as tin or zinc), 5 g sugar; mix thoroughly and apply to
ceramic forms.
- If after firing the slips appear chalky, then they have not reached maturation
temperature.
- ILLUSTRATIONS
Slip-trailing
- Different colored clay slips are slip-trailed on the surface of ceramic forms using
syringes or plastic squeeze bottles; slip can also applied using a brush.
- A technique which involves the use of liquid clays (slips) which are applied by
dipping, spraying, sponging, and trailing (dripping by using a nozzle).
- Slip-trailing can be done while the form is being formed on the wheel.
- Transparent glaze is usually applied over slips.
- If two different slips are used together they must be of the same maturing
temperature (firing temperature).
Marks
- Can be made on ceramic forms with the fingers or with any type of tool which will
leave a mark on the clay.
- Some marks are accidental and may be interesting and add to the beauty of the
form.
- Different textured marks can be made by carefully hatching the clay.

Sgraffito
- The technique involves scratching a design on the surface of a ceramic form which
has been applied with slip, with any suitable tool such as a comb, nail, compass,
stamps, shells, screws, pencils, hairgrips, plastic curlers, etc.
- Glaze slip of a different color from the main clay body can be applied on the form and
scratched through to form/create the design; an object like a needle or a hairbrush
can be pulled through the slip to cause a marbling effect.
- When the form is fired, the glazed surface contrasts with the pattern areas which are
in the color of clay.
Engobe
- Similar to sgraffito; white/colored clay slip is either applied on the fired (bisque) or
unfired (green-ware) or leather-hard form after which various types of decorations
can be used over it.
- Successive layers of these colored slips (made by adding oxides to clay slip) can be
applied.
Impressions
 - Designs can be created on the surface of ceramic forms by impressing objects into
the moist clay forms.
- Patterned stamps (e.g. wood blocks) can be impressed to form all-over patterns, or
partial patterns.
- Textured materials such as basketry and woven fabric can be impressed into the
form to create interesting textures.
- After the impressions have been made, colored slips may be brushed into the
grooves.
Incising
- Shapes can be incised, or cut, to create patterns on ceramic forms using any suitable
instrument.
- The incised grooves can be lightly done or deeply cut into the form.
Excising
- Cutting out shapes from a ceramic form to leave open spaces.
Burnishing
- When a clay form is leather-hard it can be polished to a high shine by rubbing.
- Any smooth surface object such as the back of a spoon, or smooth pebble, or shiny
pods, can be used.
- Burnishing enriches the color of the piece; this is done on unglazed wares before the
object is fired.
Inlaying
- This is done by carefully cutting out a groove in the ceramic form, and embedding in
the groove a cut-out shape.
- The shapes are held/fixed in the groove with slip.
- Alternatively the cut shapes can be brushed with slip and laid on the ceramic form.
- The spot where the shape is to be laid should be slightly scratched so that the shape
can adhere to it.
- Inlaid shapes can be in the same color as the main ceramic form or clay body or can
be of different colors for contrast.
Wax resist
- Involves the application of wax to the surface of a ceramic form so as to resist slip or
glaze; e.g., a pot can be patterned with wax, leaving some areas un-waxed.
- When the slip is applied to the surface, the wax will resist it but the un-waxed
sections will absorb it.
- Alternatively wax can be applied to cover the complete surface of the form after
which patterns are scratched through and slip applied.
- The slip will flow into the scratched areas.
-
- Procedure
- - Use 50% beeswax and 50% paraffin wax.
- - Paint the pot with slip.
- - Resist with wax when dry.
- - Paint over with iron oxide.
- - Wax over iron oxide.
- - Scratch through the wax layers.
- - Paint over with cobalt slip.
- - Fire.
Glazes and glazing techniques
- Glazes, because of their chemical content, are dangerous, and in order that they
comply with regulations, most manufacturers have taken great care to ensure the
safety of the materials; glazes should be leadless or ‘low lead solubility’ (these
contain less than 5% lead); they are as safe as it is possible to make them, but great
 care should be taken, and it is best for all materials to be kept in a lockable store
room, and always take the following precautions:
- - 1. Do not introduce ceramic colors and enamels into the mouth.
- - 2. Don’t use the color in a dusty condition or in a place where there are strong
draughts.
- - 3. Handle the colors carefully in small quantities and store in closed containers
(screw-top jars are good/appropriate, therefore recommended).
- - 4. Use suitable protective clothing.
- - 5. Take meticulous care with storage of all glazes at all stages; the glaze,
oxides and colors come in packets and need storage in either glass jars or polythene
screw-top containers; glaze powder contains no moisture and needs to be suspended
in water before it can be used in any form; bentonite is a glaze suspension agent and
is recommended for use in glaze mixtures, plus a few drops of calcium chloride
solution; when the glaze is mixed it can be stored conveniently in large jars;
polythene detergent bottles or wine or cider jars are ideal.
- - 6. Wash hands thoroughly after using the glaze or colors.
Making basic glaze solution
- Materials and tools
- - 2 large buckets (polythene for easier cleaning),
- - 2 sieves (preferably phosphor bronze, 120 and 80 holes to the inch),
- - Several sponges,
- - 2 laths of wood (1 m x 3 cm x 1cm),
- - A large headed brush,
- - 3 kg glaze powder,
- - 120 g. bentonite,
- - A few drops of calcium chloride solution,
- - A polythene measuring jug.
- Fill up one of the buckets with 4 litres of water.
- Weigh 3 kg. of glaze powder and break up any large lumps.
- Gently pour into the bucket of water and stir with one of the laths.
- When all the powder has been poured in, add 120 g. bentonite in similar fashion and
5 drops of the calcium chloride solution.
- Place 80s sieve on the laths on top of the second bucket and pour in the glaze
solution.
- Use the brush to push the thick glaze particles through the mesh of the sieve; repeat
this 2 or 3 times until the solution is fluid; repeat finally through a 120s sieve.
- Allow the glaze to stand in jars which have been carefully marked, e.g., basic
transparent, basic matt or opaque.
- This process can be repeated for any amount of glaze powder, but 3 kg. is enough for
each mixing.
- This basic glaze can be used after being left overnight, but should be stirred and
sieved before use to ensure equal distribution of the particles of glaze in the solution;
it will probably now be ready to test.
- For testing, use pieces of fired clay (biscuit ware) about 5 x 7 cm; if the biscuit is very
porous you need to apply only a thin coating of glaze, if it is non-porous, the glaze
should be applied quite thickly.
- Glaze is a vitreous substance used to cover ceramic forms/wares in order to make
them attractive, durable and impervious to liquids; a form of glass constitution when
applied to a clay article and heated sufficiently, melts without melting the ceramic
ware.
- The vitreous substance is applied to unfired ware called green ware or to fired ware
called bisque ware; glaze can be sprayed, painted on, or the article can be dipped
into it.
- When the glaze is fired, it melts and fuses to the ceramic body.
- The type of glaze chosen for a particular ceramic form depends on the type of clay
body and its firing temperature.
- A glaze which vitrifies at a different temperature from the clay body will peel off or
will blister or be underdeveloped.
- The important factors to consider in glazes are composition and glazing techniques.
- Glazes are composed of a mixture of substances mixed together:- feldspar (alumina
for viscosity, to hold the glass on the clay), flux (whiting to melt the silica), coloring
agents, and silica sand (basis of glass).
Methods of glazing
- Work near a sink if possible, and cover the floor with newspaper/newsprint.
- Keep work to be glazed out of splashing distance.
- Use a bucket or a bowl, depending on the shapes to be glazed; other materials are 2
laths, a plastic measuring jug and small sponges.
- Keep the glaze well stirred before each dipping.
- Some commercial potters use wire tongs when dip glazing; for most small shapes,
cups, thumb pots, etc., grip the object with a finger on the base and thumb on the
top rim, or any other comfortable grip; hold the object with as light a touch as
possible and totally immerse it in the glaze; quickly shake off any surplus, as in a few
moments the glaze will be dry.
- To fill in the finger marks, place the article on a table and apply glaze carefully to the
bare spots with a glaze-covered finger; let the drips from your finger fill up the cavity,
and ensure you don’t put on so much that it runs onto the already glazed surface.
- Then take the shape in your hand and, with a paper towel or tissue, wipe off any
surplus glaze from the base.
-

- ……(p 68)
Feldspar (alumina)
- Contains aluminum silicates of potassium, calcium, and barium.
- Alumina is aluminum oxide.
- It is also found in kaolin and ball clays and glazes.
- Alumina is important in glaze because it prevents the glaze from melting too rapidly
and running off the ceramic ware.
- Alumina can be considered an important bonding agent and vitrifier which holds the
glaze on the clay.
Whiting (flux)
- Basically a white chalk or calcium carbonate.
- Whiting is a flux; flux is a fusing agent added to a glaze to aid it in melting; it is a
vitrifier (such as feldspar).
 - It is the lowest-melting compound in a glaze.
- It lowers the firing and melting temperature of a glaze.
- When a flux is combined with silica it helps to break down the higher-melting
alumina-silica compounds to eventually form glass (vitreous substances).
- A flux with a metal oxide like calcium carbonate gives a low-melting point and helps
in fusion.
- Other materials which can be used as flux are lead (very poisonous), borax, sodium
carbonate (soda ash), calcium carbonate, dolomite (contains calcia and magnesia),
talc (magnesium silicate), and potash.
- Sodium carbonate is a very active flux.
Silica (flint)
- This is silicon dioxide, commonly called quartz.
- Silica is the basis of glass; also found in sand.
- Silica sand contains a high amount of vitreous substance and under sufficient heat
can melt into glass.
- It is a hardener and stiffener.
- Silica is a flint, i.e., it is a vitrifying agent; an impure grayish-white form of quartz,
usually present in chalk.
Properties of glaze ingredients
- It is useful to understand the qualities of the ingredients used in glazes:- ash, calcium
carbonate, cobalt carbonate, cobalt oxide, cobalt sulphate, colemanite, copper
carbonate, copper oxide, dolomite, frit, iron oxide, lead carbonate, potassium
dichromate, tin oxide, mica, sodium carbonate, rutile, sodium chloride, volcanic ash.
- Glazes can be very expensive, therefore one needs to think of ways of using local
materials for glazes.
Ash (wood, straw, etc)
- One of the cheapest glazes.
- The ashes of trees, straws, leaves, and other organic materials all contain amounts of
alumina, small amounts of iron phosphorus, lime, potash, and magnesia.
- Ash from any fireplace can be collected and used by simply screening and grinding.
- Wood ash glaze would consist of 1 part earthenware, 1 part feldspar potash, 1 part
wood ash (thoroughly screened); mix with water and apply to clay body then fire at
Cone 8 – Cone 10.
- In order to become a glaze ash must be high-fired above Cone 10.
- These substances can vitrify at high temperatures to form glazes.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium oxide (CaO)
- Calcium carbonate is chalk and is produced by processing marble or limestone, or
from chalk deposits; calcium oxide is also called whiting.
- It is a high-fire flux and can be used in very small amounts in low-fired glazes.
Cobalt carbonate (CoCO3)
- Used for blue glazes.
- It is a powerful colorant and can be mixed with manganese to produce purple; with
iron chromate, or ochre to produce blacks; as little as 0.2% will produce blue.
Cobalt oxide (Co2O3)
- Used for blue glazes and melts at low temperatures; can be mixed with alumina, lime
or lead for low-fired underglazes.
Cobalt sulphate (CoSO47H2O)
- Used for lusters and decorative work and melts at low temperatures.
Colemanite (2CaO.3B2O3.5H2O)
- This is calcium borate; it is a low-fire flux and prevents crazing in pots.
Copper carbonate (CuCO3)
- Used for blue-green glazes.
Copper oxide (CuO) and red copper oxide (Cu 2O)
- Copper oxides exist in 2 colors: black copper oxide and red copper oxide.
- These can be combined with various other ingredients to produce different colors,
e.g., copper and tin and an alkaline flux produces turquoise; copper and potash give
yellowish-green; copper and zinc and fluxes of sodium, potassium, and barium
produce blue.
Dolomite [CaMg (CO3)2]
- Contains calcia and magnesia.
- It is used in clay bodies to produce a longer firing range.
Frit
- Partial or complete glaze which is melted and then reground for the purpose of
eliminating the toxic effects of lead, or for making borax and soda ash soluble.
Iron oxide (FeO)
- Used to produce tan, brown, and red clay bodies and glazes.
Lead carbonate [2PbCO3.Pb(CH)2]
- This is white and is extremely poisonous and should not be used in schools or
colleges; it must be handled with care.
- Lead can enter the body through the nostrils, cuts on the hands, etc.
- It should never be blown off surfaces, but must be wiped off with a damp cloth.
- It should not be used for eating utensils, foodstuffs containing acids in particular;
liquids should never be stored in lead-glazed containers; lead-glazed ware should not
be used to store substances that are acidic, such as lemon juice, fruit juices.
- Lead glazes are highly/brightly colored; they react with acid even after they have
been fired.
Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
- A poisonous substances.
- Used to produce green glazes and can be combined with tin to develop low-fire stains
in red and pink hues.
Mica
- Hydrous silicates of aluminum and potassium.
- Used to strengthen clay bodies and for thermal shock.
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
- Also called soda ash; a very active flux; also used as a frit in glaze.
Tin oxide (SnO2)
- Also called stannic acid.
- Used to make opaque glazes; it can be used alone or as frit.
- Also an expensive material.

Rutile [Titanium dioxide (TiO2)]

- A titanium oxide used for tan and orange colors.
- Can be used to provide interesting textures when used with shiny glazes.
Sodium chloride
- Common salt which can be used as a glaze.
- It is injected in a bisque fire at its peak temperature.
- The heat vaporizes the salt and chlorine escapes as a gas while sodium is deposited
on the ceramic form to give a clear, transparent mottled glaze.
Volcanic ash
- Fine, powdery ash found in plentiful supply in volcanic areas such as along the
Magadi Road, on the way to Lake Magadi.
- It can be used as a glaze without the addition of any other ingredients; gives creamy
shiny colors.
- It can be fired at a high temperature to produce a whitish glaze.
Talc
 - This is magnesium silicate.
-
Types of glazes
- These are classified according to their ingredients; they can have certain qualities
which include those that are:- transparent, opaque, gloss, and matt.
- Prepared glazes can be bought from ceramic dealers; these prepared glazes need
little preparation; the glazes are mixed with water; some powdered gum can added
to the liquid glaze to prevent it from running off the ceramic ware.
- It is worth collecting different types of soils and testing them for glazes; the
substances should be finely ground and sieved before mixing with water and fluxes.
- A basic glaze contains a proportion of the following: - feldspar, whiting, kaolin, flint,
oxide and flux; a typical glaze would have the following:- white lead – 100 g, whiting
– 15 g, feldspar – 35 g, kaolin – 8 g, flint – 25 g, water – ¼ litre; the ingredients are
mixed with water and sieved before applying to a ceramic ware; the lead in the glaze
is used as a flux and is good for low-fired glazes.
- A simple glaze would be 4 parts feldspar, 3 parts silica, 2 parts limestone (calcium
carbonate), 1 part clay; mix with water and apply to clay body; fire at Cone 8 – Cone
10.
- Examples of glazes which can be used on ceramic forms are as follows; they can be
altered proportionally if the results are not what each individual potter requires.
Under-glaze colors
- Under-glaze paints are best applied by using an under-glaze medium on the biscuit
ware; the medium should be applied sparingly with a brush.
- Water can be used as a medium, but is not as effective.
- Any number of colors can be used on each piece of work.
- Glaze must not be applied too thickly on under-glaze color or it will ruin the work.
Transparent glaze
- Clear and reveals the color of the clay body or the under-glaze; enhances the color of
the body.
- 13 parts whiting, 19 parts zinc, 20 parts soda feldspar, 29 parts flint, 19 parts kaolin;
mix thoroughly and apply to clay body; fire at Cone 8 to Cone 10.
Opaque glaze
- Non-transparent and cover the clay body completely thereby obscuring the fine
details of ceramic forms.
- Created by adding tin, titanium and antimony.
Gloss glaze
- Smooth and glass-like; highly reflective and brilliant.

Matt glaze
- They are not brilliant, but are rough and more porous and can be used to produce
interesting, unique ceramic pieces.
- 25 parts whiting, 40 parts feldspar, 30 parts kaolin, 5 parts titanium oxide (rutile);
mix thoroughly and apply to clay body and fire at cone 8 and 10.
Wood ash glaze
- 1 part earth-ware clay, 1 part feldspar potash, 1 part thoroughly screened wood ash;
mix with water and apply to clay body; fire at Cone 8 to Cone 10.
Oxides (metallic)
Coloring oxides
- Oxides can be added to basic glaze to make colored glazes; they are quite strong
and one should take care not to exceed the percentage mentioned in any recipe.
- Cobalt in particular is very strong and needs special attention.
 - Oxides can be applied in the same way as the under-glaze paints, but they have one
slight disadvantage: in their raw form, copper, cobalt, and manganese oxides are all
black and this could cause some confusion, however, results from the use of oxides
colors are very good, because strong bold colors are produced; these oxides can be
used on biscuit ware and covered with matt or opaque glaze.
- They look particularly effective as the color breaks through the glaze in varying
strengths; they look best when high-lighting a decoration on the surface.
- The color of ceramic glazes is determined by the use of metallic oxides; these include
copper, chrome, cobalt, iron, manganese, and nickel; oxides can be mixed to give
different colors.
- The following can be added to basic glaze ingredients to produce different colored
glazes; some of the items are elements while others are actual oxides.
Copper oxide
- Gives a variety of colors ranging from pale greens to grey-blacks, depending on the
quantity used.
- 1% – 5% makes shades of green.
Iron oxide
- Used to produce tan, brown, and red bodies in glazes; gives red, orange, yellow, and
brown.
- A gray-black can be achieved by using black iron oxide.
- 1% – 15% makes honey yellow through to brown/black.
Cobalt oxide
- Gives a range of blues.
- ¼ – 2% makes shades of blue.
Bismuth
- A brittle pinkish-white crystalline element which gives a pearl color.
Chromium
- A hard grey metallic element which gives green, pink, and red colors.
Iridium
- A very hard, yellowish-white element, which gives gray color.
Manganese
- A brittle grayish-white metallic element which gives brown, purple, and black.
- 1% – 15% makes brown to purple/brown.
Nickel
- A malleable silvery-white metal which gives brown, yellow, purple, violet and blue.
Tin oxide
- Produces opacity; also called stannic oxide; used to make glazes opaque.
- It can be used alone or as a frit.
-
A guide to glaze colors
Basic transparent:
- Blue [more suitable on terra cotta than buff (beige/off-white/fawn/camel)]: 1.5 kg.
glaze, 10 g. cobalt oxide.
- Deep red to brown (depending on the clay used): 1.2 kg. glaze, 200g. iron oxide
(red).
- Deep blue: 1.3 kg. glaze, 140 g. zinc oxide, 10 g. cobalt oxide.
- Dark green flecked with black: 1.3 kg. glaze, 40 g. copper oxide, 70 g. iron oxide
(sieve iron with glaze and sprinkle in copper un-sieved).
- Blue-green: 1.4 kg. glaze, 10 g. cobalt oxide, 60 g. copper oxide.
- Yellow-brown (on buff clay); deep brown or red (on terra cotta): 1.3 kg. glaze, 85 g.
iron oxide (red).
Basic matt:
 - Green speckled with black: 1.4 kg. glaze, 60 g. copper oxide, 20 g. cobalt oxide (un-
sieved).
- Brown (ideal over under-glaze oxide): 1.3 kg. glaze, 85 g. manganese oxide.
- Light or mid blue: 1.5 kg. glaze, 10 – 20 g. cobalt oxide.
- Green (ideal over under-glaze oxide): 1.5 glaze, 60 g. copper oxide.
Basic opaque glazes:
- Add colors in the same way as for transparent glazes.
- If the oxides are added to glaze solution, various effects (from heavily freckled to
smooth color) will be obtained by (a) not sieving the coloring oxide, (b) sieving the
oxide with the glaze, (c) thoroughly grinding the oxide with a small quantity of glaze
before adding to the bulk of the glaze.
- ILLUSTRATION
- 1.5 kg. of each colored glaze is a convenient amount to work with; they need to be
carefully applied so that excess dribbles don’t ruin the work by making it uneven;
they could even run off the pot/article and fix to the kiln shelf, therefore wipe the
base of any article clean before placing on a shelf, stilt or spur; wax resist can save
one a great deal of trouble if it is painted onto the article’s base before applying the
glaze.
- One can try out the colored glazes on test tiles or shapes first; some glazes look
better on a flat surface than on a tall curved shape.
- Be sure to fire the glaze ware to the temperature recommended by the
manufacturer; some glazes mature at 1000 – 1050˚C., others at 1050 – 1100˚C., so
fire in separate firings.
- Glaze settles down with keeping and should be kept in a well-stoppered jar; stir up
well before use and sieve if necessary; but for a speckled effect, don’t sieve but stir
the glaze solution.

Self-glazing clay bodies

- Many clays are self-glazing at certain temperatures; such clays usually mature at
Cone 8 (1950˚C) to Cone 10 (894˚C).
- Fluxes can be added to develop the colors.
- These are mixtures of grog, kaolin, silica, and flux (such as soda ash, borax, sodium
bicarbonate).
- The soluble fluxes emerge through the non-plastic clay to the surface during the dry
stage.
- The ware must not be handled at this stage because the fluxes will be rubbed off or
smudged; the ware is set on stilts for drying the firing.
- In order to produce self-glazing effects about 5% to 15% soluble fluxes should be
added to the clay body; too much flux causes bloating.
- When the ware is fired, the self-glazing bodies mature and the colors are developed.
- Examples of self-glazing bodies are:- Tenmoku, and Egyptian paste.

Tenmoku
- A greenish glaze which is produced by mixing equal amounts of earthenware clay
and feldspar.
- The clay is first put through a 30 mesh screen and then through a 50 mesh screen.
Egyptian paste
- A self-glazing mixture of grog, kaolin, silica, and flux (e.g., soda ash, salt, sodium
bicarbonate, borax, boric acid,).
- Colorants which are usually metallic carbonates plus copper are added to the paste;
just enough water is added to produce a modeling consistency hence the word paste.
 - It fires at below 1000˚C.
- Beads made from Egyptian paste are threaded through galvanized wire for drying
and firing.
Orange-brown glaze
- 100 parts fire clay, 50 parts ball clay, 25 parts feldspar, 10 parts silica, 5 parts
magnesium carbonate.
White to grey-green glaze
- 50 parts fire clay, 50 parts ball clay, 50 parts feldspar, 50 parts silica.
Self-glazing porcelain
- 50 parts china clay, 25 parts flint, 25 parts feldspar.
- This is fired at Cone 10 and higher; it should vitrify to a translucent white body.
-
Low fire glazes
- Glazes which melt at low temperatures; they usually contain fluxes such as borax,
colemanite, or lead.
- These glazes are mixed with silica-rich materials in the ratios of 1:1 or 2:1.
- An example of a low-fire glaze consists of 1 part colemanite, 1 part china clay, 1 part
borax; mix with water and apply to dry clay body.
Slip glaze
- A slip which contains 20% flux or 30% frit comes into the category of a fusible slip or
slip glaze when fired to temperatures above 1200˚C without a covering of glaze.
Terra sigilata
- This is liquid clay slip applied by brushing, dipping or spraying and then fired at
900˚C to 1000˚C to produce a half-glossy red-brown glaze.
- The slip is made as follows:
- - 230 g red clay, 5 g sodium hydroxide (water softener such as calgon), 1 litre of
water; mix the sodium hydroxide with water and add to clay; use lime-free water
(distilled water if the tap water contains lime).
- - Leave the solution to stand for at least 15 minutes.
- - Stir thoroughly and pour it into a glass container; leave it to stand for about 2
days.
- - Decant the top layer which consists of the finest particles; this is terra sigilata;
boil it to evaporate the excess water.
- - Use it on burnished ware.
-
-

Stains
- In ceramics, stains refer to certain colorants composed of metallic oxides and
carbonates and fritted pigments or ceramic metallic oxide mixtures.
- Stain mixtures contain cobalt, copper, chrome, manganese, iron, nickel or uranium
oxides and carbonates; these can be used alone or in various combinations such as
glazes and clays.
- Fritted ceramic pigments are made by grinding and calcining ceramic materials and
oxides, and re-grinding and washing them; these are known as commercial stains.
 - Raw stains are mixtures of oxides and ceramic materials which are thoroughly
blended to form a mixture which is ready to use.
- Oxides are the coloring agents in these mixtures.
- When used alone, they are applied to the surface of raw clay, dry clay, bisque ware,
or over a glaze.
- In order that they adhere to the surface properly, stains are usually mixed with gum
and water, or with glycerin and water, or oil and turpentine.
- The painted work can then be dipped in the transparent glaze and fired; the glaze
powder for use is prepared by adding water and stirring in Bentonite and some drops
of a solution made from calcium chloride crystals, it is then sieved and left to mature
in a stoppered bottle.
Making ready-to-use raw stains
- The basic equipment needed for making raw stains is an accurate weighing scale,
and a mortar and pestle.
- - Weigh the ceramic materials to total 500 g (for example).
- - Mix thoroughly.
- - Sieve several times through a 120 mesh screen.
- - Store in airtight glass container and label.
- - When needed, mix it with water (and some gum) to a painting consistency and
apply to ceramic forms.
- Example:
- Made to a total 100g: 70 g zinc oxide, 15 g whiting, 10 g cobalt cobalt carbonate, 5 g
nickel oxide.

Firing ceramic wares

- Dried out clay becomes hard, and soon crumbles if slight pressure is applied; it is
therefore necessary to provide heat in some form to make it much harder; there is a
change in the composition of clay at a temperature of about (500 – 600)˚C, this is
when all the water in the clay has evaporated; clay fired to these temperatures is
brittle and needs 1000˚C or so before the change is complete, thus pottery known as
biscuit ware.
- Clay forms are fired to make them permanent.
 - Firing (baking) is the most important step in ceramics, because unfired articles
(green wares) are brittle and easily breakable.
- Firing enables the clay to change from a raw material to a permanent, liquid-proof
material (when glazed) which cannot be reworked into a plastic state by adding or
soaking in water, it is no longer pliable and it cannot be made so; the chemical
change causes the elements in clay to melt and fuse together thereby becoming
hard and resistant to heat, chemicals, atmospheric changes as well as humidity;
firing requires kilns.
- Clay firing takes place in two stages i.e., biscuit firing and gloss firing.
- - In biscuit firing, the moisture content in the article is reduced, while in gloss firing
the article is glazed (glazed articles are painted with glossy materials) before firing.
Kilns
- Special ovens or furnaces used for firing ceramics.
- They vary in size, fuel, and temperature ranges.
- A kiln must be capable of reaching the required maturing temperature of a clay body
and glaze.
- The temperature may be low, medium or high.
- The temperature of a kiln depends on the types of clay or glaze used on the body.
- The size of the kiln depends on the amount of work to be fired, and on the width and
height of the ceramic forms.
- The type of fuel used is determined by the type of kiln and sometimes on the clay
body and glaze (ceramic ware) used.
- The fuel may be wood, gas, straw or electricity.
- There are 3 basic types of kilns:- bonfire, gas and electric.
- In all kiln firings, it is essential to allow the maximum cooling time; not only are you
likely to burn your fingers, but you might also cause the pots to break because of the
rush of cold air onto a hot surface.
Bonfire kiln (open firing)
- Primitive/pit firing is the simplest type of kiln, and the cheapest to use; it can be used
by schools which cannot afford to build gas kilns, or to buy electric kilns.
- A shallow pit lined with wood shavings, straws, dry twigs and branches, wood
splinters, are some of the materials used into which pots/articles/ceramic ware are
piled (placed one on top of another).
- The wares are covered with wood and grass and fired; it is imperative to apply heat
gently and to allow the temperature to build up gradually, this allows the water in the
clay to evaporate and limits the risk of cracking and bursting.
- The wood is arranged so as to allow free/enough circulation of oxygen within the
enclosure.
- Bonfire kilns are only suitable for low-fired wares; traditional potters normally use
them for their articles.
- These types of kilns cannot attain the high temperatures for glazed wares, therefore
glazed wares are never fired in them.

- Using the traditional kiln

- Ensure the articles are perfectly dry.
- Slowly preheat them by holding them over the embers of fire; this ensures that any
moisture present in the pot is removed.
- Pots put straight into the kiln may explode if not properly dried.
- Choose a suitable site, clear and hollow a circular space/patch of the ground which is
big enough for the pots to be fired.
- Place stones, broken pots or lumps of burnt earth in the hollow and cover with sticks.
- Place the pots on top of the sticks, stack more pots on top of each other and then
surround and cover the pots with sticks and wood, ensure to carefully arrange and
separate the articles from each other.
- Cover the sticks with grass/maize stalks, dry twigs and shavings.
- Light the grass, sticks and wood and leave to burn for several hours, preferably
overnight; more sticks and wood should be added if the first lot burns too rapidly.
- Care should be taken when adding more wood in order not to break the pots.
- The wares are then removed and stored in the shade to cool down.
Closed firing
- Clay articles can be done in locally made closed kilns or in modern electric or gas
kilns.
- The best materials for making local closed kilns are baked bricks.
- Compartments are built in the kiln where articles are kept; a chimney to let out heat
and smoke is also built as well as a space on one side where firewood and lighting is
done; once the articles have been arranged in the compartments or shelves, the fire
is then lit.
Using a saw-dust kiln
- Pots fired in the sawdust kiln often have exciting surfaces, caused by juices given off
by the sawdust during the firing; the sawdust needs to have a fine texture, but
shavings of wood mixed with it can help to boost the temperature and may cause
interesting effects.
- Sawdust must be dry, as damp sawdust will not fire.
- Walls can be built using any kind of bricks.
- Building a sawdust kiln
- An old dustbin or a 2½-brick square will provide the framework; ensure the bricks are
close together, so that there are few air holes as possible, mortar is not necessary.
- Place the heavier pots in the bottom of the kiln and grade them so that the lighter
pots are at the top; build each layer of pots on a layer of sawdust 2 or 3 inches thick;
at the top put some old newspaper, partly cover with sawdust, then light the paper.
- A metal dustbin lid is fine as a cover.
- Dig a hollow big enough to hold the articles.
- Place saw-dust in the hollow which should be about one foot (approximately ½ a
meter) deep.
- Place pots on the saw-dust, cover the pots with a foot of saw-dust, place another
layer of pots on the saw-dust taking care not to break the ones beneath, cover with
another layer of saw-dust; continue doing this until all the articles have been put in
place and covered with saw-dust; the last layer of saw-dust should be about one foot
deep.
- Experiment to find the most appropriate depths for your types of work.
- Light the saw-dust from the top and bottom, from at least four sides of the circular
hollow, at equidistance to ensure that the fire is evenly distributed.
- Saw-dust firing turns clay pieces black.
- A dust bin can be used as kiln in this type of firing and a hole can be drilled in the
side at the lower end of the dustbin to allow air to circulate.
- The kiln will burn for 24 to 36 hours, and will reach a temperature of 500˚C.
- No further attention is needed as the fire will burn down the kiln, allowing each layer
to sink down onto the one below, until all the sawdust is burned.
- ILLUSTRATIONS
Flower pot kiln
- Suitable for smaller articles.
- Obtain some old stone floor tiles and a number of pottery flower pots.
- Dig a trench 30 cm deep, 30 cm wide and any length; keep the turf you had
removed, as this will be used later.
- Place a number of stone floor tiles on the base, and the pots to be fired on top of
these; smaller shapes will fire inside larger ones, and a small amount of silver sand
can be put between them; then cover the shapes you wish to fire with inverted flower
pots.
- The heat should be provided by paper and sticks (any form of wood, twigs, branches,
etc.) and kept slowly burning in a ring around the pots for about an hour, then
increase the amount of fire until the pots are covered.
- After two hours, cover the whole trench with sticks and twigs and leave it.
- When the head of the flames has died down, replace the turf so that the kiln will cool
slowly; this method takes about 8 hours; leave the trench to go absolutely cool
before opening it up (24 hrs).
- ILLUSTRATIONS
Coke (charcoal) kilns
- This type of kiln produces fairly satisfactory results.
- The success of firing depends on the weather conditions, particularly wind, the
amount of coke used, and the position of the sagger in the kiln (saggers are fireclay
boxes which protect the work during the firing).
- Building a coke kiln
- You need about 150 bricks, 2 saggers, 1 fireclay bat, 56 lbs coke (25.2 kgs),
firelighters, paper and wood, and an old metal lid as a cover.
- The kiln can be built on open ground above ground level, and on a fairly flat base;
paving flags make a good base.
- Place the saggers on the base and build the shape of the kiln around them, leaving a
gap of 4 or 5 inches for coke.
- The size of the kiln will depend on the size of the saggers.
- There are several ways of arranging the saggers to obtain maximum capacity.
- It takes about 20 hours to heat and cool (much quicker than more sophisticated
kilns).
- Light a ring of firelighters and paper, and place some coke on top; every 15 minutes
place on further amounts of coke, so that it glows and begins to collect heat;
eventually a whole brick’s thickness of coke can be put on and left.
- When the fire has really got a hold, keep stoking until all the coke is used up; this
should be after about 2½ hrs; the kiln will be burn fiercely for about 6 hours and then
gently cool down, ready to be opened the following day.
- It appears white-hot after about 4 or 5 hours, and the maximum temperature
reached is 950 – 1000˚C; Seger cones can be put inside to give an indication of the
temperature reached.
- A dustbin lid can be put over the air vent when the majority of the coke has burnt;
this prevents the kiln cooling down too quickly at night, and prevents any rain from
soaking the sagger or bat, making it weaker or liable to crack.
- ILLUSTRATIONS
Gas kilns
- Made of good quality refractory bricks (fire bricks); refractory boxes are chambers in
which the ware is placed, these are important sections.
- The flames envelop the box but do not touch the wares which are stacked in the
chamber.
- This refractory box is called a muffle.
- Another type of refractory box is called a sagger.
- The difference in a sagger is that it is first loaded outside the chamber and then put
into the firing chamber for firing; the sagger serves the same purpose as the muffle.
- Gas kilns are usually built from refractory bricks and have a good circulation and
chimneys to draw the air and allow the heat to circulate evenly.
- The muffle not only protects the wares from the flames but from combustion
impurities.
- The kiln is fired with gas which is stored in a properly made gas container kept a
distance away from the actual kiln.
- Kilns to be fired at high temperatures require more insulation.
- It is also important for the kiln to have a chimney which draws the air and allows the
heat to circulate evenly thereby firing the articles properly.
- Hot gases pass from the firebox (where the kiln is ignited) and travel around the
muffle to the chimney.
Electric kilns
- Special ovens made for firing ceramic wares; these use electricity as the source of
heat; they are chosen according to the type of work to be fired.
- Firing temperatures range from low to high.
- Clean to use, no gas, fumes or flames are emitted.
- The inside of the kiln is insulated with special refractory bricks (high-fired bricks to
withstand various temperatures).
- The outside of the kiln is usually made of good quality steel.
- The inside walls and inside door are covered with rows and rows of electric elements;
the electric elements are placed around the walls and sometimes along the back or
base, and are set into grooves in the internal refractory brick of the kiln; it is
important not to bump or damage these elements; they can last for years with care,
but can be damaged if handled roughly; the elements are affected by the gases
given off during successive firings, and they acquire a coating of a substance which
can cause weakness in the elements if they are knocked or disturbed.
- It is important to have plenty of ventilation in the kilns to avoid a build-up of gases;
most medium-sized kilns have a fire-brick ventilator at the top, and some of the
smaller ones have a cone which fits into the door and can act as a ventilator.
- Find out the temperature for which your elements are designed before ordering kiln
materials and glazes; some kilns are designed for temperatures up to 1100˚C, and
others are capable of temperatures up to 1300˚C.
- Trying to fire the lower-firing kiln with stoneware work would burn out the elements
and cause damage; so order materials to suit the capabilities of the kiln; most school
kilns would probably only be needed up to earthenware range of temperatures,
1100˚C.
- It is advisable to obtain a pyrometer, which is an electrical instrument for measuring
kiln temperature; it is rather expensive, but for the convenience of an accurate guide
to temperature it is invaluable.
- The wares are stacked on special refractory stands made to withstand heat, in the
chamber.
- The door is tightly bolted during firing so that no heat escapes, after which electricity
is switched.
- The articles are slowly fired; the heat is easily controlled and well distributed.
- The electric kiln can be fired to various temperatures.
- Most small kilns have only one spy hole, and only seger cones are used to record
temperature; when the kiln is really hot it is almost impossible to see them.
- ILLUSTRATIONS
- Electric kilns are expensive and should be handled with great care; they can be
dangerous and safety precautions must be taken to prevent careless use; spend a
little time looking after it, e.g., you can’t leave the kiln to switch itself off at the
correct temperature, or ask someone else to do it, they may forget, and work is
easily ruined by under or over firing.
 - - 1. Always check that the isolator switch is off; no indicator lamp will be on;
check the regulator is off, and the pyrometer reads zero, or room temperature.
- - 2. Unlock padlock and open the door.
- - 3. Pack work with great care; stability of shelves is important; more efficient
packing can be accomplished if work of the same height is kept together; keep work
1 inch from the elements and 2 inches from the door; use silver sand for bisque
firings, and then work can be placed one inside the other, or on top of each other,
separated by sand; keep the kiln free of sand by cleaning and vacuuming after each
firing; for glaze ware, place work on stilts, and ensure the pots don’t touch the kiln or
each other at any point.
- - 4. Place seger cones in line with the spy hole (use one as a pyrometer check or
three otherwise).
- - 5. Close the door and fit the padlock after the final check on the stability of the
shelves and the work.
- - 6. Open the spy hole and remove the ventilator brick.
- - 7. Switch on isolator.
- - 8. Set regulator and switch on; biscuit firing: pre-heat at low, usually overnight;
next day set at medium until 600˚C; close the spy hole, replace the fire brick in
ventilator and set at high; fire to the temperature recommended for the clay; glaze
firing: set at medium until 500˚C (there is no need to pre-heat); then replace fire
brick, close spy hole and set at high.
- - 9. Record on a chart the temperature hourly for 3 hours and then at 30-minute
intervals; when the temperature is 50˚ below what is required, check constantly;
observe pyrometer and seger cone (keep the spy hole open as little as possible).
- - 10. At the required temperature, turn the regulator off, switch isolator off, and
close the spy hole.
- - 11. Do not try to open the kiln door until the kiln is cold; with biscuit firing the
fire brick can be removed on the morning after firing to assist cooling, but with glaze
firing the work can be ruined by cold blasts of air, and the kiln should not be opened
on the fire brick removed until the kiln is cold.
- Glazed and biscuit firings are usually done separately, but can be fired together
providing sufficient care is taken to keep the work apart within the kiln, and that no
biscuit ware is liable to explode and damage or ruin glazed work.
Temperatures
- Temperature is very important in firing.
- Experienced potters often know when a kiln has attained the right temperature by
the color of the fire.
- Firing temperatures range from low to high.
- An accurate way of reading temperature is by using the pyrometer and pyrometric
cones.
- The pyrometer is used for measuring high temperatures and is similar to a
thermometer; it has the temperature given on a dial.
- The pyrometric cones are triangular pyramids made of clay blended and specially
formulated to soften and bend within a relatively short temperature range, and when
the required temperature has been attained.
- The cones are embedded in a clump (mass/bundle) of clay and sand or in fired bases
to hold them steady.
- The cones are numbered and in different sizes for the different range of
temperatures; one difficulty is that they cannot give one an indication of the heat at
low temperatures, for instance when one applies extra heat after an overnight pre-
heat; one needs to know when to switch up to full power, and without a pyrometer
this is a matter of guesswork.
- The pyrometer is connected to a thermocouple inside the kiln and a sensitive dial
fixed on the outside indicates the changing temperature continuously.
- ILLUSTRATIONS
- They can be observed through a spy hole in the kiln, they help the potter to know at
what temperatures the wares are ready; the cones are embedded into a lump of clay
so that they don’t fall over.
- When the required temperature of the ware is reached, the cone begins to bend
over.
- ILLUSTRATIONS
- If you have no pyrometer and have forgotten to put cones in, the only way one can
tell whether the right temperature has been reached is by the color of the heat, and
this only comes when one is very experienced in firing.
- Work can be ruined by under or over firing, and one should never rely on time alone
as a guide, because the firing time of a kiln can vary by as much as 2 hours from the
average.
- Most kilns are supplied with kiln furniture, shelves, castellated supports and so on; if
they are not supplied or you or you need to order some, ensure to order the correct
ones for the type of firing required; under the stress of high temperature, a low firing
bat or shelf will bend or buckle, and this can have disastrous results inside the kiln;
you will also need to order spurs, stilts, and saddles for use in glaze firings; these
small pieces of porcelain are used to prevent glaze ware from touching the kiln
shelves and becoming fixed to them.
- The following range of temperatures can be gauged by the color of the fire which
may be useful in a traditional kiln:
- Color Approx. temperature (degrees Fahrenheit)
- Red to dark red 885 – 1200
- Dark red to cherry red 1200 – 1380
- Cherry red to bright cherry red 1380 – 1500
- Bright cherry red to orange 1500 – 1650
- Orange to yellow 1650 – 2000
- Below is indicated the cone numbers and temperatures they correspond to; the
higher the number the higher the temperature.
- Cone ˚C ˚F Color of fire Type of ware
15 1435 2615
14 1400 2552
13 1350 2462
12 1335 2435
11 1325 2417
10 1305 2381 White Porcelain
9 1285 2345
8 1260 2300 China bodies
7 1250 2282 Stoneware
6 1230 2246 Salt glaze
5 1205 2201
4 1190 2174 China glazes
3 1170 2133
2 1165 2129 Semi-vitreous ware
1 1160 2120
01 1145 2093 Yellow Earthenware
02 1125 2057
03 1115 2039
04 1020 – 1060 1940
05 1008 – 1040 1905
 06 980 – 1015 1859 Low fire earthenware
07 990 1814
08 950 – 960 1742 Orange Low fire lead glazes
09 930 1706
010 900 – 905 1661
011 895 1643 Cherry red Lustre glazes
012 875 1607
013 860 1550
014 830 1526
015 805 1481 Chrome red glazes
016 795 1463
017 770 1380 Over-glaze colors
018 720 1328 Dull Enamels
019 660 1200
020 650 1102
021 615 1139
022 605 1121 Dehydration begins
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Types of firing
- There are 3 basic types of firing in ceramics:- bisque, glaze (glost) and decorating.
Bisque (biscuit) firing
- The first firing of raw ceramic ware.
- During bisque firing the clay goes through a number of changes; a change in the
composition of clay at a temperature of about 500 – 600˚C; this is when all the water
in the clay has been evaporated but still brittle and therefore and needs 1000˚C or so
before the change is complete.
- The first major changes occurs at about 650˚C to 930˚C (1200˚F to 1706˚F) during
which time chemicals and water in the clay molecules are drawn out and the clay
fuses together.
- A ceramic ware which has been bisque-fired will no longer disintegrate in water to
become plastic; it is now technically pottery, but needs yet another firing before it
will hold water.
- The clay at the bisque stage is very porous, but even this can vary depending on the
temperature reached; this is biscuit ware.
- Raw clay needs to be dry when putting in a kiln to be fired; if it feels cold it is still too
damp, but if when you touch the surface with a damp finger the moisture evaporates,
it is dry; raw clay can take anything from a day to a few weeks to dry out, depending
on the air temperature and the thickness of clay involved.
- Bisque firing is done very slowly; work can be placed in the kiln room to aid the
drying process, too rapid drying can cause cracking.
- If it is fired too quickly the water in the clay quickly turns to steam and the trapped
air in it expands and causes the ware to explode.
- The bisque temperature reaches 1125˚C (2057˚F).
- Red clays are used to produce earthenware, and when fired give a range of color
from orange to brown, again dependent on the temperature reached.
- Grey clays can be used for earthenware and stoneware, and when fired at biscuit
stage will range from white to yellow in color.
- Remember that clays fire at different temperatures and unless you obtain clays in
the same firing range, you will need to fire separately; this also applies to glazes,
therefore choose a range of glaze which matures at a similar temperature, or be
prepared to fire each separately.
Glaze (glost) fire
- For glazed work to be attempted, the articles need a second firing and the articles
are then covered with a coating of glass/glaze, this prevents liquids from soaking
through the now porous clay body and also, of course, giving added decoration;
during the glaze firing also called glost, the glaze is transformed into a coating of
glass which fuses with the clay body.
- The maturing temperature for glaze is lower than that of the clay.
- Glaze fire is reached at 1859˚F to 1940˚F (1015˚C to 1060˚C) for low-fire glazes, and
much higher for high-fire glazes, such as cone 8 and cone 10.
- It is important to know the type of glaze and its firing range before attempting to fire
the ware.
- High-fire glazes fire at higher temperatures than the range above.
- It is important that the glazed pieces do not touch each other when being loaded
because the glazes will fuse into each other during firing and the pieces will not only
be difficult to separate but will be ugly in appearance.
- Glazed wares can be waxed at their bases to prevent them from sticking to the
stacks (kiln racks) should the glaze run down on to the stacks.
- Alternatively, other suitable material which will not melt can be used for the bases.
- If low firing basic transparent glaze is used covering under-glaze paints, firing is
possible in a coke kiln if the temperature reaches 960 – 1000˚C regularly; check this
by using seger cones in the kiln when firing the biscuit ware.
- Before using glaze one can use other methods of decoration for the articles; shells,
screws, nails, pencils, hair-grips, fingers, rulers, pieces of wood and beading are
implements which can be used to impress patterns in clay before biscuit firing; these
can look effective as the only decoration on the shape, or combined with a glazed
interior surface; the surface can also be polished with hands and fingers, or with the
back of a spoon in the drying-out stage, giving it a very smooth finish.
- After firing articles in sawdust kilns, boot and floor polish can be used to give the
articles interesting surfaces; and before placing articles in coke firings, under-glaze
color, sgraffito, wax resist and slip can be most effective.
Decorating fire
- This type of fire is used for over-glazes and lusters.
- The over-glazes and lusters are applied to bisque ware.
- The ware is then fired again to set the over-glazes and lusters.
- The temperature ranges from 1328˚F – 1607˚F; [1328˚F (720˚C) to 1380˚F (770˚C)
for over-glazes and from 1526˚F (830˚C) to 1643˚F (895˚C) for lusters]; lusters are
over-glaze colors of metallic oxides mixed with an oily medium.
- Fired lusters have a beautiful iridescence; they are fired at about 1463˚F.
- The spy hole and door are left to allow air to circulate, carry out fumes, and to supply
the oxygen necessary for clear colors.
- Lusters are over-glaze colors of metallic oxides mixed with an oily medium; when
fired they have a beautiful iridescence; lusters are fired at about 1463˚F.
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